Personnel Qualifications of Japan, US and UK

Prospect of Japan’s Qualifications for White-Collars:

Comparisons of Personnel Qualifications in USA and UK

Kiyoshi Miyashita
Tokyo Metropolitan University
miyasita@tmu.ac.jp

Abstract
As for the public qualifications of the white-collar worker jobs in Japan, I would like to
analyze their utilization and consider features and problems of public qualifications by the
precedence research and interviews to personnel managers in corporations in Japan.
Externalization of in-house jobs and shift to competency and performance based HR
system will progress and the demand for the public qualifications about white-collar
workers increases also in Japanese society in the near future. While examining comparison
of the public qualifications of Japan (BCT by JAVADA), USA (PHR by SHRM) and UK
(CPP by CIPD) clarifying the difference, their meaning to management and ideal state
which white-collar worker public qualifications bring about would be considered.

Keyword
White-collar Workers, Qualifications, Job-Specialties, BCT (Business Career Test), PHR
(Professional of Human Resources), CPP (Certificate in Personnel Practice)

1. Introduction

In Japanese companies, including large companies, human resource development

through OJT and in-house education/training have been performed on condition of the
long-term employment and the job achievement with promotion and rise in pay as a result.
Therefore, employees, including white-collar workers, have believed that long term service
to the company and promotion to positions with higher authority or income as important.
Job-specialties and such knowledge of jobs, such as personnel affairs, accounting, and
purchase have been meaningful in evaluation in the companies, and there has been little
necessity to be accepted in society.

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 Personnel Qualifications of Japan, US and UK

However, after the collapse of the bubble economy after the 1990s, the Japanese
management system based on the condition of long-term employment in specific
companies has gradually been changing. As more mobilized employment and professional
requests of job career pursuit have started, employment portfolio and performance-based
HR systems have attracted attention. As a result, occupation and mid-career recruitment
have increased and ambiguous white collar jobs have actualized. Thus, the raison d’être of
the public occupational qualifications for evaluating knowledge and capability required for
work socially has also occurred.
Prior these changes of such employment practice occurring, there have been long
standing qualifications and tests which were accepted by society and the public have
existed such as "English official approval" and "bookkeeping official approval" in Japan.
“Qualifications” and “approval” prove that specific knowledge sets and skills have reached
a certain level, thereby, objective rating and also social trust are obtained. Although there
are some which are authorized by a behavioral skill test such like a driver's license or
proficiency measurements, historically most of tests are authorized through the
examination with paper and pen in several hours.
First, this report surveys the present condition of the qualifications, especially white-
collar worker qualifications in Japan. Second, using the precedence research for full-time
employees and hearing result to company managers, evaluation and practical use of
qualifications are considered and the features and the problems of public qualifications are
clarified. Next, a comparison examination is done by taking qualifications for personnel
jobs of Japan, USA and UK into an example. Finally, considering the meaning to
management and the ideal state to which white-collar workers public qualifications will
bring about in the future.

2. Qualifications about White-collar Worker Jobs

(1) Social meaning of qualifications
In the current Japanese society, typical vocational qualifications would be those of
judicial officers and medical doctors. Due to recent changes, many law schools (Graduate
school of law) have been established and the door to a judicial officer might be more
available, however, to get the qualifications has been still so difficult. On the other hand,
in order to be a medical doctor, a passing a national examination has been required and
medical department graduation is a premise. It is well known that entrance into medical
school is difficult in Japan. These qualifications have been socially recognized as profession
and they are example to prove the meaning of qualifications. However, most qualifications
are not connected to occupations only by it, but can check the requirements for job

