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LTE Technology and TEMS™ Products
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Contents
1. Overview ......................................................................1
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7. Conclusion ................................................................28
9. References.................................................................29
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1. Overview
This document describes briefly the radio access technology behind LTE/eUTRAN
and the support that TEMS provides for planning and tuning of mobile packet data
networks based on LTE (Long Term Evolution) technology.
The TEMS Products portfolio from Ascom is leading the way with tools for this new
technology. For nearly two decades, TEMS products have had a solid track record
of industry-leading solutions across all global wireless standards. LTE is the next big
step beyond HSPA in the development of 3GPP technologies, and TEMS relies on
its experience to support operators moving into this exciting next phase of wireless
communication. Already, we are among the first to market with LTE functionality,
with planning capabilities in TEMS CellPlanner and tuning support in the globally
renowned TEMS Investigation.
Among the many factors driving the development of LTE is the need to push bit
rates even higher than what can be achieved with today’s established technologies.
To fully appreciate what LTE brings to this scenario, it is helpful to have an
understanding of the fundamental performance limitations inherent in wireless
communication, as well as techniques for boosting bit rates to bring them closer to
the theoretical limits. A discussion of these technical issues can be found in chapter
2, below. Chapter 3 provides details on the LTE radio access technology more
specifically. This is not a full treatment of the LTE technology; rather, it is a survey
focusing particularly on those aspects that are relevant for LTE radio network
planning using TEMS CellPlanner, and LTE radio network tuning using TEMS
Investigation. The LTE functionality in those products is discussed in more detail in
chapters 4, 5, and 6.
C
(1) bit rate = bandwidth ⋅ log 2 (1 + )
I
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The maximum achievable bit rate is thus proportional to the bandwidth and
logarithmically dependent on the signal-to-interference ratio (C/I 1 ). Note that in this
formula, C/I is linear and not logarithmic (as it is most commonly presented).
20000
18000
16000
Bit rate (kbit/s)
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
C/I (linear)
Figure 1. Theoretical maximum Shannon bit rates (no margins or overheads) for a bandwidth
corresponding to 3.84 Mcps.
It follows that in order to increase the bit rate, the options below exist:
• Use higher-order modulation (for bit rates larger than the bandwidth).
− TX/RX diversity
− Beam-forming
1
Although “C” in fact means “carrier”, it is here used simply to represent the useful signal.
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LTE/eUTRAN uses nearly all of the above strategies and technologies. They are
elaborated on in subsections 2.2−2.7 as well as in chapter 3.
⎛C ⎞ Pk ⋅ g k
(2) ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ I ⎠ k α k ⋅ PTOT ⋅ g k + (I k other + I if + N th )
Here, k is an index labeling an individual mobile phone and the parameters specific
to it. The quantities involved are:
• gk = linear attenuation along the signal path from base station to mobile 2
2
The linear attenuation gk is related to the path loss Lp as Lp = −10 log10(gk), provided that the
same reference points are used.
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When a technology such as HSPA is used and the path loss is not excessive, the
achievable C/I is typically limited by self-interference caused by multipath
propagation (modeled in equation (2) by the term including αk). In order to address
this, more advanced receivers (such as GRAKEs) are needed.
OFDMA, on the other hand, reduces self-interference almost to zero. This means
that for limited path losses the C/I becomes limited by other-cell interference (Ikother in
equation (2)), and it becomes easier to achieve high signal-to-interference ratios
without the need for complex receivers. Indeed, compared to HSPA, the LTE
downlink can make do with less complex receivers. For more information on
OFDMA, see section 3.1.
To circumvent this limitation, one can use spatial multiplexing, also known as MIMO:
“multiple input, multiple output”. It is illustrated in Figure 2.
50000
45000
40000
35000
Bit rate (kbit/s)
30000 1x1
25000 2x2
20000 4x4
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
C/I (linear)
Figure 2. Boosting bit rates with spatial multiplexing (MIMO). (No margins and overheads
taken into account.)
