Asymptotes

All functions need not have asymptotes. Most of the rational functions, exponential functions
and hyperbolic functions have asymptotes.
Types of Asymptote
There are three types of asymptotes, they are explained as follows,
If the asymptote is linear and parallel to y - axis then it is called vertical
asymptote. A rational function p(x)/q(x) may have a vertical asymptote
at x=a, for any ‘a’ where q (a) is 0.
If the asymptote is linear and parallel to x - axis then it is called as
horizontal asymptote. Horizontal asymptotes occur in rational functions
when one of the following conditions is met.
• When the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator, then y=0 is the horizontal asymptote.
• When the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the
denominator then y=a/b where a is leading coefficient of the
numerator and b is the leading coefficient of the denominator, is a
horizontal asymptote.
When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the
denominator, there is no horizontal asymptote. The linear asymptote
which is neither horizontal nor vertical is called slant or oblique
asymptote.
When the numerator is of exactly one degree more than the denominator
slant asymptote occurs. Using long division method, divide the numerator
by the denominator and equate the quotient so obtained to y.
Whenever there is a common factor in the numerator and the
denominator of a rational function we should cancel the common factor
before finding the vertical asymptote. At the point obtained by equating
this common factor to zero you will have a hole in the graph of the
function.
Simple Asymptote Example
Question : Find all possible asymptotes and holes if any.
x2 + 2x - 15
1. f(x) = --------------
x2 + 7x + 10

(x+5)(x-3)
= ------------
(x+5)(x+2)
Vertical asymptotes; x = - 2
Horizontal asymptotes; y = 1/1 = 1
Slant asymptotes is none
Hole ; x = - 5

x2 - 5x + 8
2. g(x) = -------------
x - 3
 x - 2
---------------
x - 3) x2 - 5x + 8
-x2 - 3x
----------------
-2x + 8
-2x + 6
----------------
- 2

= x - 2 . - 2
x - 3

Hence vertical asymptote is x = 3

Horizontal asymptote and hole is none
slant asymptote is y = x - 2
Asymptote Graphical Representation
Here is an example of asymptote which is representated in the form of graph.
Question : Given a hole in the curve at the point where x = 2.
Curve also has a vertical asymptote at x = - 2 and a slant
asymptote y = x.
Solution :
Below figure shows the graphical
representation of given asymptote
details.

Definition of
Rectangular
Hyperbola
If in a hyperbola the length of the
transverse axis 2a is equal to the
length of the conjugate axis 2b the
hyperbola is called a
RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.
It's equation is x2 - y2 =a2 ( a =b
)
In this case e2 = a2 +b2 ⁄ a2 =2a2
⁄ a2 =2 ( e =√2 )
Therefore, the eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is √2.

Rectangular Hyperbola
Introduction for Rectangular Hyperbola:
A conic which meets the line IJ in two points which are harmonic
conjugates of one another in regard to I and J is called a rectangular
hyperbola in regard to I and J. In particular, a degenerate rectangular
hyperbola consists of two lines which are at right angles. A conic which
touches the line IJ, at one of the points I, J, is both a parabola and a
rectangular hyperbola.

Rectangular Hyperbola Example:1

• Any pair lines CP, CD, down through the center, C of a rectangular
hyperbola,
• Which are conjugate lines in regard to the curve are harmonic in
regard to the tangents of the curve, CL and CM, at the points, L and
M,
• Where the curve meets the line IJ. In particular CI, CJ are such a pair
of conjugate lines. If CP meet the curve in P, and the tangent at P
meet CL, CM in L’ and M’,
• Then P is the middle point of L’M’ in regard to IJ. Also the angle
which CD makes with CL is equal to the angle which CL makes with
CP.

Rectangular Hyperbola Example:2

• If the lines joining any point, P, of a rectangular hyperbola, to the

points I and J, meet the curve, and is at line AA’ passes through the
center, C, of the curve and is at right angles to the line CP.
• In fact the lines A’I, AJ, PC meet in a point of the curve.
• Further, if the tangents of the conic at A’ and A intersect in T (which
will lie on IJ), and any line through T meet the rectangular hyperbola
in M and N, Prove that PM, PN are at right angles, in regard to I and
J.
 • In general, for any conic, not necessary a rectangular hyperbola, if
through a fixed point, P, of the conic, lines be drawn at right angles,
meeting the conic again, respectively, in M and N, the pairs M, N, so
arising, belong to an involution of points of the conic.
• Thus MV passes through a fixed point. It can be seen that this is on
the line, drawn through P, at right angle to the tangent at P.

What are the equations of the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola

xy = 21?

Steps to derive:

1) xy = 21
[Equation of the hyperbola.]

2) The coordinate axes are the asymptotes of the rectangular

hyperbola of the form xy = k, where k ≠ 0.

