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UNIT-4
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION:
♠ The magnet attracts iron pieces which in turn, behave like magnets as long as they are
in contact with the magnet.
♠ Magnetic materials can be magnetized by the application of external magnetic fields.
♠ Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment (or) magnetic dipole of the magnetic
materials.
♠ When the electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital magnetic moment
arises. Similarly when the electron spins, magnetic moment arises.
♠ Magnetic dipole is a system consisting of 2 equal and opposite poles separated by a
small distance.
♠ Magnetic moment is defined as the product of its pole strength and magnetic length.
i.e. M=m*2l=2lm units: A-m2
where m is pole strength and
2l is distance between 2 poles.
♠ When current ‘i’ flows round a circular wire of one turn and area ‘a’, it is said to have a
magnetic dipole moment ‘M’= ia
♠ Under magnetic field of induction B, the force acting on a moving charge q is given by
F=q (v*B)
♠ If the charge moves under both E and B then F=q (E+v*B)

♠ According to Ampere’s law  H.dl = I


 H  dl = i
i
 H=
2r
MAGNETIC INDUCTION (B):- It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole
placed at a point in the magnetic field. It is also defined as number of magnetic lines of

force crossing per unit area normal to the surface. B =
A
Units : Tesla (or) Wb/m2
INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION (I):-It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit

volume. It is given by I=
V
Units : Amp-m-1

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MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H):-It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction and
B
the permeability of the medium. It is given by H  ( B  H ) Units : Amp-m-1

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY: (  ) - The magnetic field induced at a given point by a

magnet depends on the nature of the medium


♠ The ability of the medium to alter the vacuum field is described by a factor called
permeability of the medium. It is denoted by ‘  ’.
♠ The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic field of intensity H applied in vacuum is
given by B =  o H where  o is permeability of free space and its value is 4 X 10 7 H / m .

B
♠ In a medium this relation can be written as B =  H   =
H
Def: It is also defined as the ratio of magnetic induction in the sample to the applied field
intensity.
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY: It is defined as the ratio of permeability of a medium to the

Permeability of free space. It is given by  r 
o
MAGNETIZATION:
It is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a magnetic sample.
♠ The iron rod will be magnetized when it is subjected to a magnetic field H.
♠ It is due to the polarization of magnetic dipoles within the body.
♠ The intensity of magnetization(I) is directly proportional to the applied field intensity(H).
i.e., I  H  I =  B H where’  B ’ is magnetic susceptibility.

I
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY (  B ): we know that  B = .
H
Def: It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization to the applied field.
RELATION BETWEEN B, H and I :
♠ If an specomen is placed in an external magnetic field of magnetic flux density B0, the
net magnetic flux density B is given by
B= B0+Bm
Where B0 =  o H, lines of force crossing unit area due to external field

Bm =  o I, lines of force crossing unit area due to Intensity of Magnetization

 B=  o H +  o I =  o (I+H)

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RELATION BETWEEN  r and  B : We know that B = H


 B =  r  o H ( since  r  )
o
 B = r o H + o H - o H

 B =  o H +  o H (  r -1) ------(1)

And also B =  o (I+H) because the magnetic induction at any point is due to H and I.

 B   o H +  o I ---------(2)

I
Comparing equ—(1) and equ---(2), we get I = H(  r -1)    r -1
H
I
  r = 1+
H
  r = 1+  B

ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT:


♠ The magnetic moment in a material due to the orbital motion and spinning motion of
electrons in an atom.
♠ when a magnetic moment is obtained through the motion of electrons in various orbits
of an atom, it is called orbital magnetic moment.
♠ In an atom, every two electrons will form a pair
and they have opposite spins. Thus resultant
spin magnetic moment is zero.
♠ But in magnetic materials like iron, cobalt, nickel,
there are unpaired electrons.
♠ This unpaired electrons contributes spin magnetic moment.
♠ These unpaired electron spins are responsible for ferro and paramagnetic behavior of
materials.
♠ The value of spin magnetic moment is larger than orbital magnetic moment.
Note: Magnetic moment arises due to
1) Magnetic moment due to orbital motion of the electron:
♠ The revolving and rotating electrons constitute current loops.
Each loop is like a magnet with one face as a north pole and
Other face as a south pole.
♠ consider an electron moving in a circular orbit of radius r
With angular velocity ‘  ’. Current produced due to this