The default case with a single stream of data transmitted is represented by the blue
curve. If the (linear) C/I is doubled from 10 to 20, the maximum achievable bit rate
increases no more than 30%, from 13 Mbit/s to 17 Mbit/s.
On the other hand, if the available C/I is split on two or more antennas, each
transmitting its own stream of the data, then with the total C/I remaining at 10, the
maximum achievable bit rate becomes 20 Mbit/s (with two transmit antennas) or 27
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Mbit/s (with four transmit antennas). If the total C/I is doubled to 20, the
corresponding bit rates become 27 Mbit/s and 40 Mbit/s – an increase of 35% and
50% respectively.
The reason that the spatial multiplexing yields an improvement is the fact that
C /I C /I
(3) log 2 (1 + C / I ) < 2 ⋅ log 2 (1 + ) < 4 ⋅ log 2 (1 + )
2 4
or more generally
C /I C /I
(4) m log 2 (1 + ) < n log 2 (1 + ), 1 ≤ m < n ;
m n
that is to say, dividing the data into several streams makes the maximum achievable
total bit rate larger. Compare equation (1).
Spatial multiplexing techniques are built into the LTE standard from the beginning.
Section 3.3 takes a closer look at how they are employed.
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350000
300000
0
–10 0 10 20 30
C/I (dB)
Figure 3. Theoretical maximum LTE bit rates as functions of C/I. Note that this is still based on
Shannon, not on simulations; a fixed (25%) overhead is assumed, with no margins
whatsoever and no inter-stream interference. The maximum bit rate is thus limited solely by
the channel rate.
Even though the C/I-to-bit rate mappings given here are exaggerated (since no
attempt is made to model the properties and effects of the radio channel, and since
no exact overheads are calculated), the diagram shows the importance of bandwidth
as well as the potential improvements obtainable with spatial multiplexing
techniques.
In fact, Figure 3 shows that for high C/I values the bit rate becomes channel rate
limited if multiple stream transmission is not used.
The round-trip time also affects the achievable application-level throughput in less
obvious ways. Application throughput depends on the behavior of the involved
higher-layer protocols, and a reduced round-trip time typically improves the
application bit rate. This is because the most commonly used internet protocol, TCP,
is interactive, meaning that the sender buffers sent packets until it gets an
acknowledgement from the receiver. As the buffer size is limited, the sender may be
forced to stop sending until acknowledgements have been received and the
corresponding buffered data can be removed. However, the shorter the round-trip
time, the less likely this is to happen.
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Figure 4 presents some key aspects of the LTE radio access technology as
standardized by 3GPP. Each of these will be dealt with in this chapter.
Frequency
Flexible bandwidth
– Possible to deploy in bandwidths from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz
1.4 MHz 20 MHz
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TCP Tu
Subcarriers in OFDMA are spaced 15 kHz apart, seemingly allowing for 15 symbols
per subframe. However, as shown in Figure 5, there are typically 14 OFDM symbols
per millisecond. This discrepancy is explained by the addition of a “cyclic prefix”,
used to guarantee orthogonality in time-dispersive environments; see section 3.1.2.
The overhead is close to 7% in the shown configuration.
It follows that the channel symbol rate per RB is 168 ksps (12 × 14). The maximum
bit rate depends on the choice of modulation scheme, the choice of antenna
transmission scheme (use or non-use of MIMO), the number of RBs allocated, and
the overhead in terms of reference symbols, synchronization symbols, etc. In
practice, it can generally (with some exceptions) be assumed that the total RBS
power available is shared equally across all RBs, whether they are used or not.
Note that for a given resource block there is little or no inter-cell interference,
4
provided that the RB in question is not used by any of the neighboring cells. The
probability of an RB being interfered by other cells thus depends on the average
downlink load in the network.
3
This is due to the fact that the symbol length is set equal to 1/(subcarrier spacing) and that
the subcarrier frequency is chosen such that an integer number of wavelengths fit into the
symbol time.