3) Since xy = 21 is also a rectangular hyperbola, its

asymptotes are both the axes, x - axis and y - axis.

4) So, the equations of the asymptotes of the rectangular

hyperbola xy = 21 are x = 0 and y = 0.

The right answer is Option 'E', x = 0, y = 0

Which of the following is the graph of the rectangular hyperbola xy

= - 6?

A) Graph A

B) Graph B
Steps to derive:

1) xy = - 6

2) y = - 6x
[Solve for y.]

3) Table of values of given hyperbola is as shown.

4)

5) By plotting all the points of the above table in xy plane, we

get the graph of the given rectangular hyperbola as shown in
Graph B.

The right answer is Option 'B', Graph B

Introduction to Taylor and maclaurin series

In mathematics, Taylor series and Maclaurin series is one of
the most important topics. Taylor series function can be expanded when a
= 0 then it is called as Maclaurin series. It is one of the types of series
expansion. In the series, every term has a nonnegative integer powers for
the variables.

f(x) = f(0) + f’(0) x + x2 + x3 + …

(or)

f(x) = xn

Taylor series:
Taylor series of the function f(x) can be differentiated for n times. It
can be defined for the function f(x). The degree of Taylor series is
centered at a is given as

f(x) = f(a) + (x – a) + (x –a)2 + (x – a)3 + …

(or)

f(x) = (x – a)n

Taylor and Maclaurin Series Example

Problems:
Example 1:
Find the Taylor series for f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 5 about a = 1
Solution:
Given
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 5
Differentiating the function
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 5
f’(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 4
f’’(x) = 6x + 4
f’’’(x) = 6
f’’’’(x) = 0
So, we calculate the Taylor series up to third degree
Here x = 1
f(1) = (1)3 + 2(1)2 + 4(1) + 5 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 = 12
f’(1) = 3(1)2 + 4(1) + 4 = 3 + 4 + 4 = 11
f’’(1) = 6(1) + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10
f’’’(1) = 6
Formula for Taylor series

f(x) = f(a) + (x – a) + (x –a)2 + (x – a)3 + …

(or)

f(x) = (x – a)n

f(x) = f(1)+ (x - 1) + (x - 1)2 + 1 (x - 1)3

x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 5 = 12 + 11(x – 1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 12 + 11(x-1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 12 + 11(x-1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 12 + 11(x-1) + 5(x-1)2 + (x-1)3
Answer:
x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 5 = 12 + 11(x-1) + 5(x-1)2 + (x-1)3
Example 2:
Find the maclaurin series for f(x) = sin x
Solution:
Given
f(x) = sin x
Differentiating the function up to seventh degree
f(x) = sin x
f’(x) = cos x
f’’(x) = - sin x
f’’’(x) = - cos x
f’’’’(x) = sin x
f’’’’’(x) = cos x
f’’’’’’(x) = - sin x
f’’’’’’’(x) = - cos x
So, we calculate the maclaurin series up to seventh degree
Here x = 0
f(0) = sin 0 = 0
f’(0) = cos 0 = 1
f’’(0) = - sin 0 = 0
f’’’(0) = - cos 0 = -1
f’’’’(0) = sin 0 = 0
f’’’’’(0) = cos 0 = 1
f’’’’’’(0) = - sin 0 = 0
f’’’’’’’(0) = - cos 0 = -1
Formula for maclaurin series

f(x) = xn
(or)

f(x) = f(0) + f’(0) x + x2 + x3 + …

sin x = 0 + 1 x + 0 x2 - x3 + 0 + x5 + 0 – x7

=x- x3 + x5 – x7

=x– + –

sin x = x – + –
Answer:

sin x = x – + –
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In mathematics, Taylor series and Maclaurin series is one
of the most important topics. Taylor series function can be expanded when
a = 0 then it is called as Maclaurin series. It is one of the types of series
expansion. In the series, every term has a nonnegative integer powers for
the variables.

f(x) = f(0) + f’(0) x + x2 + x3 + …

(or)

f(x) = xn
In this article, we shall discuss about learn to solve the
given function to Taylor series and maclaurin series. The following are the
example problems in learn Taylor series and maclaurin series.