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execution partially. About the role of qualifications, Ando (1994) has pointed out the
education effect. Since qualifications serve as a target when employees master knowledge
and skill, acquisition of qualifications would be encouraged in companies. Moreover,
Imano and Shimoda (1995) argued that the first role of qualifications is proof of workers’
abilities and the second one is the proof of laborers' capability and with which the next is
provided now.
The qualifications for white collar jobs are used differently by job functions and
occupations. Although there are many occupational qualifications in information
processing, or medical treatment and a nursing system, there is almost no public
qualifications existed corresponding to the job of white-collar workers, such as personnel
affairs, accounting, and sales. Related qualification is also restricted for the Certified
Social Insurance and Labour Consultant, the Small & Medium Enterprise Consultant,
the Official Business Skill Test in Book-Keeping and Salesperson, etc. The reason with little
tests and qualifications about white-collar worker jobs was little demand at a company and
an individual because of lifetime employment and seniority HR systems. Once employed,
the necessity of proving job knowledge and capability had been low in these situations.

(2) White-collars’ attitude toward qualifications

In order to understand individual acceptance of white-collar workers, a net survey of
400 full-time workers was conducted in October 2007. As a result, there are only a few of
them who took qualifications related to jobs. 30% of respondents had “Eiken”, the English
official approval. More than 10% of respondents held the three qualifications such as
National trade skill test, Bookkeeping official approval and Fundamental IT engineer (see
Table 1). For administrative posts’ qualifications held was the only Bookkeeping official
approval. However, the qualification of the bookkeeping test does not provide on the
knowledge and skills required for the white-collar workers.
The percentages of white-collar related qualifications held such as the business career
tests and the business ability tests were only 1% and 3% respectively. However, the
business ability tests which are supported by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology-Japan evaluate fundamental abilities regardless of specific jobs.
Therefore, the contents of the tests are limited to common factors such as business common
acumen, communications, and leadership. They are not the qualifications required for
particular jobs such as personnel and accounting.
In addition to this survey, another survey was conducted in August 2008 involving 100
white-collar workers in foreign invested companies in Japan in preparation for Japan-USA-
UK comparative studies. MNC’s subsidiaries in Japan have been more influenced by US-

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Euro companies in which more qualifications would be accepted. Home countries of

Japanese subsidiaries those surveyed are USA (70%), followed by Germany (10%), UK
(4%), and France (3%). As most of their home countries are US-Euro, we could see their
influence here.

Table 1: Major Qualifications for White-collars in Japan

400 employees in 100 employees of
Japan, Oct.2007 foreign co. Aug.2008
Rank Qualifications taken Number Ratio Number Ratio
1 “Eiken”,English official approval 120 30.0% 39 39.0%
2 National trade skill test 62 15.5% 3 3.0%
3 “Boki”,Book keeping official 53 13.3% 14 14.0%
approval
4 Fundamental IT engineer 45 11.3% 4 4.0%
5 Personal computer official 36 9.0% 5 5.0%
approval
5 System administrator 36 9.0% 4 4.0%
7 “Takuken”,Real estate trader 27 6.8% 4 4.0%
8 Secretary official approval 21 5.3% 11 11.0%
9 Financial planner 20 5.0% 6 6.0%
10 Technical engineer 17 4.3% 5 5.0%
11 Sales representative 12 3.0% 1 1.0%
11 Business ability test 12 3.0% 4 4.0%
--- ------------- ---- ---- ---- ----
20 Business Career test/system 4 1.0% 3 3.0%
--- ------------- ---- ---- ---- ----

Source: Based on own surveys in Oct.2007 and Aug.2008 by questionnaires via web in Japan.

The results show that high ratios in English official approval (39%) and bookkeeping
official approval (14%) the same as the former survey, around 5% hold PC and IT related
qualifications. The ratio of business career tests takers was 3%, a little higher than the
former survey, but it is still very limited. With these results, we have to observe that the
values of white-collar qualifications are not yet appreciated in Japan.

