DATA COMMUNICATION

Assignment no: 2b
Submitted by
md. najeebul islam

cs-a

roll no: 31

reg no. 12100030

Q>1: explain the following compression technique?

1: JPEG

2: MPEG

3: PNG

4: GIF

JOINT PHOTOGRPHIC EXPERT(JPEG)

The Joint Photographic Experts Group(JPEG) , in addition to their well-known lossy image
compression techniques, JPEG and JPEG 2000

A photo of a flower compressed with successively more losy compression ratio from left to right.

13 KB (1,989 words) The JPEG compression algorithm is at its best on photographs and paintings of
realistic scenes with smooth variations of tone and color. For web usage, where the amount of data
used for an image is important, JPEG is very popular. JPEG is also the most common format saved by
digital cameras.

the compression method is usually lossy, meaning that some original image information is lost and
cannot be restored, possibly affecting image quality. There is an optional lossless mode defined in
the JPEG standard; however, that mode is not widely supported in products.

LOSSY COMPRESSION:
In information technology, "lossy" compression is a data encoding method which compresses data
by discarding (losing) some of it.thr preocedure aims to minimise the amount of data that needs to
be held, handled, and/or transmitted by a computer.

Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video, still images),
especially in applications such as streaming media and internet telephony.
LOSSLESS JPEG:
Lossless data compression is a class of data compression algorithms that allows the exact original
data to be reconstructed from the compressed data. The term lossless is in contrast to lossy data
compression, which only allows an approximation of the original data to be reconstructed, in
exchange for better compression rates. Lossless JPEG was developed as a late addition to JPEG in
1993, using a completely different technique from the lossy JPEG standard. It uses a predictive
scheme based on the three nearest (causal) neighbors (upper, left, and upper-left), and entropy
coding is used on the prediction error. It is not supported by the standard Independent JPEG Group
libraries, although Ken Murchison of Oceana Matrix Ltd.

Lossless data compression is used in many applications. For example, it is used in the ZIP file format
and in the Unix tool gzip. It is also often used as a component within lossy data compression
technologies (e.g. lossless mid/side joint stereo preprocessing by the LAME MP3 encoder and other
lossy audio encoders).
A chart showing the relative quality of various JPEG encoding settings and also compares
saving a file as a JPEG normally and using Photoshop's "save for web" option

It is possible to compress many types of digital data in a way which reduces the size of a computer
file needed to store it or the bandwidth needed to stream it, with no loss of the full information
contained in the original file. A picture, for example, is converted to a digital file by considering it to
be an array of dots, and specifying the color and brightness of each dot. If the picture contains an
area of the same color, it can be compressed without loss by saying "200 red dots" instead of "red
dot, red dot.

MOVING PICTURE EXPRT

GROUP(MPEG)
Short for Moving Picture Experts Group, and pronounced m-peg, is a working group of the ISO. The
term also refers to the family of digital video compression standards and file formats developed by
the group. MPEG generally produces better-quality video than competing formats, such as Video for
Windows, Indeo and QuickTime. MPEG files previously on PCs needed hardware decoders (codecs)
for MPEG processing. Today, however, PCs can use software-only codecs including products from
RealNetworks, QuickTime or Windows Media PlayeMPEG algorithms compress data to form small
bits that can be easily transmitted and then decompressed. MPEG achieves its high compression rate
by storing only the changes from one frame to another, instead of each entire frame. The video
information is then encoded using a technique called Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT). MPEG uses a
type of lossy compression, since some data is removed. But the diminishment of data is generally
imperceptible to the human eye.

The major MPEG standards include the following;

MPEG-1: The most common implementations of the MPEG-1 standard provide a video resolution of
352-by-240 at 30 frames per second (fps). This produces video quality slightly below the quality of
conventional VCR videos.The first MPEG compression standard for audio and video. It was basically
designed to allow moving pictures and sound to be encoded into the bitrate of a Compact Disc. It is
used on Video CD, SVCD and can be used for low-quality video on DVD Video. It was used in digital
satellite/cable TV services before MPEG-2 became widespread.