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q e
Motion is given by I =  where T is the time taken to complete one revolution.
t T
e 2
♠ The magnetic moment associated with this electron is   iA  r . Where r 2 is area
T
of the circular orbit.
2 2
♠ we know that  = 2 n =  T= .
T 
er 2
 =  =
er
r  = erv ------ (1)( linearvelocityv  r)
2 2 2
♠ In case of circular motion, Angular momentum L = mvr  vr = L/m.
eL  e
From equa-----(1),  l   l 
2m L 2m
♠ The ratio of orbital magnetic moment  l to the angular momentum L is known as

Gyro magnetic ratio.


e
 l  L ------ (2)
2m
h
♠ According to quantum theory, the angular momentum is given by L = l ----- (3)
2
e lh  eh 
From (2) and (3). We get l  =  l ------- (4) (l is orbital quantum number).
2m 2  4m 

 eh 
Here  is known as Bohr magneton.
 4m 
 l   B l

 eh 
Its value is given by  B   = 9.27X10-24 A-m2
 4m 
Bohr magneton: The magnetic moment contributed by a single electron is known as
 eh 
Bohr Magneton. It is represented by  B  
 4m 
Note: Bohr magneton is the fundamental unit for magnetic moment.
2) MAGNETIC MOMENT DUE TO SPIN MOTION:
♠ An electron spins around itself which produces spin magnetic moment. According to
h h
quantum theory, the spin angular momentum is + or - .
4 4
♠ The relation between spin angular momentum’ S’ and spin magnetic moment  s is given

e  eh 
by s =
m,
S=  4m  =  B   s   B

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Thus spin magnetic moment is Bohr magneton.
3) MAGNETIC MOMENT DUE TO SPIN OF PROTON:
 eh 
♠ Magnetic moment due to nucleus spin is given by  n =  
 4m p 
Where mp is the mass of proton.
 n = 5.05X10-27A-m2
♠ The value  n is small compare to  B . So this contribution can be neglected.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:


♠ Magnetic materials are classified on the basis of magnetic properties of the atomic
dipoles and the interaction between them.
♠ If the atoms of an element possess net moment, they act as magnetic dipoles.
♠ Based on the nature and degree of response to the external magnetic fields, materials
are classified into different magnetic materials.
♠ Based on the values of relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility  B the
materials are classified into Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials.
♠ Materials which lack permanent dipoles are called diamagnetic.
♠ If the permanent dipoles do not interact among themselves, the material is
paramagnetic.
♠ If the interaction among permanent dipoles is strong then the material is
Ferromagnetic material.
♠ If the permanent dipoles line up in anti parallel the material is anti-ferromagnetic.
♠ Based on the nature of magnetization curve ( Hysterisis), ferromagnetics are divided
into soft and hard magnetic materials.
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
♠ The substances which are repelled by magnetics are called diamagnetic materials.
Ex :- Antimony, Bismuth, Copper, etc.,
♠ The atoms in the diamagnetic material contains as many electrons orbiting in
clockwise as in anticlockwise direction.
♠ Thus net magnetic moment is zero in these materials.
PROPERTIES:
♠ The induced magnetic moment is always in the opposite direction of the applied
magnetic field.
♠ Permanent dipoles are absent.
♠ When placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are repelled.

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♠ In the non uniform magnetic field they move from
stronger part to weaker part of the field.
♠ If it is suspended freely it comes to rest perpendicular
to the direction of field.
♠ The magnetic lines of force shows less performance
to pass through the substance than through the air,

so relative permeability  r is less than 1.

♠ The susceptibility  B is small and negative.


♠ The diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
PARA MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
♠ The substances which are attracted by the magnet are called paramagnetic.
♠ The induced magnetism is the source of Para magnetism.
Ex :- Aluminum, Platinum, Tungsten, Nitrogen, Mn, CuCl2, etc.,
PROPERTIES:
♠ The spin of unpaired electrons is responsible for paramagnetic behavior of materials.
♠ The induced magnetism is in the direction of applied magnetic field.
♠ In each atom there is a resultant magnetic moment even in the absence of magnetic
field.
♠ Spin alignment is as shown in the figure.
♠ But due to thermal agitations,orientation is random.
Thus the material is unmagnified.
♠ When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they
move from weaker part to stronger part of the field.
♠ If it is suspended freely it comes to rest in the field
direction.
♠ The magnetic lines of force shows little more
performance to pass through the substance than

through air. So  r is greater than 1.