(3) Evaluation and use of qualification in companies

In order to understand how the qualifications for white-collar workers are viewed by
companies, interviews with personnel managers of four major IT companies was
conducted from June to September 2007. The reason why these IT companies were selected
as research target is that they are all specialized in high technologies such as software
development and positive to HRD and pioneers also about use of qualifications. The
hearing was enforced based on the question "Specialty and qualification of a job" and
obtained the evaluation in five steps and the comment about evaluation and practical use

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of public qualifications and business career systems. In this report, the research results are
partly included.

a) Is public qualification important or not

As the beginning, "whether acquisition of (public) qualification is thought as
important", three took the statement as "not so important" and one company evaluated "it
can be said to be neither." As were said, "Qualification is not connected with direct work"
and "although qualification might be the objective judgment material of potential
capability, it is different to have good results in job at company", it cannot say that there is
a relation with work. The manager who answered as "it can be said to be neither" told that
engineering qualifications are important because they appeal to customers, but it does not
think as important in clerical work without such things". Indeed, some qualifications might
be thought of as important and many of them are for engineering work.

b) Is public qualification utilized or not

For utilization of public qualification, one company uses it, while two companies did
not give clear answer and one denied its utilization. In the company currently utilized, in
order to aim at qualification acquisition, it is said that it utilized for capability training.
However, in the other company, utilization is mostly in engineering works, some
qualifications for construction or public-works are indispensable as absolutely necessary,
along with some vendor’s qualifications such as Microsoft. Based on comments,
qualifications for accounting and judicial affairs are utilized to a certain extent, but not
required for personnel affairs. The only foreign-affiliated firm among four companies is
using the in-house professional system and there is almost no practical use of qualification
for clerical work. However, all managers estimate that public qualifications will be used
more in the future.

c) Is business career system utilized or not

When utilization of business career systems are asked, three companies answered that
they do not utilize this and one for being neither. A manager of one company did not know
the system. And in the company answered none of these let other departments to decide
then did not know the actual situation in company. Although research is so limited, we
could confirm that four major companies do not use the business career systems. However,
for the question of future utilization, personnel managers of three companies answered as
"it comes to be utilized from before" and they expect more utilization in the future. The
reason is that the system was reformed completely with business career official approval

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and has become more established. As other personnel managers indicated that the
government endorsement such as national tests or government licenses has become
influential in the use of business career system.

(4) Significance of business career systems

“National Trade Skill Test” which evaluates laborers' skills has a long history with
nearly half century and has been established socially. As a public qualification of white-
collar worker jobs, the business career system founded by the Ministry of Labor (then)
served as the first one in 1993. It is difficult to build common knowledge and capability
system over individual company and industry. The business career system aimed at
systematic acquisition of professional expertise and capability required for white collar jobs
would be the first step toward white-collar worker-oriented public qualification realization.
Ando (1994), a Japanese sociologist indicated the following four reasons for the
introduction of business career; (1)white-collar workers increased in number sharply, and
the importance of the occupational skills development increased, (2) occupational skills
development of a white-collar worker are proceeded mainly by OJT and job rotation, and
systematic development systems are not ready, (3) although white-collar workers who
want to take self-education increases, there are not enough facilities for the self-education
intentionally and systematically, (4) private sector educational facilities are being prepared,
however, it is difficult to form continuous and systematic study plans because of lack of
unity of a level and duplication of the contents of a subject.

3. Qualifications for Personnel Jobs in Japan, USA and UK

I would like to examine the purpose, contents and evaluating method of public
qualifications of Japan, USA and UK for the white-collar worker engaged in a personnel
job. Japan's Business Career Test by Japan Vocational Ability Development Association
(JAVADA), America’s PHR (Professional in Human Resources) by Society for Human
Resource Management (SHRM) and British qualifications by Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development (CIPD) are taken as example.

