What are Multivibrators?

A multivibrator is a term used to describe an electronic circuit which has the ability to rapidly
switch based on positive feedback between multiple states. The output of the switch is harmonic
and there are three types of mutivibrator circuit used in industry today: the astable, monostable,
and bistaple types.

What are the Types of Multivibrator?

The three types of multivibrator are:
Astable Multivibrator – This type is where the circuit is not considered to be stable in either of
the two possible states. It will continually switch from one of the potential states to the other but
does not require a clock pulse or other input in order to operate.
Monostable – One of the two states of the circuit is considered transient with the other being
stable. A trigger of some type will cause the circuit to change to the unstable state and it will
return to the stable condition after a predetermined timeframe. These circuits are used to create a
timing period of finite length that gets triggered by an event.
Bistable – These circuits are stable in both possible states and can be flipped from one to another
from external stimuli. They are also considered to be a “flip-flop” type circuit.

555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator

A monostable multivibrator (MMV) often called a one-shot multivibrator, is a pulse generator
circuit in which the duration of the pulse is determined by the R-C network,connected externally
to the 555 timer. In such a vibrator, one state of output is stable while the other is quasi-stable
(unstable). For auto-triggering of output from quasi-stable state to stable state energy is stored by
an externally connected capacitor C to a reference level. The time taken in storage determines the
pulse width. The transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state is accomplished by
external triggering. The schematic of a 555 timer in monostable mode of operation is shown in
figure.
Monostable Multivibrator Design Using 555 timer IC

The capacitor C has to charge through resistance RA. The larger the time constant RAC, the
longer it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach +2/3VCC.

In other words, the RC time constant controls the width of the output pulse. The time during
which the timer output remains high is given as

tp =1.0986RAC
where RA is in ohms and C is in farads.

The pulse width of the circuit may range from micro-seconds to many seconds. This circuit is
widely used in industry for many different timing applications.

555 Timer as a Astable Multivibrator

An astable multivibrator, often called a free-running multivibrator, is a rectangular-wave

generating circuit. Unlike the monostable multivibrator, this circuit does not require any external
trigger to change the state of the output, hence the name free-running. Before going to make the
circuit, make sure your 555 IC is working. For that go through the article: How to test a 555 IC
for working An astable multivibrator can be produced by adding resistors and a capacitor to the
basic timer IC, as illustrated in figure. The timing during which the output is either high or low is
determined by the externally connected two resistors and a capacitor. The details of the astable
multivibrator circuit are given below.
Pin 1 is grounded; pins 4 and 8 are shorted and then tied to supply +Vcc, output (VOUT is taken
form pin 3; pin 2 and 6 are shorted and the connected to ground through capacitor C, pin 7 is
connected to supply + VCC through a resistor RA; and between pin 6 and 7 a resistor RB is
connected. At pin 5 either a bypass capacitor of 0.01 F is connected or modulation input is
applied.

Astable Multivibrator using 555 IC -Design method

The time during which the capacitor C charges from 1/3 VCC to 2/3 VCC is equal to the time the
output is high and is given as

tc or THIGH = 0.693 (RA + RB) C

Where RA and RB are in ohms and C is in farads.

The time during which the capacitor discharges from +2/3 VCC to +1/3 VCC is equal to

the time the output is low and is given as

td or TL0W = 0.693 RB C

Where RB is in ohms and C is in farads

Overall period of oscillations,

T = THIGH + TLOW = 0.693 (RA+ 2RB) C,

The frequency of oscillations being the reciprocal of the overall period of oscillations T is given
as
f = 1/T = 1.44/ (RA+ 2RB) C

Equation indicates that the frequency of oscillation / is independent of the collector supply
voltage +VCC.

Often the term duty cycle is used in conjunction with the astable multivibrator.