4
There may be some interference from reference symbols and other overhead symbols (to be
discussed in section 3.1.3), even if there is no traffic
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Time Time
τ τ
CP
CP
CP
τ L
RX window RX window
Figure 6. Multipath propagation: without cyclic prefix (left); with cyclic prefix (right). The
impulse response of the channel is graphed at the top, and the bottom part shows successive
time-delayed and attenuated copies of the transmitted signal. Without a cyclic prefix, parts of
a contiguous symbol (green, dashed) intrudes into the RX window. On the other hand, when a
cyclic prefix of length L ≥ τ (red, dashed) is used, the prefix appears at either end of the
symbol, and there is no interference from a different symbol within the RX window.
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• Layer 1/Layer 2 control signaling (used for downlink scheduling, HARQ info,
uplink scheduling grants, and power commands)
These reference signals, as well as the control signaling, constitute overhead that
will occupy some of the available downlink resources and reduce the effective
maximum bit rate (compare Figure 3). In the configuration shown in Figure 7, the
overhead from the reference symbols alone is approximately 4.8%.
In practice one can operate at the same channel rate per RB of 168 ksps (12 × 14)
as in the downlink. Furthermore, just as for the downlink, the maximum payload rate
depends on the modulation scheme, the number of RBs allocated, and the amount
of overhead from various sources. It should be noted, however, that in the uplink the
terminal can allocate all its available power to the resource blocks it is using, so
when the bandwidth use is increased, the available power per RB will go down.
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• Sounding signals for timing and channel quality (CQ) estimates for the scheduler
(in case of zero transmission and/or to obtain CQ across the whole frequency
band)
The uplink reference symbol corresponds to the embedded pilot in the WCDMA
uplink. The mapping is shown in Figure 8:
User #1 User #2
On
On e sub
e sl -fra
ot ( me
0.5 (1
ms) ms
)
The overhead consumed by the uplink reference signal alone in this configuration is
thus always 1/7 of the total resources available.
• For higher peak data rates, use multi-layer transmission (spatial multiplexing).
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S/P
Delay
In order to address the diverse needs that may arise, LTE employs a generic
antenna concept, adaptable to a wide range of scenarios and prioritization schemes
(large vs. small cells, high peak data rates vs. good coverage, etc.). Multi-antenna
support is mandatory for LTE terminals. In the 3GPP specifications seven different
semi-statically configured downlink transmission modes are described, six of which
are multi-antenna related. These transmission modes include (but are not limited to):
• TX diversity
3.3.1. Pre-coding
Pre-coding is a generic framework for mapping symbols to antenna ports. See
Figure 10. The transmission mode is controlled by the antenna setup as well as by
the set of pre-coding matrices chosen; it also depends on what type of feedback the
terminal provides. By varying the pre-coding, therefore, any transmission mode
compatible with the given number of antennas can be selected, such as TX
diversity, beam-forming 5 or spatial multiplexing, and combinations thereof.
5
In this document, no distinction is made between “classical” beam-forming (with highly
correlated antennas) and “non-classical” beam-forming.
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w1
h1
s y = (h1w1 + h2w2)s + e
h2
w2
The signal to transmit is s. If the effects of the radio channels, h1 and h2, are known,
then in principle the pre-coding vectors w1 and w2 that maximize the signal-to-noise
ratio can be determined.
2 2 2 2
(5) w 1 = h1* h1 + h2 , w 2 = h2* h1 + h2 ;
2 2
(6) y = h1 + h2 s + e
2 2
and the achieved signal-to-noise ratio becomes proportional to h1 + h2 .
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Coding &
Modulation Mapping
Serial/ to Layer
Receiver
Parallel &
Coding & Precoding
Modulation
CSI feedback
Simply put, in this mode, the pre-coder may be said to focus its transmission in
“strong” directions towards the UE; the pre-coder matrix is selected from a finite
codebook. The aim is to track channel characteristics in time as well as in frequency.
This mode is intended for scenarios with accurate CSI available at the eNode-B,
normally requiring that the terminal is moving slowly, or in other words that the
mobility is low.