(1) Business career test

The major objective of business career development system has been a check of
education-and-training results. It was reformed as business career test which aimed to
examine ability rating since 2007. The former business career development system was
divided into small examination units so that learners can study steadily. With the new

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business career test, its units are bundled corresponding to practical jobs, then it becomes a
more objective public qualification related to company business.
At the new business career test, typical company clerical jobs are ranked as the 1st – 3rd
class at every eight job fields, such as personnel management/human resources
development/industrial relations, company judicial affairs and general affairs, accounting
and financial management, management strategy, management information system, sales
and marketing, logistics, production control. There are 45 examination units which cover
each professional expertise required for job execution.
In this report, I would like to survey each contents and method for t the 1 st – 3rd class of
"personnel management and human-resources development" and "labor management”
which are applicable to personnel jobs. The 1st class is to test for person in charge of
department and advanced professionals level and those who take it aim to be department
heads and directors. The 2nd class is made into core members’ level of a group or a team,
and aim to become section chief or manager. The 3rd class is the level in its duty, and aim
at group leader (see Table 2).
In any class, the evaluation is based on a written examination. There are three questions
on general and practical cases to complete in 150 minutes. In the 2-3rd class, applicants
have to finish 50 multiple choice questions in 120 minutes. This is common to the
examination of all fields. Contents of personnel management and human-resources
development, personnel plan, employment management, wages, social insurance, human-
resources development, are also common in classes. In labor management, four items such
as industrial relations, employment management, safe health and a welfare program, and
social trends surrounding labor management are common in class.
In the 1st class, company-wide management and plans such as management strategy
and personnel strategy are contained. Moreover, in personnel management, plan and
planning of necessary personnel, personnel expenses, personal system and human-
resources development are more important in the class. Although the items of the 2nd class
and the 3rd class have many common features, in the 2nd class, the contents are
subdivided like a job, and it is investigating about a design and employment, and the
difference from the 3rd class which checks the level of understanding of the fundamental
view, structure, or an outline is clear.

Table 2: Contents of the Business Career Test for Personnel management/

Human resources development/Labor management (Japan)

3rd class (beginners' 2nd class (middle class: 1st class (upper class:
class (target) class: chief class) section chief class) department head class)

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－ － Management strategy and

personnel strategy
Outline of human- Personnel planning Planning and
resources plan and implementation of
Personnel employment personnel systems
Management management Employment Planning and
& HRD management implementation of a man-
power development plan
Outline of wages and Wage administration Promotion of personnel -
social insurance expenses management
Outline of human- Human-resources Planning and
resources development (HRD) implementation of HRD
development
Social trend surrounding HRM/HRD －
Outline of employment Employment Construction and
management management employment of
employment
management
Labor Outline of management Improvement and
managemen labor relation Industrial relations maintenance of
t management labor
relation
Construction and
Outline of safe health Safe health and implementation for safety
and a welfare program welfare program and sanitation
Planning and
implementation of a
welfare program measure
Social trend surrounding labor management －

Source: Japan Vocational Ability Development Association HP "business Carrier

(http://www.bc.javada.or.jp/career/)

(2) America’s SHRM and Personnel qualification

The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) in USA, founded in 1948 with
more than 220,000 members in 125 nations of the world, offers newer and suitable
resources, and makes it mission to respond to the request of members. The society also
plays the role of backing up development of personnel jobs by promoting important and
strategic role of personnel management.
In order that SHRM may authorize personnel qualification, it established a personnel
accreditation organization as HRCI (Human Resource Certification Institute) in 1973 and
started carrying out accreditation in 1976. There are three kinds of certificates by SHRM,
namely PHR (Professional in Human Resources), SPHR (Senior Professional in Human
Resources), and GPHR (Global Professional in Human Resources). In 2007, PHR/SPHR-CA
(PHR/SPHR with state certification in California) was added as new certifications.

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In SHRM, the meaning of official approval (Certification) is public authorization about

achievement of professionals’ business knowledge. This official approval shows supposes
that it is proving that a person has the knowledge of personnel management. Official
approval acquisition tested knowledge, it is the method of measuring that knowledge, and
has become a target on an occupation and supports career promotion. SHRM doesn’t have
certificates other than personnel management such as PHR, which are different in that
Japan's business career tests cover broad range of job functions. In this paper, we will just
focus on personnel jobs and related qualifications.