The duty cycle, the ratio of the time tc during which the output is high to the total time period
T is given as

% duty cycle, D = tc / T * 100 = (RA + RB) / (RA + 2RB) * 100

Pulse code modulation (PCM)

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a digital scheme for transmitting analogdata. The signals in
PCM are binary; that is, there are only two possible states, represented by logic 1 (high) and
logic0 (low). This is true no matter how complex the analog waveform happens to be. Using
PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data, including full-motion video, voices,
music, telemetry, and virtual reality (VR).
To obtain PCM

from an analog waveform at the source (transmitter end) of a communications circuit, the analog
signal amplitude is sampled (measured) at regular time intervals.The sampling rate, or number of
samples per second, is several times the maximum frequency of the analog waveform in cycles
per second or hertz.

At the destination (receiver end) of the communications circuit, a pulse code demodulator
converts the binary numbers back into pulses having the same quantum levels as those in the
modulator. These pulses are further processed to restore the original analog waveform.

Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a method of transmitting digital signals. The two binary states,
logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analog waveform. Logic 0 is represented
by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is represented
by a wave at a different frequency. A modem converts the binary data from a computer to FSK
for transmission over telephone lines, cables, optical fiber, or wireless media. The modem also
converts incoming FSK signals to digital low and high states, which the computer can
"understand."

Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a method of digital communication in which the phase of a

transmitted signal is varied to convey information.
Differential Phase-shift keying (DPSK)

Differential phase shift keying is a no coherent form of phase shift keying which avoids the need
for a coherent reference signal at the receiver.

UART and USART

The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of

the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and
transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-
assembles the bits into complete bytes.

Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for non-networked communication
between computers, terminals and other devices.

There are two primary forms of serial transmission: Synchronous and Asynchronous. Depending
on the modes that are supported by the hardware, the name of the communication sub-system
will usually include a A if it supports Asynchronous communications, and a S if it supports
Synchronous communications. Both forms are described below.

Some common acronyms are:

UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC)

Cyclic redundancy checking is a method of checking for errors in data that has been transmitted
on a communications link. A sending device applies a 16- or 32-bit polynomial to a block of data
that is to be transmitted and appends the resulting cyclic redundancy code (CRC) to the block.
The receiving end applies the same polynomial to the data and compares its result with the result
appended by the sender. If they agree, the data has been received successfully. If not, the sender
can be notified to resend the block of data.

Shannon-Hartley law

The Shannon-Hartley law states that for a communication channel with bandwidth W, and a
signal to noise ratio S/N, that the channel capacity C is expressed by the equation

C = W log 2 (1 + S/N)
Figure 4. Typical Thyristor Characteristics

The actual operation of the thyristor can be described by referring to Figure 5, which shows
simplified diagrams of the thyristor structure with the p n layers and junctions labelled.
(Figures 5a and b)
To understand the operation of a thyristor, think of it as a two-transistor (pnp and npn) model
as shown in Figure 5a b and c. If no gate signal is applied, but a voltage is applied (less than
forward breakdown voltage) between the top emitter terminal (marked A) and the bottom
emitter terminal (marked K) so that A is positive with respect to K, both transistors will be
turned off. No current is flowing so the voltage on the gate and cathode will be the same.

Figure 5. The Thyristor "Two Transistor Model"

When the gate is made positive with respect to K by the application of a gating pulse, Tr2 will
turn on and its collector voltage will fall rapidly. This will cause the pnp transistor Tr1 base
emitter junction to become forward biased, turning on Tr1. A large current will now be flowing
between A and K. The action described happens very quickly as the switching on of Tr2 by Tr1
is a form of positive feedback with each transistor collector supplying large current changes to
the base of the other.
As Tr1 collector is connected to Tr2 base, the action of switching on Tr1 connects Tr2 base
virtually to the high positive voltage at A. This ensures that Tr2 ( and therefore Tr1) remains in
conduction, even when the gating pulse is removed.
To turn the transistors off, the voltage across A and K must be reversed or the current flowing
through the transistors must be reduced to a very low level, so the base emitter junctions no
longer have sufficient forward voltage to maintain conduction.
Because of the thyristor´s ability to switch very large currents at very high (hundreds of volts)
voltages, the thyristor is a useful device in power control circuits. It is quite capable of handling
AC mains and is used in such circuits as lighting dimmers, motor speed controls etc. They are
also widely used as fast acting protection devices in DC power supplies. The switching speed
of thyristors is very fast and they are able to switch from fully off to fully on, typically in 1µs.