In this mode the transmission takes place “in all directions”, and a sequence of four
different pre-coders is cycled through during the transmission of a single subframe.
If the transmission rank is one (i.e. only one data stream is sent), transmit diversity is
utilized.
This mode targets scenarios with inaccurate CSI at the eNode-B, typically
corresponding to terminals with high mobility.
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Throughput
Two layers, 2x2
Single-layer, 1x2
Coverage
Figure 12. Different downlink antenna solutions imply different capacity/coverage trade-offs.
Throughout the diagram, N×M means N transmit antennas and M receive antennas.
The number of “layers” is the number of parallel data streams.
• Single layer, 1×1 corresponds to the traditional downlink configuration with one
TX and one RX antenna.
• Single layer, 1×2: One data stream is transmitted, using one antenna, but the
receiver has two receive antennas, improving coverage compared to the Single
layer 1×1 case.
• Single layer, 2×2: One data stream is transmitted, using two antennas also for
transmission, which further improves coverage.
• Two layers, 2×2: Two data streams are transmitted, potentially doubling the bit
rate in areas with good C/I (low path loss) but providing poorer coverage in areas
with poor C/I. In practice, we can switch to Single layer 2×2 at the point where
the two curves intersect in order to increase robustness in difficult radio
conditions.
• Two layers + beam-forming, 4×2: Two data streams are transmitted, again
allowing a doubling of the bit rate if the C/I is good (low path loss). In practice, we
may combine this configuration with the preceding one, thus operating at the
envelope of the two curves and switching between the two configurations as
dictated by the radio conditions. (Compare the pairing of Single layer 2×2 and
Two layers 2×2 discussed above.)
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Transmission bandwidth
6 15 25 50 75 100
configuration NRB
Figure 13. Channel bandwidths with RF requirements supported by 3GPP TS 36.101 and
3GPP TS 36.104 at present. This diagram illustrates only transmission of user data; the six
center RBs are always used for some of the control channels.
Note that at any instant in time, the downlink transmission can take place in any
subset of RBs within the transmission bandwidth. In the uplink the same is true,
except that to conform to single-carrier properties, the RB allocation has to be
contiguous.
The maximum channel rate for any channel bandwidth can easily be calculated. As
an example, take the channel bandwidth 20 MHz corresponding to a transmission
bandwidth configuration of 100 RBs. The maximum channel rate is then:
100 (RBs)
× 12 (subcarriers/RB)
× 14 (symbols/ms)
× 6 (bits/symbol; assumes use of 64-QAM)
× 4 (assumes that 4×4 MIMO is possible)
= 403,200 kbit/s = 403.2 Mbit/s.
6
In reality the relationship is not exactly linear, since the percentage of overhead goes down
when the bandwidth increases.
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Assuming a typical DL overhead of around 25% (see section 3.1.1 for more details),
the maximum achievable bit rate in 20 MHz becomes approximately 300 Mbit/s.
Category 1 2 3 4 5
UL peak rate 5 25 50 50 75
Since terminals supporting four antennas are not expected to be available at the
launch of early LTE networks, it can be gathered from the table that initially the
maximum downlink bit rate in LTE will be 150 Mbit/s and the maximum uplink bit rate
50 Mbit/s.
FDD TDD
fDL
fULDL
fUL
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3.6. Scheduling
The scheduler in LTE has access to both the time domain and the frequency
domain. This means that if frequency-dependent channel quality information is
available (from CQI reporting), the scheduler can optimize the resource block
allocation so as to achieve the best possible utilization of the resources.
Consider Figure 16. Assuming the absence of other constraints, at the beginning of
the time interval the yellow terminal has the best channel in RBs 2 and 5, whereas at
the end of the interval the best allocation is to give the yellow terminal RBs 2, 3, 5
and 6. (In this diagram the RBs are seen as traveling from left to right along the
Time axis, so the earliest time is represented by the RBs closest to the Frequency
axis).