♠ Susceptibility  B is small and positive.
♠ The paramagnetic susceptibility is inversely
1
proportional to temperature.i.e.,  m 
T

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EXPRESSION FOR PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY:
♠ Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
♠ But the dipoles are randomly oriented.

♠ Consider a magnetic dipole which is oriented with an angle Ɵ with the field direction.

♠ The work done in rotating the dipole through an angle Ɵ will be W= -  Bcos  ------ (1)

♠ According to statistical mechanics, the no.of molecules whose axes makes  with the
W

field direction is proportional to e KT

♠ The no of atoms with in the solid angle 2  sin  d  per unit volume is given by
W

dn = c e KT
2  sin  d 
 B cos
 n=c e
0
KT
2  sin  d 

 B cos
 n = 2 c  e KT
sin  d 
0

♠ The total magnetic moment is  cos  N


 B cos
Total magnetic moment = 2  c  e KT
 cos  sin d
0

totalmagne ticmoment
♠ The average magnetic moment is given by  
noofdipole s
 Bcos
c   cos e KT
2 sin d
 = 0
 B cos
c e KT
2 sin d
0

B
Put a = and cos  = x  -sin  d  =dx and limits are changed from 1 to -1.
KT
 1
Now the above integration becomes  =   coth a   = L(a) ---- (2)
 a
e  e a
a
Where L(a) is Langevins function. Its value is a
e  e a

CASE (1)
For larger values of a i.e. for high field strength
the function approaches to saturation value unity
Thus a >>1, L(a)1
CASE (2)
a
if a<<1 L(a)=
3
a  2B
so that from eq (2),  =  = ----- (3)
3 3KT

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 2B N 2  0 H
Intensity of magnetization I = N  = N =
3KT 3KT
I N 2  0 C
Susceptibility  B = = = where C is called curie’s constant.
H 3KT T
1
 B  This is called curie’s law.
T
Note: Weiss formulated the following relation from the Curie’s law as
C
B = where  is Curie temperature.
T 
If T<  , paramagnetic become diamagnetic.
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
♠ The substances which are strongly attracted by magnets are called ferromagnetic
materials.
Ex :- Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Fe2O3, MnO, etc.,
♠ Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon by which spontaneous magnetization occurs when
T   and so even in the absence of applied field.
Def: Curie Temperature: The temperature at which ferromagnetic material convert in to
para magnetic material known as Curie Temperature.
PROPERTIES:
♠ These materials acquire strong magnetism in the direction of applied field.
♠ In non-uniform magnetic field they move from weaker to stronger part of the field.
♠ When it is suspended freely after some time it comes to rest in the field direction.
♠ The magnetic lines of force shows more performance to pass through the substance
than through air, so permeability is large. i.e.,  r >>1.

♠ Spin alignment is parallel in the same direction.

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♠ Susceptibility  B is large and positive.

T
♠ Susceptibility  B depends on temperature in the following manner  
T  Tc

♠ When heated these materials turn into paramagnetic materials above a temperature
known as CURIE TEMPERATURE.
♠ The stronger effect of ferromagnetism is explained on the basis of magnetic dipole
domains.
DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM:
♠ Weiss proposed the concept of domains in 1907 to explain the hysterisis effect of
ferromagnetic.
♠ A region of ferromagnetic material where all the magnetic moments are aligned in the
same direction is called domain.
♠ These domains are oriented randomly so that
the net magnetic moment is always zero.
♠ Each domain posses dipoles aligned in the
same direction. Fig
♠ When magnetic field is applied the domains may
tend to rotate in the direction of B

♠ Thus magnetic material will be strongly magnetized


by the external magnetic field induction B.
♠ In ferromagnetism the adjacent atomic dipoles are
interact with exchange coupling.
HYSTERISIS CURVE: (OR) Behavior of ferromagnetic material below Curie
Temperature:
♠ Below the Ferro magnetic Curie temperature ferromagnetic materials exhibit the
hysteresis in B verses H curve as shown in figure.
♠ Hysterisis refers to the lag of magnetization (I) or (B) behind the magnetizing field (H).