Learn Taylor and Maclaurin Series - Taylor

Series:
Taylor series:
Taylor series of the function f(x) can be differentiated for n times.
It can be defined for the function f(x). The degree of Taylor series is
centered at a is given as

f(x) = f(a) + (x – a) + (x –a)2 + (x – a)3 + …

(or)

f(x) = (x – a)n

Learn Taylor and Maclaurin Series -

Example Problems:
Example 1:
Solving the Taylor series for the given function f(x) = 5x3 - 4x2 +
12x - 4 about a = 2
Solution:
Given
f(x) = 5x3 - 4x2 + 12x - 4
Differentiating the given function
f(x) = 5x3 - 4x2 + 12x - 4
f’(x) = 15x2 - 8x + 12
f’’(x) = 30x - 8
f’’’(x) = 30
f’’’’(x) = 0
So, we calculate the Taylor series up to third degree
Here x = 2
f(2) = 5(2)3 - 4(2)2 + 12(2) - 4 = 40 - 16 + 24 - 4 = 44
f’(2) = 15(2)2 - 8(2) + 12 = 60 - 16 + 12 = 64
f’’(2) = 30(2) - 8 = 60 - 8 = 52
f’’’(1) = 30
Formula for Taylor series

f(x) = f(a) + (x – a) + (x –a)2 + (x – a)3 + …

(or)

f(x) = (x – a)n

f(x) = f(1)+ (x - 1) + (x - 1)2 + 1 (x - 1)3

5x3 - 4x2 + 12x - 4 = 44 + 64(x – 1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 44 + 64(x-1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 44 + 64(x-1) + (x-1)2 + (x-1)3

= 44 + 64(x-1) + 26(x-1)2 + 5 (x-1)3
Answer:
5x3 - 4x2 + 12x - 4 = 44 + 64(x-1) + 26(x-1)2 + 5 (x-1)3
Example 2:
Find the maclaurin series for f(x) = (1 + x)4
Solution:
Given
f(x) = (1 + x)4
Differentiating the function up to fourth degree
f(x) = (1 + x)4
f’(x) = 4(1+x)3
f’’(x) = 12(1+x)2
f’’’(x) = 24(1 + x)
f''''(x) = 24
So, we calculate the maclaurin series up to fourth degree
Here x = 0
f(0) = (1+ 0)3 = 1
f’(0) = 4(1+ 0)2 = 4
f’’(0) = 12(1 + 0) = 12
f'''(0) = 24(1+ 0) = 24
f’’'’(0) = 24 = 24
Formula for maclaurin series

f(x) = xn
(or)

f(x) = f(0) + f’(0) x + x2 + x3 + …

(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4x + x2 + x3+ x4

= 1 + 4x + x2 + x3 + x4

= 1 + 4x + x2+ x3 + x4

= 1 + 4x + x2 + x3 + x4
(1 + x)4 = 1+ 4x + 6x2 + 4x3+ x4
Answer:
(1 + x)4 = 1+ 4x + 6x2 + 4x3+ x4

Lagrange's Remainder
The generalized mean value theorem states,
f(x)=f(a)+(x-a)f'(a)+(x–a)2f''(a)+...+(x - a)nfn(a+x–a.θ)
2! n!

In this equation, let us assume the sum of first n terms as Sn (x) and the last term as Rn (x).
Hence f(x) = Sn (x) + Rn (x)
Rn(x)=(x-a)n fn(a+x-aθ)
n!
is called Lagrange’s form of remainder.
Deriving at Taylor series
Back to Top

f(x) - Sn = Rn(x).
Lt |f(x) - Sn| = Lt Rn(x)
n->∞ n->∞

Since limt of Rn(x) is 0 [as n->∞, 1/n! = 0]

Lt |f(x) - Sn| = 0
n->∞
As n -> ∞ f(x) becomes the infinite series.
f(x)=f(a)+(x+a)f'(a)+(x-a)f''(a)+...+(x-a)n fn(a)... ∞
2! n!
This is called Taylor’s series.
Maclaurin’s Series
Here if we put a = 0 we get
f(x) = f(0) + xf '(0) + x 2f''(0)... ∞
2!
This is called Maclaurin’s series. The useful in finding the series is expansion of functions.

Expansions
Expand Sin x as an infinite series.
• f(x) = sin x f(0) = sin 0 = 0
• f '(x) = cos x f '(0) = cos 0 = 1
• f ''(x) = - sin x f ''(0) = - sin (0) = 0
• f '''(x) = - cos x f '''(0) = - cos (0) = - 1
n n
f (x) = f (x + nπ/2)
plugging these values in Maclaurin’s series.
f(x) = f(0) + xf(0) + x 2f(0) +...
2!
sin x = 0 + x(1) + x 2(0) + x 3(- 1)...
2! 3!
= x – x 3 - x 5 - ....
3! 5!
Similarly
cos x = 1 - x 2 + x 4 - ....
2! 4!

Expand ex as infinite series.