Time-frequency
fading, user 1
data1
Time-frequency
data2
data3
fading,
data4 user 2
User 1 scheduled
User 2 scheduled
1m
s
Similar principles can be used for the allocation of uplink resources to the terminals,
the difference being that the allocation must be contiguous in order to preserve the
single-carrier properties.
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4.2. Power
Generally speaking, the more power that is available to share across the resource
blocks, the greater the improvement in coverage and/or capacity. Of course, in some
situations, the C/I itself does not change if more power is allocated, because the
interferers also grow proportionately stronger; but in general more power means
better performance.
⎛C ⎞ P ⋅g
(7) ⎜ ⎟ = k k k
⎝ I ⎠ k Iother + Nth
7
Since sub-carriers are orthogonal, calculations can be done per RB, and the thermal noise
in that case is the thermal noise integrated over 180 kHz (168 ksps).
8
Of course, some inter-cell interference must always exist, since LTE is a 1:1 re-use system
and some overlap must exist for mobility reasons.
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A similar expression for the signal-to-interference ratio applies to the uplink, but
there the sum is naturally to be taken over all interfering terminals.
The most important aspect of estimating the performance of an LTE system about to
be deployed is to obtain good estimates of the signal-to-interference ratio
distribution. Since this distribution depends heavily on the signal attenuation, which
in turn depends on the environment, it is best computed using a radio network
planning tool. This is the subject of chapter 5. Of course, for dimensioning purposes,
signal-to-interference ratio distributions can be obtained with propagation models
(for example homogenous Okumura-Hata type models); but in chapter 5, only the
use of a radio network planning tool such as TEMS CellPlanner is discussed.
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Figure 17 shows the C/I distribution from a prediction where the average load is set
to 0.5. This means that the average probability of a given RB being utilized is 50%,
or put differently, the impact of the interference is 3 dB lower than its maximum.
Figure 17. TEMS CellPlanner plot showing downlink signal-to-interference ratio plot for an
average load of 50%.
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The sector joints, where the impact of inter-cell interference is at its worst, can be
clearly seen in this snapshot. It is up to the radio network planner to shrink the areas
of low C/I as far as possible, or at least to try to place them where traffic is scarce.
These predictions are designed for fast computation. They are not Monte Carlo
based; that is, no users are present and the traffic profile is not used. Rather, the
level of traffic is specified simply in terms of average load.
A bit rate distribution can be derived from the C/I prediction. TEMS CellPlanner uses
C/I-to-bit-rate mappings based on the latest research data. These mappings take
symbol overhead into account, and different mappings exist for different channel
models and different assumptions about antenna configurations. The bit rate
distribution below (Figure 18) was obtained from the C/I distribution in Figure 17,
assuming 2×2 MIMO configuration, 10 MHz bandwidth, and a Pedestrian A type of
channel model with low terminal speed.
Figure 18. TEMS CellPlanner plot of downlink bit rate distribution (10 MHz, MIMO 2×2,
Pedestrian A).
Again, these predictions are very fast to do, since no modeling of the traffic is
involved; yet they provide a good understanding of potential performance under a
specified load condition. Of course, changing the load assumptions gives a different
C/I distribution, and hence also a different bit rate distribution.
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There are two main reasons to undertake such traffic-based calculations. First is the
fact that the uplink performance is very sensitive to where the terminals are
positioned. Also, the uplink interference depends on the UE transmit power and the
position of the terminal with respect to neighboring base stations. Hence, Monte-
Carlo simulations are necessary to be able to spread these terminals in a pseudo-
random manner (“pseudo” because the probability that a terminal at a given location
is trying to connect typically depends on land-use/clutter). A large number of
simulations are usually performed in order to make the prediction statistically
significant.
The second reason is that realistic modeling of terminals and traffic demand (which
of course does require good input data) also makes it possible to obtain statistics on
blocking (served traffic versus non-served traffic). If the result is unsatisfactory, then
modification of the network, for example addition of more sites, may be called for.
