Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abdisalam M Issa-Salwe
This paper was presented at the Second Congres International Des Etudes Somaliennes
Pour Une Culture De La Paix En Somalie, 25-27 October 1995, Institut du Monde Arab,
Paris.
Like many African nations at the end of the eighties, Somalia faced economic, social and
political problems. Many of these countries are still struggling to survive through the upheaval, but
Somalia could not solve its problems as a healthy nation. Instead the problems which led to its
disintegration and dismemberment with a bloody civil war, have claimed more than three hundred
thousand dead and wounded, with roughly four fifth of its population displaced. Nearly one fifth of the
population fled to Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya as refugees, these displaced people have lost their past
and their future and that of their children. Subsequently, the country has been divided into fiefdoms
ruled by separate armed clans. Each clan group (or clan-family as is better known) are grouped in a
clan-security area. The international community as well as the Somalis are still pondering and
exhausting on how the Somali state will be revived. The memories of the dreadful fratricidal war still
linger in the minds of the Somalis thus creating major obstacles to peace. Any peace agreement, unless
it is seen in concomitance with the reality of today's Somalia and the background of the tragedy, cannot
be a sustainable one.
The preamble of the Constitution of the Somali Republic promulgated in June 1961 stressed
that Somalia be a unitary republic with a representative democratic form of government. The
legislature was unicameral and it was composed of deputies elected by universal direct and secret
suffrage for a term of five years and representing the whole people. Thought the system was based on
liberal democracy, it did not define well the separation of power (e.g. the system did not separate the
executive from the legislative). In fact soon the system degenerated to anarchy and paved the way for
the military take over which soon transformed the Somali state into a police state.1
After over a century of colonial defamation of Somali culture followed by a decade of feeble
governing and two decades of repressive centralised state control involving the manipulation of clan
mentality, the exploitation of traditional rivalry and suppression and collective punishment of any form
of rebellion a destructive instinct was created in society against the fabric of the Somali nationhood.
Consequently, the outcome triggered an unprecedented turning point for the Somali state, that people
should return to their clan "areas". Given the weakening of the foundations of national unity, it was
inevitable that the relative strength of lineage and clan loyalties, and their institutions to become the
dominant social structure.
Not only has the Somali state failed to replace the clan with a feeling of security for the
individual Somali, but it has also become a threat to his being. It was a natural regression therefore for
the Somali to go to his/her roots, i.e. the clan, which was eroded by the tides of social change and
political exploitation. These phenomena created resentment amongst the Somalis which turned into an
instinct of destruction towards the state and its institutions. The destructiveness was assumed to be
derived from "the unbearable feeling of powerlessness, since it aims at the removal of all objects with
which the individual has to compare himself."2 Life has an inner dynamism of its own and if it is curbed
it decomposes and transforms into energies directed towards destructiveness.3 The systematic
repression of the last two decades by the dictatorial military regime has thereby accelerated the process
of destructiveness in Somali society. Destructive political culture has been introduced into the political
thinking of the Somalis, changing the positive cultural values of the nationhood.4
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it the office of the clan leaders.5 To do this, was to depreciate and undermine the "traditional source of
leadership"6 which was to cripple the future leadership of the modern Somali state and as a result pave
the way for the breakdown of the Somali state institutions at the end of the 1990s.
From this frightening prospect is there a way out? Can Somalis build a new hope from the
rubble of the collapsed unitary Somali state? Unless an alternative to this situation is found there is no
way out from the current plight. To answer these questions I have attempted to put forward an
alternative solution as a way out from this nightmare.7
For convenience I will give examples on how should be created the main political institutions.
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clan) who are outside the government and in effect, this can create a negative impression at this crucial
time in Somali history.
In a stabilised political democracy, it can be taken for granted that social and economic politics
will work out by and through parties, even when "one party replaces another after an election it would
overturn everything that its predecessor has done"19 as this relies on a broad consensus between the
parties about the nature of the economic and social system.20 However, in this critical time, the still
born political democracy of Somalia cannot be trusted on parties.
For two depressing decades Somali society did not experience any form of democratic exercise.