• f (x) = ex f (0) = 1
• f ' (x) = e x
f ' (0) = 1
• f '' (x) = ex f ''(0) = 0
substituting in Maclaurin’s series
ex = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 ……
2! 3! 4!
Expand ln(1 + x)
• f(x) = ln(1 + x) f(0) = 0
 • f'(x) = 1 f'(0) = 1
1 + x

• f''(x) = - 1 f''(1) = -1
(1+x)2

• f'''(x) = 1.2 f''(1) = 1.2

(1+x)3 1
Rn(x) = (- 1)n - 1 . 1/n . ( x /(1+θx))n

Rn(x) -> 0 as n->∞ only if | x | < 1

Lt Rn(x) = 0 only |x| < 1

n->∞
If |x| ≤ 1 log (1+x) = x – 1 x2 + 1.2 x3 - 1.2.3 x4 ...
2! 3! 4!
= x - x 2 + x 3 - x 4 + ...
2 3 4

Introduction to online Taylor series tutoring:

In mathematics, Taylor series is one of the most interesting methods in
ordinary differential equation. In this method y is approximated by a truncated series and each
term of the series is a function of x. From the approximated curve y =f(x), the value of y at
any point x may be calculated but not iterated. Hence these methods are called as single step
method or point-wise method. A solution of this type is called as point-wise method
Online Taylor Series Tutoring - Taylor Series:
Taylor series:
Consider a first order ordinary differential equation as

= y’ = f(x,y) with Initial Condition y(x0) = y0

This is an initial value problem using initial condition y0 = y(x0) and y'' = + y', then
find y0’’ = y’’(x0,y0) and y0’’’… then the Taylor series is

y(x) = y0 + y0’ + y0’’ + y0’’’ + …

Where h = (x – x0)
It can be represented in a general form

yn+1 = y(xn+1) = yn + + yn’ + yn’’ + yn’’’ + …

Online Taylor Series Tutoring - Example Problem:
Example:
Solve y’ = f(x,y) = x2 + y2 with initial condition y(0) = 1. Find the y(0.1)
Solution:
Given Ordinary differential equation is
y’ = f(x,y) = x2 + y2
Initial condition y(0) = 1
h = 0.1
x0 = 0 x1 = 0.1
y0 = 1 y1 = determine the value
The general form of Taylor series is

yn+1 = y(xn+1) = yn + + yn’ + yn’’ + yn’’’ + …

Put n =1

y1 = y(x1) = y0 + + y0’ + y0’’ + y0’’’ + …

We calculate up to third degree

y1 = y(x1) = y0 + + y0’ + y0’’ + y0’’’

Differentiate the given function
y’ = x2 + y2
y’’ = 2x + 2yy’
y’’’ = 2 + 2(y')2 + 2yy’’
Using the initial condition
y0’ = (y’)(x0, y0)
= (x2 + y2)(0,1)
=0+1
y0’ = 1
y0’’ = (2x + 2yy’)(0,1)
= (2(0) + 2(1)(1))
=0+2
=2
’’
y0 = 2
y0’’’ = (2 + 2(y’)2 + 2yy’’)(0,1)
= (2 + 2(1)2 + 2(1)(2))
=2+2+4
y0’’’ = 8
Put the values in Taylor series

y1 = y0 + y0’ + y0’’ + y0’’’

=1+ (1) + (2) + (8)

= 1 + 0.1 + 2+ 8
 = 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 +
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.0013
= 1 + 0.1113
= 1.1113
y1 = 1.1113
Answer:
y1 = 1.1113
Problem 5:-

Maclaurin’s series for

Solution:

f(x) = ; f(0) =
=1

f’(x) = ; f’(0) = 1

f’’(x) = ; f’’(0) = 1
…
f(x) =

=…

= ….holds for all x

Problem 6:-

Maclaurin’s series for (1+x)

Solution:

f(x) = (1+x) ; f(0) = 1=0

=1

f’(x) = ; f’(0) = 1

f’’(x) = ; f’’(0) = -1

f’’’(x) = ; f’’’(0) = 2!

f’’’’(x) = ; f’’’’(0) = -(3)!

f(x) = 1og_e(1+x)

= …+… +….-1<x 1

Problem 7:-

Maclaurin’s series for x

Solution:

f(x) = x ; f(0) = 0

f’(x) =

= ……:
f’(0) = 1
= 1!

f’(x) =

= …:
f’(0) = 1
= 1!

f’’(x) = ….:

f’’(0) = 0

f’’’(x) = ….:

f’’’(0) = -2
= -(2!)

(x) = 24x-120 ….;

(0) = 0

(x) = 24-360 ….;

 (0) = 24

= 4!

x=…

= ….
Holds in |x|,< 1.
For even n this can be summed in terms of Bernoulli numbers.

Scalar quadruple product

The scalar quadruple product is defined as the dot product of two cross products:

where a, b, c, d are vectors in three-dimensional Euclidean space.[2] It can be evaluated using

the identity:[3]

or using the determinant:

Vector quadruple product

The vector quadruple product is defined as the cross product of two cross products:

where a, b, c, d are vectors in three-dimensional Euclidean space. It can be

evaluated using the identity:[

This identity can also be written using tensor notation and the Einstein
summation convention as follows:
using the notation for the triple product:

where the
last two
forms are
determinants

with
denoting unit vectors along three mutually orthogonal directions.
Equivalent forms can be obtained using the identity.