MPEG-2: Offers resolutions of 720x480 and 1280x720 at 60 fps, with full CD-quality audio. This is
sufficient for all the major TV standards, including NTSC, and even HDTV. MPEG-2 is used by DVD-
ROMs. MPEG-2 can compress a 2 hour video into a few gigabytes. MPEG-2 standard was
considerably broader in scope and of wider appeal – supporting interlacing and high definition.
MPEG-2 is considered important because it has been chosen as the compression scheme for over-
the-air digital television ATSC, DVB and ISDB, digital satellite TV services like Dish Network, digital
cable television signals, SVCD and DVD Video.It is also used on Blu-ray Discs, but these normally use
MPEG-4 Part 10 or SMPTE VC-1 for high-definition content.
"MPEG" redirects here. For the guild, see Motion Picture Editors Guild. For the unaffiliated company
that licenses patent pools for some MPEG standards, see MPEG LA.

The 'Moving Picture Experts Group' (MPEG) is a working group of experts that was formed by ISO
and IEC to set standards for audio and video compression and transmission.

The MPEG compression methodology is considered asymmetric as the encoder is more complex
than the decoder.[1] The encoder needs to be algorithmic or adaptive whereas the decoder is
'dumb' and carries out fixed actions.[1] This is considered advantageous in applications such as
broadcasting where the number of expensive complex encoders is small but the number of simple
inexpensive decoders is large. The MPEG's (ISO's) approach to standardization is novel, because it is
not the encoder that is standardized, but the way a decoder interprets the bitstream.

[1] The MPEG standards give very little information regarding structure and operation of the
encoder and implementers can supply encoders using proprietary algorithms.[9] This gives scope for
competition between different encoder designs, which means better designs can evolve and users
have greater choice, because encoders of different levels of cost and complexity can exist, yet a
compliant decoder operates with all of them.

MPEG also standardizes the protocol and syntax under which it is possible to combine or multiplex
audio data with video data to produce a digital equivalent of a television program.

PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS(PNG)

PNG (pronounced ping as in ping-pong; for Portable Network Graphics) is a file format for image
compression that, in time, is expected to replace the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) that is
widely used on today's Internet. Owned by Unisys, the GIF format and its usage in image-handling
software involves licensing or other legal considerations. (Web users can make, view, and send GIF
files freely but they can't develop software that builds them without an arrangement with Unisys.)

The PNG format, on the other hand, was developed by an Internet committee expressly to be
patent-free. It provides a number of improvements over the GIF format

Portable Network Graphics (PNG, pronounced /'p??/[2] ping) is a bitmapped image format and video
codec that employs lossless data compression.PNG was created to improve upon and replace GIF
(Graphics Interchange Format) as an image-file format not requiring a patent license. The PNG
acronym is optionally recursive, unofficially standing for PNG's Not GIF.

PNG supports palette-based images (with palettes of 24-bit RGB or 32-bit RGBA colors), grayscale
images (with or without alpha channel), and RGB[A] images (with or without alpha channel).

PNG was designed for transferring images on the Internet, not for print graphics, and therefore does
not support non-RGB color spaces such as CMYK.

The motivation for creating the PNG format was in early 1995, after it became known that the
Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) data compression algorithm used in the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
format was patented by Unisys. There were also other problems with the GIF format which made a
replacement desirable, notably its limit of 256 colors at a time when computers able to display far
more than 256 colors were growing common. Although GIF allows for animation, it was decided that
PNG should be a single-image format. A companion format called Multiple-image Network Graphics
(MNG) has been defined for animation.

The PNG format includes these features:

You can not only make one color transparent, but you can control the degree of transparency (this is
also called "opacity").

Interlacing (see interlaced GIF) of the image is supported and is faster in developing than in the GIF
format.

Gamma correction allows you to "tune" the image in terms of color brightness required by specific
display manufacturers.

Images can be saved using true color as well as in the palette and gray-scale formats provided by the
GIF

Color depth:

PNG images can either use palette-indexed color or be made up of one or more channels (numerical
values directly representing quantities about the pixels). When there is more than one channel in an
image all channels have the same number of bits allocated per pixel (known as the bit depth of the
channel).Although the PNG specification always talks about the bit depth of channels, most software
and users generally talk about the total number of bits per pixel (sometimes also referred to as bit
depth or color depth). Since multiple channels can affect a single pixel, the number of bits per pixel
is often higher than the number of bits per channel, as shown in the illustration at right.

PNG color options[10]

Bits per pixel Bits per channel

Color option Channels 1 2 4 8 16

Indexed1 1 2 4 8

Grayscale 1 1 2 4 8 16

Grayscale & alpha 2 16 32

Truecolor 3 24 48

Truecolor & alpha 4 32 64

The number of channels will depend on whether the image is grayscale or color and whether it has
an alpha channel. PNG allows the following combinations of channels, called the color type.