Figure 19 shows the average of the maximum uplink C/I predicted by ten Monte
Carlo simulations. (Thanks to parallel processing, these simulations execute very
fast.) Close to the site, the terminal is already achieving a C/I corresponding to the
maximum bit rate and hence is in “power regulation mode”. However, further out the
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terminal would need to transmit at full power in order to achieve the C/I displayed in
the figure, and the C/I can therefore be said to be path loss limited.
Note that the inter-cell interference comes from the terminals spread out across
other cells and depends heavily on the amount of data they are trying to upload.
Figure 20. TEMS CellPlanner plot showing achievable uplink bit rate given a certain traffic
demand.
5.3. Statistics
Once the simulations are complete, statistics can be generated and presented in
spreadsheets and plots.
In Figure 21 are collected some uplink statistics from Monte Carlo simulations for a
number of cells. The number of users connected is shown as well as served traffic
versus non-served traffic. We note that there is no blocking in this relatively lightly
loaded scenario. All the data in this spreadsheet can alternatively be displayed in
plots.
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Figure 21. TEMS CellPlanner: Uplink statistics from Monte Carlo simulations.
For the downlink a similar set of statistics can be obtained, as shown in Figure 22.
Here, the offered and served traffic are the same; in other words, there is no
blocking.
Figure 22. TEMS CellPlanner: Downlink statistics from Monte Carlo simulations.
Notice that the uplink and downlink figures are slightly different. The reason in this
case is not that the uplink and downlink traffic demands are different (although
typically they are). Rather, the explanation is that the uplink statistics come from the
Monte Carlo simulations, whereas the downlink statistics are generated directly from
the traffic density map itself; that is to say, the actual terminal positions from the
Monte Carlo simulations are not taken into account. This approach is fast, since it
allows generation of downlink statistics without doing Monte Carlo simulations. In a
future release of TEMS CellPlanner, it will be possible to use terminal distributions
from Monte Carlo simulations for the downlink statistics as well.
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The SON concept does not eliminate the need to study neighbor cell relations, but it
does allow engineers to focus more of their attention on end-to-end performance
during the tuning and optimization phases.
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TEMS Investigation 9.1 introduces LTE drive test support by allowing connection of
a DRT4301A+ LTE MISO scanner. Some key RF measurements captured with this
scanner are:
Comparing with WCDMA, RSRP is similar to RSCP (Received Signal Code Power)
measured on the WCDMA common pilot, while RSRQ is similar to WCDMA Ec/N0.
Therefore (although the details differ slightly between the technologies) it can be
said generally that RSRP measurements tell whether the cell is interference or
coverage limited, while RSRQ measurements give indications of excess interference
in unloaded or loaded cells.
Drive tests measuring the above parameters are essential after infrastructure
installation to enable the necessary antenna adjustments, such as tilting and
changing of azimuths. Such drive tests can now be done with TEMS Investigation.
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Figure 23. TEMS Investigation: Bar chart showing snapshot of Reference Signal Es/Io (i.e.
RSRQ). The x-axis is labeled with the Physical Cell Identity of each channel scanned.
Naturally, as user terminals for LTE become available, TEMS Investigation will add
support for connecting such terminals, enabling service testing, optimization of
handover parameters, and so on.
7. Conclusion
The development of LTE technology is being driven to a large degree by the need to
push bit rates ever higher. With a full understanding of this need, as well as other
aims including bringing down latency and reducing complexity, it is easier to
understand the need for LTE technology, and for the tools that will make LTE
implementation successful. The TEMS Products portfolio from Ascom is well-
positioned to fulfill this need. Current releases of TEMS CellPlanner and TEMS
Investigation are already available with LTE functionality for the preliminary stages
of the LTE lifecycle. Other TEMS products will include LTE support as this exciting
new technology matures.
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9. References
[1] Any standard text on information theory will contain a discussion of this topic,
such as Cover, Thomas M. and Thomas, Joy A., Elements of Information
Theory, 1991, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-06259-6.
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