Worst, the new generation had never had any chance at all to do so. The party polity of the first decade
of independence (1960s) fell short of what the Somali people expected to get from the democracy
exercise. Instead the circumstances generated tense hostility among clans and lineages in the whole
country. The unity which the country needed most was going to erode.
Both elections which were held in the civilian governments, March 1963 and in March 1969
respectively, were marred by violence. In the social context the elections opened old wounds among
lineages and sub-lineages as the traditional rivalries found new means of expression. Some sub-
lineages or lineages put forward one of their own members as a candidate. Parties became an
instrument for forwarding clan interests; at the close of the 1960s, the country had 64 parties because
of the attempts to satisfy the various clans or lineage interests.
The democratic parliamentary process which was 'expected' to go well with the traditional
political institutions turned sour.21 Emphasis had been placed on party politics rather than on
mobilisation for national needs22 and the system definitely facilitated anarchy.23
AN ALTERNATIVE TO PARTIES
The system described below emphasises interest groups' to promoting their interest in a
national framework. In this sense an interest group is "an association of people who come together, or
are brought together, to represent, promote and defend particular interests or sets of interests"24
There should be two groups: (1) a cause group whose interests aim to promote and defend a
much wider section of society, and (2) a pressure group who is a group representing an interest group
which seeks to achieve its aim by putting pressure on the government either on the canton (for
convenience I will use the word canton or in the Somali word Waax) or national level.
Sovereignty should reside in the cantons (Waax). The national government should exercise only
those powers vested on it by the constitution. As democracy is for the people by the people, this
system focuses the need to decentralise the power to enable the Somalis to take their political live in
their hands and at the same time stimulates the participation of the people in the cantonal and national
affairs.
The cantons have to contribute part of their revenue to the running of the national government.
The national government has to divide, in equal terms, any kind of aid obtain.
Each canton has to preserve its own separation of powers based on: (1) the Legislative, (2) the
Executive, (3) the Judiciary
Here the concept of the separation of powers is designed to ensure that the Executive and
Legislature are not integrated, but interrelated, keeping each other in check.
Autonomous Cantons
Regions
Villages
VOTING QUALIFICATION
Anyone who reaches the age of 18 shall be eligible to vote. However, the criteria for those
standing for office will vary according to the office in question (not defined here).
As this system emphasises that the democratic process of the country should come from the
grassroots, the nucleus of the power lies in the regions, districts (and its hamlets) and village levels.
Therefore, each of these political units has to elect its own councils.
HUMAN RIGHTS
The laws of the national and cantonal administration have to comply with the Principles of
Islam, and that of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adapted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations on 10th December 1948.
Respect shall be given to the fundamental rights of the citizens, social equality, political and
judicial grantees.
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Cantonal Level
CANTONAL LEVEL
ELIGIBILITY
Any Somali citizen can give his/her vote anywhere within a canton only if he/she can prove
residence of that area for not less than a prescribed period (no period is defined here).
Any Somali citizen at the age of 21 years can contest to a public office unless he/she has been
convicted of criminal offences against humanity or the Somali nation.
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member is declared vacant, the Speaker of the Chamber of Representatives shall proclaim the first
reserve as an active member. The same process shall be followed in the case of another member
vacating his/her seat.
c) The Chamber of Representatives shall be elected every four years by the canton's district
electoral bodies. It is divided into various sub-committees, e.g. Financial and Economic, Foreign
Affairs, Security and Defence Affairs, Social and Cultural Affairs. The number of sub-committees
will depend on the needs of the Cantonal Assembly. These sub-committees shall monitor the day-to-
day activities of the Cantonal Council and their administration.
SEPARATION OF POWERS
This structure shall divide the three powers of state: the power to make law, i.e. its legislative
function; the power to enforce law, i.e. its executive functions; and the power to interpret the law and
adjudicate in disputes between the citizen and the canton, i.e. its judicial function.
The accumulation of all powers, namely legislative, executive and judiciary, in the same hands
may lead to dictatorship and tyranny, hence, to avoid such circumstance this system creates a check and
balance structure as follows: (1) the National Assembly, (2) the National Council, and (3) the National
Judiciary Council.
Full faith and credit shall be given in each Canton (Waax) to the public acts, records, and
judicial proceedings of every other Canton. The Chamber of the Cantonal Council (see below) may by
general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the
effect thereof.