(3) PHR/SPHR/GPHR certification test

Tests to be certified as the PHR are created from all the fields of personnel
management based on U.S. Federal Law, regulations, practices, general custom, etc. and all
answers are multiple choices which marks are calculated by computer. Specifically, 225
questions of PHR and SPHR are answered in 4 hours. 200 questions are actually evaluated
and 25 are for test evaluation. For the GPHR, it takes 3 hours to finish 165 questions.
Accordingly, more questions and time are required to overlook American qualifications by
the SHRM than comparable to Japan's business career test.
PHR and SPHR are examinations which check the knowledge of the personnel field in
the United States, while GPHR is the one for HR staff who is in charge of global business or
personnel matters related overseas. Personnel management experience at the exempt level
for two years or more is required to take an examination of the certification. The difference
of recommended experience of PHR with two to four years and SPHR with six to eight
years is shown in the contents of examinations, as many of the questions are about strategy
and policy in SPHR and the PHR is about the operation and function of personnel in PHR.
The contents of both PHR and SPHR tests are divided into six parts such as strategic
management, human resources planning and employment, human resources development,
remuneration and employee and labor relation and risk management. In SPHR, strategic
management may be set about 30 percent of the whole test with emphasis set on the side of
planning and strategic management as the upper class (see Table 3).
Aside from that advanced and company-wide problem, routine personnel issues can
be certainly performed independently for the level of PHR. On the other hand, SPHR is for
the management and the specialist who have important responsibility in personnel, and it
requires problem solution to deal with complicated issues in connection with the whole
personnel section, having a company-wide viewpoint.

Table 3: Contents of PHR/SPHR Tests and their Ratios (USA)

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Test Specifications* PHR SPHR

Strategic Management 12% 29%
Workforce Planning and Employment 26% 17%
Human Resource Development 17% 17%
Total Rewards 16% 12%
Employee and Labor Relations 22% 18%
Risk Management 7% 7%

Note*: In each specification, responsibilities and knowledge are shown.

Source: PHR/SPHR/GPHR, Handbook 2007 (http://www.hrci.org/Certification/2007HB/）

The contents of the test questions of GPHR are six items such as strategic HR
management, organizational effectiveness and employee development, global staffing,
international assignment management, global compensation and benefits, international
employee relations and regulations which are considerably differ from those of PHR and
GPHR. The important difference is to managing support staff engaged in international
business and strategic personnel management.

(4) British CIPD and its membership

The major qualification for personnel positions in UK is the one governed by The
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). CIPD is a professional
organization for those involved in the management and development of people and has a
long history stemming from the former body known as the Welfare Workers’ Association
(WWA) established in 1913. The current addition of “chartered” was adopted in 2000. It is
a huge organization with over 130,000 members including 4,000 overseas members from
over 120 nations. CIPD intends to lead in the development and promotion of good practice
in the field of the management and development of people, for application both by
professional members and by their organizational colleagues. They provide members with
professional resources, enhance career, networking opportunities. The qualifications
achievement is one of their roles.
The qualifications offered by CIPD are connected to memberships and are not
independent as the Japanese ones. As to be certified by qualifications is a prerequisite to
become a member of CIPD, we need to understand the structure of CIPD membership to
consider qualifications. In order to be a member, there are several routes. The best route is
decided by personal education and job experience. In general, the educational route is the
most popular one. However, those who are operating at a senior level in personnel and
development and have got five year’s management-level experience are taking a route of
professional assessment of competence (PAC). There are other routes using related post-
graduate-level qualifications and a MBA degree awarded within ten years. NVQ and other
CIPD qualifications are also admitted for consideration.

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Membership of CIPD is largely divided into non-chartered and chartered membership.