The color type is specified in the color type field, which is a bit field, as explained in the table below
at right. Not all combinations are valid, however: there is no indexed grayscale, which would be color
types 1 and 5; transparency in palette images is indicated by the presence of a tRNS chunk, not a
separate channel, so there is no color type 7

Name Color
type Binary Masks

A C P

Grayscale 0 0 0 0 0

Indexed grayscale 1 0 0 0 1 Palette

Truecolor 2 0 0 1 0 Color

Indexed3 0 0 1 1 Color | palette

Grayscale & alpha 4 0 1 0 0 Alpha

Indexed grayscale & alpha 5 0 1 0 1 Alpha | palette

Truecolor & alpha 6 0 1 1 0 Alpha | color

Indexed & alpha 7 0 1 1 1 Alpha | color | palette

Unlike the GIF89a, the PNG format doesn't support animation since it can't contain multiple images.
The PNG is described as "extensible," however. Software houses will be able to develop variations of
PNG that can contain multiple, scriptable images
GRAPHIC INTERCHANGE FORMATE
Pronounced jiff or giff (hard g) stands for graphics interchange format, a bit-mapped graphics file
format used by the World Wide Web, CompuServe and many BBSs. GIF supports color and various
resolutions. It also includes data compression, but because it is limited to 256 colors, it is more
effective for scanned images such as illustrations rather than color photos.

The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is a bitmap image format that was introduced by
CompuServe in 1987 and has since come into widespread usage on the World Wide Web due to its
wide support and portability.The format supports up to 8 bits per pixel thus allowing a single image
to reference a palette of up to 256 distinct colors. The colors are chosen from the 24-bit RGB color
space. It also supports animations and allows a separate palette of 256 colors for each frame.

The color limitation makes the GIF format unsuitable for reproducing color photographs and other
images with continuous color, but it is well-suited for simpler images such as graphics or logos with
solid areas of color.

CompuServe introduced the GIF format in 1987 to provide a color image format for their file
downloading areas, replacing their earlier run-length encoding (RLE) format, which was black and
white only. GIF became popular because it used LZW data compression, which was more efficient
than the run-length encoding that formats such as PCX and MacPaint used, and fairly large images
could therefore be downloaded in a reasonably short time, even with very slow modems
 An example of a non animated GIF image

Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is the most common file format for raster images. The GIF format
works well with line drawings, images with blocks of solid color, and pictures with sharp boundaries
between colors. It is suitable for displaying indexed-color graphics and images on the Web. GIF
stores 8 bits per pixel and is capable of displaying 256 colors. As the format has a very limited color
palette, it is not suitable for photographs with high degrees of shading and color gradients. The GIF
file format supports only hard-edged transparency. If the image has variable transparency, it renders
the variable transparency, introducing a surrounding matte color.
Q>2: ISO/OSI REFERENCE MODEL OF COMPUTER NETWORK ?

ANS:The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of the Open Systems
Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a way of sub-
dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers. A layer is a collection of similar
functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it. On
each layer, an instance provides services to the instances at the layer above and requests service
from the layer below.

For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path
needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that
make up the contents of the path. Two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal
connection on that layer.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began to develop its OSI framework
architecture. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic
Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols

Description of OSI layers: According to recommendation X.200, there are seven layers, each
generically known as an N layer. An N+1 entity requests services from the N entity.

At each level, two entities (N-entity peers) interact by means of the N protocol by transmitting
protocol data units (PDU).

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical
cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network
adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:

Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.

Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among
multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.

Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the
corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network
entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer.

WAN Protocol architecture

Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct errors.
They are also capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN Data Link Layer might
implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable
delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and
LAPD.

[edit]IEEE 802 LAN architecture

Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor
of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the
function of a Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the media-
independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing and
multiplexing on multiaccess media.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network,
while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer (in contrast to the data link
layer which connects hosts within the same network). The Network Layer performs network routing
functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors.
Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the
Internet possible.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data
transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link
through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state
and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the segments and
retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful
data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages
and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-
duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination,
and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions,
which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and
recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer establishes context between Application Layer entities, in which the higher-
layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping
between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into
session protocol data units, and passed down the stack.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts
with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs
fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and
availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.

Some examples of application layer implementations also include:

On OSI stack:

FTAM File Transfer and Access Management Protocol

X.400 Mail

Common management information protocol (CMIP)

On TCP/IP stack:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),

File Transfer Protocol (FTP),

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).