National Level
The citizens of each Canton shall be entitled to the same privileges and immunities as each
other. Because of the nature of the federal system the national government shall retain the responsibility
of the national defence, currency, foreign affairs, etc.
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THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a National Assembly (which is
technically the national legislative council of the National Somali State), and shall consist of two
chambers: (1) the Chamber of Elders, and (2) the Chamber of Cantonal Council.
This system is presented as a possible solution to the current nightmare of the Somali dilemma,
where the country is fragmented into fiefdoms ruled by separate armed clans. This system has many
advantages as well as disadvantages, and they are as follows:
ADVANTAGES
1. As the name defines, this system recommends adapting a semi-federal system of government as
a possible solution to the Somali plight. The country is currently divided into 4 or 5 parts which in
turn can to be interpreted into cantons or states and its unrealistic to reconstruct Somalia on the old
system (a unitary system of government) which was a factor in the creation of the current crisis. On
the contrary, the current reality presents an opportunity to create a semi-federal state.
2. The system emphasises the decentralising of power within the individual cantons and within the
federation. It emphasises the separation of the three powers of state, namely legislative, executive
and judiciary of both levels (canton and national). The purpose is to avoid these powers falling into
one hand which could lead to dictatorship.
3. The nucleus of the power lies in the hamlets or villages. This gives strength to the claim that is
a "pure democracy".
4. It can give the people the right to choose their representatives in the government. It can also
give an opportunity to supervise and control their representatives. This practice can stimulate a
positive political culture which can change the destructive instinct which has affected the people in
the last two decades and which caused the erosion of the foundations of the Somali nationhood.
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5. This system entrusts four levels to be represented by the people: district, region, canton and
elders (or traditional leaders). The district and region lies in the canton level, and the later two
represent the autonomous cantons and the traditional leaders.
6. The national executive (National Council) is a collegiate whose presidency rotates each year.
This collegiate is composed of a member from each of the canton who becomes president of the
federation.
7. Each autonomous canton shall have its own bi-cameral assembly (Cantonal Assembly): (a) the
Chamber of Councillors and (b) the Chamber of Representatives. Both chambers will give both the
regions and the district electorate the chance to be represented.
8. At the national level there is the National Assembly which is composed of two chambers: (a)
the Chamber of Elders and (b) The Chamber of the Canton Council. The main purpose of the two
cameral pattern is to ensure that the cantons and the lineages or clans are properly represented in the
law making "factory" of the nation. On the other hand it can be helpful in solving regional
differences of interest. Regional interests which might object to a central government are to some
extend pacified by the knowledge that they are formally represented at the centre.
9. A no-party system could be a healing device for the Somali crisis. Currently, the Somalis are
divided across clans and lineages. Taking a party system, as experience has shown previously, can
lead to a division across clans or lineage which could further exasperate the Somali crisis. A
political party can be the ultimate source of power and permeates all aspects of the political system
and the state institutions. The majority of one-party states have the party's monopoly enshrined
within the constitutions. In the same ostensibly multiparty states legal control will sometimes favour
the dominant government party, making life for opposition group difficult, and it can lead to another
social tension. In the Somali context, politics is sometimes personalised and the dominant party may
be interpreted as the dominant clan or lineage.
10. As an alternative to parties, this system emphasises interest groups as a device with which to
promote a group's interest within the national framework. In this sense an interest group is "an
association of people who come together, or are brought together, to represent, promote and defend
a particular interest or set of interests." In case of the removal from office, or death, resignation, or
inability to discharge the powers and duties vested on a councillor (of every level, e.g. national,
canton, regional, district, village, etc.) this system has a mechanism which makes it easy to replace
the member by the "reserve". As the reserve shall take part in the debates, this can also assure
continuity of the business led by the replaced council
DISADVANTAGE
1. The system gives limited power to the national level. A strong central government might be
needed at this crucial time to undertake rehabilitation and reconstruction which the country
desperately needs.
2. Only the National Council and the Cantonal Council will be elected indirectly rather than by
universal suffrage. This means that they are elected by councillors which are being delegated by
their respective areas.
3. The alternative to parties will be interest or pressure groups. It might be difficult for the
pressure group to spearhead a national issue. They can handle only a limited interest which will
have limited spotlight.