Chartered members are experienced and senior professionals who have finished taking
qualifications, and then non-chartered membership is directly related to personnel
qualifications. Non-chartered members include four types of members, affiliate, associate,
licentiate and graduate membership. Among them, anyone can be an affiliate member
to receive professional information and service, so its membership is excluded from this
study of qualifications.
Other membership, associate, licentiate and graduate mean the members who
have taken personnel qualifications by CIPD and they can be considered for this
comparative study. Associate members need to pass at least one certificate from support-
level qualifications. Licentiate members finished at least one field from
Professional Development Scheme (PDS) successfully while graduate members
finished all four of them. PDS consists of training programs based on the professional
standards of practitioner-level qualifications. With these four qualifications, requirement
for personnel managers and professionals is certified by CIPD.

(5) British personnel qualifications and standards

As was stated, British personnel qualifications generated by CIPD are based on the
membership system, however, contents and methods of personnel qualifications are used
for comparison to those of Japan and USA in this paper. There are three types of
qualifications offered by CIPD and they are Support-level qualifications, Transitional-
level qualification and Practitioner-level qualifications. Transitional-level
qualification is to consider post-graduate and CIPD degrees based on a separate
system and then it should be excluded in this paper. Accordingly, support-level
and practitioner-level qualifications will be considered in this study.
Support-level qualifications are aimed at those who want to build and
develop their career in personnel and development. They are regarded as
fundamental qualifications for personnel jobs and include four certificates,
Certificate in Personnel Practice (CPP), Certificate in Training Practice (CTP),
Certificate in Recruitment and Selection (CRS) and Certificate in Employment
Relations, Law and Practice (CERLAP) as seen in Table 4. Prior to these
certificates, “Communication”, “Self-management”, “Understanding the work
context” and “Relevant legislation” are included as common elements for all
CIPD certificate qualifications. Each certificate covers most important personnel
fields and required by personnel officers, line managers and personnel
assistants or clerical staff.

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Table 4: Contents of Support-level Qualifications (UK)

Certificate-level programmes
Certificate in Personnel
Practice (CPP)
Certificate in Training
Practice (CTP)
Certificate in Recruitment
and Selection (CRS)
Certificate in Employment
Relations, Law and Practice
(CERLAP)
Performance Indicators
H.R. plans and organizational context,
Recruitment and selection, Training and
development, Performance management and
employee relations
Training in context, Identifying and prioritizing
learning needs, Designing training and
assessment, Delivering and evaluating training
The context of recruitment and selection and
application of information system, The
recruitment process, The selection process, The
legal, ethical and professional issues of
recruitment and selection
Practice in context, Setting up employment
contracts, Managing the employment
relationship, Managing the exit from
employment

Source: CIPD Qualifications,http://www.cipd.co.uk/mandq/routes/educate/support.htm,2008

Table 5: Contents of Practitioner-level Certificates (UK)

Fields of study Content and Indicators Study (self)
Leadership and Managing for Results, Managing and Leading People, Hours
Management Managing in a Strategic Business Context, Managing
Information for Competitive Advantage
360

(180)
People Management Shaping the management and development agenda,
and Development) The contribution of people management and
development expertise, Integrating the people 240
management and development contribution, People
(120)
management and development in practice

Specialist and People Resourcing Standards)

Generalist Personnel
and Development) Learning and Development Standards) 480

Employee Reward Standards) (240)

Employee Relations Standards)

Applied Personnel Management Report) 120
and Development)
Continuing Professional Development) (100)

Source: CIPD Qualifications, http://www.cipd.co.uk/mandq/routes/educate/prac.htm,2008

Practitioner-level qualifications are based on CIPD’s professional standards

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which set the required knowledge and competency for professionals for
personnel and development. Four fields of the study programs are included in
CIPD’s professional Development Scheme (PDS). They are “Leadership and
Management”, “People Management and Development”, “Specialist and
Generalist Personnel and Development” and “Applied Personnel and
Development”(see Table 5). Each field is divided into several study units and
evaluated from the three aspects of practice, knowledge and fact. The core of
the CIPD’s qualifications is the professional standards which clarify the
necessary knowledge and abilities.