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♠ The variation of flux density B with magnetic field intensity H is not linear. But it
performs a closed loop is known as hysteresis loop.
♠ Take a magnetic material completely in the unmagnified state.
♠ If we increase the applied magnetic field
the magnetization of the material first increases
rapidly and then slowly until it attains a
saturation value.
♠ Now the magnetic field is decreasing the rate
of decrease of magnetization is less.
♠ Thus some amount of magnetism is present
in the material even at H=0
♠ This is known as residual magnetism (or)
remanant magnetism (Br).
♠ For certain values of negative magnetizing force, Hysterisis curve of Ferromagnetic
Magnetic induction B becomes zero.
♠ The amount of negative field which is used to destroy the residual magnetism is known
as coercivity or coercive field Hc.
♠ Further increasing the magnetic field in the same direction we attain negative
saturation value.
♠ Finally the field once again reversed to get complete close loop.
♠ Thus B is lagging behind H. This is known as hysteresis.
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
 Magnetic Recording: Magnetic recording heads are the miniaturized hearts of disk
drives and other magnetic storage devices.
 Magnetic Memories: For Random Access storage in Computers, Ferrite-Core
memories are used.
 Permanent Magnets: Barium Ferrite and Strontium Ferrites are the materials used
for these applications.
 Soft Ferrites used in Inductor cores, transformer Cores.
 Ferrimagnetic Materials can be manufactured in the form of Pressed and Sintered
Ceramic powders.

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SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
♠ Hysteresis is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a complete
cycle of magnetization and this loss is represented by the area.
♠ Based on the area of hysteresis magnetic materials are classified into hard and soft
materials.
♠ Their properties are given below
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS H HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1.The figure shows nature of hysteresis 1.The figure shows nature of hysteresis
loop of soft materials. Loop of hard materials.
2. 2. These materials can be easily 2. 2.These materials can not be easily
magnetized and demagnetized. magnetized and demagnetized.
3.They have small hysteresis loss due 3.They have large hysteresis loss due
to small area of loop. to large area of loop.
4.In these materials the domain wall 4.In these materials the domain wall
movement is easier. Even for a small movement is difficult because of
change in applied field there is a presence of impurity and defects.
large change in the magnetization. 5.The coercivity and retentivity are
5.The coercivity and retentivity are large.
small. 6.They have small value of
6.They have high value of susceptibility and permeability.
susceptibility and permeability. 7. Because of presence of impurities
7. The magnetostatic energy is very and defects the mechanical strain is
small since these are free from more. The magneto static energy is
irregularities. more.

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8. Ex:-Iron-Silicon alloys, Fe-Ni, 8. Ex:- Al-Ni-Co alloys, Cu-Ni-Co
Ferrites and Fe-Co alloys. alloys and Cu-Ni-Fe alloys.
APPLICATIONS: APPLICATIONS:
1. These are used as magnetic cores 1. These are used to prepare
for direct current applications. Permanent magnets.
2. They are also used in switching 2. Permanent magnets are used in
circuits. magnetic detectors , micro phones,
3. Iron-Nickel alloys are used for flux meters and voltage regulators.
audio frequency applications

Uses of Hysterisis Curve to select the material:


The properties of Hysterisis curve i.e., saturation, Retentivity and Coercivity helps to
choose the material
(1). Permanent magnets: The permanent magnetic material must retain large residual
magnetism. Thus it must have large coercivity.
 Permanent magnets are used in galvanometers, Voltmeters, Ammeters,
Microphones, Loud Speakers , telephones, etc.,
(2). An electromagnetic core: The electromagnetic core material should have maximum
flux density B even with small fields H, low hysterisis loss and high permeability.
(3). Transformer cores, Dynamo Core, Chokes, Telephone Diaphragms, etc.,: The
core material should have high permeability, low hysterisis loss and high specific
resistance. Soft iron is suited material.

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Venkat Name of the Faculty: Mr D Pavan Kumar, Ms B Bhargavi

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