4. It is commonly believed that it is difficult to exercise without party in a truly democratic
procedure . It is also difficult to see the opposition as there is no party to express their opinion.
5. Anybody who stands for an office, whether cantonal or national level, has to stand as a private
or group candidate. For the electorate this will be confusing as it will not be easy for them to see the
candidates policy.
6. This is a new system which has never been applied before, and it is hard to forecast the
complication which might arise during its implementation.
NOTES
1
. Much of the introduction I have taken from Abdisalam M Issa-Salwe, The Collapse of the Somali State, 1994).
2
. Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom, 1980, pp.155-56.
3
. Ibid., p.158.
4
. Maxamed D. Afrax, The Mirror of Culture, in Catastrophe to Renewal? ed. Ahmed I. Samatar, 1994, pp.233-
251.
5
. Ibid, p. 239.
6
. Ahmed I. Samatar, Socialist Somalia, 1988, p.49.
7
. I have worked out this alternative in January 1990. Because of the change of the situation in Somalia and the
subsequent collapse of the Somali unitary state system, I had to alter few detail to meet the new development.
8
. Eli Sagan, At The Dawn of Tyranny, 1986, p.225.
9
. I M Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, 1961, p.1.
10
. Mohammed I. Farah, From Ethnic Response to Clan Identity, (Doctoral Dissertation at Uppsala University,
Uppsala 1993), pp.43-44.
11
. I M Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, op. cit. pp.36-89.
12
. Ali Moussa Iye, Le Verdic de L'Arbre (Go'aankii Geedka), by Lidwien Kapteijn in Hal-Abuur, Vol.I, No.1,
Summer 1993, pp.33-35.
13
. Ibid., p.198.
14
. Though it can hardly be called democratic as women and other marginalized group are excluded from the
meeting.
15
. I M Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, op. cit., pp.196-200
16
. Ahmed I. Samatar, Socialist Somalia, op. cit. p.49.
17
The Somali version: Qaranka Daryeelka ee Ummadda Soomaaliyeed (QDUS).
18
. J. Denis Derbyshire and Ian Derbyshire, World Political System, 1991, pp.150-60.
19
Charlotte Waterlow, What is Federalism? 1994, p.7.
20
Ibid., pp.7-8.
21
. I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of Somalia, 1980, p.205.
22
. Ali Mazrui, and Michael Tidy; Nationalism and New States of Africa, (Nairobi: Heinemann, 1984). p.226.
23
. Ibid, p.76
24
. J. Denis Derbyshire and Ian Derbyshire, World Political Systems, op. cit. p.175
REFERENCES
Afrax, Maxamed D. ; The Mirror of Culture: Somali Dissolution Seen Through Oral Expression in The
Somali Challenge: From Catastrophe to Renewal? ed. Ahmed I. Samatar, (Boulder, Colorado:
Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1994).
Derbyshire J. Denis; and Derbyshire, Ian; World Political Systems: An Introduction to Comparative
Government, (Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd., 1991).
Farah, Mohammed I.; From Ethnic Response to Clan Identity: A Study of State Penetration among the
Somali Nomadic Pastoral Society of Northeastern Kenya, (Doctoral Dissertation at Uppsala
University, Uppsala 1993).
Fromm, Erich; The Fear of Freedom, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paule, 1980).
Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M; The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy,
(London: Haan Associates, 1994).
Kapteijn, Lidwien; Le Verdic de L'Arbre (Go'aankii Geedka): Le Xeer Issa, etude d'une "Democratie
Pastorale", by Ali Moussa Iye, in Hal-Abuur, Vol.I, No.1, Summer 1993.
Lewis, I M ; A Pastoral Democracy, (London: Oxford University Press, 1961).
------- Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa (London: Longman, 1980).
Mazrui, Ali; and Michael Tidy; Nationalism and New States of Africa, (Nairobi: Heinemann, 1984).
Sagan, Eli; At The Dawn of Tyranny: The Origins of Individualism, Political Oppression, and the
State, (London: Faber and Faber, 1986).
Samatar, Ahmed I.; Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality, (London Zed Books Ltd, 1988).
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World Trust Publication, 1994)..
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