(6) Personnel Qualifications’ Comparison of Japan and the U.S.

When the personnel qualifications of Japan, USA and UK are compared, the first
feature is the huge difference in number of applicants. There are about 11,000 annual
examinees of business career tests of Japan for the past five year’s average in all the unit
sum totals. Annual applicant’s number to corresponding personnel qualifications such as
"personnel management and human resource development" and "labor management"
calculated to about 3,000 persons in 1-3 class totals. About 14,000 people have passed the
tests for 20 years in total. The numbers of examinees of US’s comparable personnel
qualifications such as PHRs are 20,000-25,000 people scales per year. According to HRCI,
total number of certified is 92,783 persons (PHR: 52,105, SPHR: 40,133, GPHR: 983) as of
March 31, 2008.
Membership is a basic concept for CIPD’s personnel qualifications, so calculations of
numbers of test applicants and successful candidates are not as simple as those in Japan
and US. Those who have qualifications for personnel by CIPD are around 100,000
excluding affiliate members who did not have any qualifications. They are 13,000 associate
members who have at least one support-level qualification, 21,000 licentiate members with
at least one practitioner-level qualification, 20,000 graduate members who have taken all
four practitioner-level qualifications. In addition to these members, there are 50,000
chartered members who finished these qualifications.
From the number of members, we can conclude that there are 13,000 people with
support-level qualifications, 21,000 people with at least one practitioner-level qualification
and 70,000 people who have all qualifications of practitioner-level qualifications. This
number shows that more people are taking personnel qualifications in UK than those of
Japan and USA. And it is clear that the ratio of people with those qualifications is the
highest in UK among the three countries.
The contents of these qualifications for personnel and development include strategy,

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planning, employment, wages, human-resources development, safe health and welfare

program, labor relation, they are mostly common although some differences are seen in
how to bundle these units. There might be difference in regulation system, industrial
features, strategy and operating custom of each company. At operation level, we need to
check each country’s personnel qualifications closer, however, the role of personnel would
be found the same through these tests and qualifications. GPHR is interesting only for the
personnel qualification for common global business. Around 800 persons acquired GPHR
starting in 2004. In CIPD qualifications, international personnel and development is
included in senior level standards. It is noticeable that global personnel qualifications will
be available in the future.
When it comes to compare the exempt level as prerequisite for taking tests of the U.S.
qualification to Japanese, it is appropriate the experienced staff who can handle finite
works independently. Accordingly, we may estimate university graduates staff with two
years experience as personnel staff.
The structure of Japanese and American qualifications seems to be more similar to that
of support-level qualification of CIPD than practitioner-level one. Practitioner-level
qualifications cover a broader field such as strategy, organization, leadership, learning and
so on and it focuses on management and strategy issues. Moreover, British qualifications
are adopting broader and more complex method for evaluation including submitting a job-
related report, project-report, practical studies, not just by taking examinations.
If these qualifications of the three nations are compared, the Japanese system which
focuses on qualifications without having membership is quite different from the British
system which requires membership to obtain qualifications. Although American
professional body, SHRM has memberships, an awarding body of qualification is
separately established as HRCI, the USA could be positioned between Japan and UK. There
are differences in the history of 13 years, 31 years, 42 years of qualifications in Japan, US
and UK respectively. The difference can be seen in the number of certified people, the ratio
of certified people in personnel and development jobs and the social status of
qualifications.
It is apparent that existence of personnel qualifications in Japan is the smallest and the
result is reflecting a history of professional organizations and social acceptance. The length
of the validity of the Japanese qualifications is noticeably different from other countries. In
Japan, qualifications have been effective after being certified while there are three years
limit in USA and they are only effective with memberships in UK. This facts show clearly
difference of qualifications in these three countries.

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4. Merit and limit of qualifications for white-collars

In the Japanese company, in order to introduce white-collars’ qualification completely

and to use practically, it is likely to take still considerable time. However, it is not necessary
to wait for the situation in the United States, or the indication of personnel managers, it
seems that public qualification will permeate Japanese society gradually. From the creation
process of public qualification like the business career system, the common job standard
was set up and it led to extraction of white-collar worker jobs. Unified white-collar worker
job would be recognized socially, and new results such as productivity improvement and
achievement for a company, job satisfaction and improvement in motivation for an
individual may be produced.
As Fujimura (1997) says that the capability that public qualification division liberal-
arts qualification can be proved is restricted to the power of understanding and the
operating-related knowledge which can be measured by a written examination. When the
capability that qualification can be authorized is considered from the management skills
which Katz (1955) discusses, the capability based on knowledge mostly corresponds to
technical skill. Therefore, authorization in qualification is difficult for human skills such as
communications skill and leadership, and conceptual skill such as problem solving and
strategy formation. In the competency model by McClelland (1977), the knowledge and
skills which are visible from outside are part of an iceberg, and it is supposed that motive,
character, the characteristic, etc. exist under the water surfaces. If based on this competency
model, authorization of surface knowledge can be performed, but the evaluation and
authorization of the invisible portion which affects job capability may be difficult. In this
regards, as job experience has been also taken into consideration in UK’s qualifications,
more practical and acceptable evaluation would be possible. However, to create such
conditions for achievement, it will be necessary for effective professional organizations to
offer memberships.
On one hand, about the merit of public qualification, socialization of white-collar
worker jobs is in the first place. Unlike conventional qualifications, it does not stop at
fragmentary knowledge, but comprehensive knowledge and a dormant faculty are socially
recognized by considering a white-collar worker job as a settlement, and it becomes
possible to evaluate these. The second merit is actualization of a white-collar worker job.
Rather than academic knowledge such as strategy theory and organizational theory,
knowledge required for actual job execution is applicable. Furthermore, comprehensive
and case problems are promoted to raise actual capability which leads to management
capability and synthetic judgment.

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 Personnel Qualifications of Japan, US and UK

The third one is the contribution to career or human resource development. At

present, exact and broad personnel training might be available only in companies where
the personnel and educational system are well established in major companies. With the
public qualifications, which include wisdom and experience, of excellent managers is
actualized, white collar job knowledge will be properly found and better education and
training can be performed based on the credentials. It leads to the realization of a white
collar active career or independent capability development.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, it surveyed that there are almost no qualifications for Japanese white-
collar workers until now and the measure has been made in recent years. It also checked
that qualifications for white-collar worker's job are not utilized yet at the present condition.
From the 2007 fiscal year, the new business career test has been more clearly positioned as
public qualification and it may become the fundamental credential of white-collar workers
in the future. However, as some survey showed, there are several problems to be solved
before practical acceptance in industry.
Introduction of business career test as the test for qualification, leads not only to
increase in training and better management of human resources but to business and
organizational climate change. Qualifications for personnel jobs have permeated and their
supporting system and operation are more advanced in the United States and United
Kingdom; however, their contents of tests or studies are not so different from those of
comparative ones in Japan. More autonomous career orientation is pursued, employability
and performance based systems are further progressed, demand for the public
qualification, which can authorize and evaluate the capability externally, will be expected
to increase further from now on in Japan.
From the present condition, it seems to still take time for osmosis of white-collar
workers’ qualification, and is asked to be productive the requests must come from not only
the industry but from each worker and the social systems. It will be an important key
whether such qualifications will be authorized by a social policy or a legal basis to receive
further social acceptance.
As was argued, white collars’ qualifications have little accumulation, and the full-scale
consideration for examination contents and valuation methods will be a future subject. In
this sense, it should be improvable by the contents and operations as well as a social policy.
From the British evaluation system for qualifications, we can consider adopting new
methods of certification based on the On the Job Training (OJT) which has been quite

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popular in Japanese companies. The process of such improvements will increase the level
of qualification, and it will lead to raising the validity of qualifications.

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