AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING AND HANDLING REVIEW

MATERIAL BALANCE
“Matter is neither created nor destroyed, it only transforms from one form to another!”

INFLOW = OUTFLOW + ACCUMULATION

ENERGY BALANCE
First Law of Thermodynamics: “Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it is merely transformed from one to another.”

PE1 + KE1 + U1 + P1V1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + U2 + P2V2 + W

Second Law of Thermodynamics: “Energy will flow spontaneously only from a region having a high energy level to another that
is at a lower energy level.”
Heat - energy transfer between two bodies that are at different temperature
- energy present in a body by virtue of its temperature

Specific heat, Cp & Cv– the amount of heat that accompanies a unit change in temperature for a unit mass

For fruit and vegetable purees:

Siebel’s equation:
a. Above freezing pt: Cavg = 33.49M + 837.36, J/kg-oK M = percentage of moisture of the substance
b. Below freezing pt: Cavg = 12.56M + 837.4, J/kg-oK
For Meat or Suspensions of Non-Fat Solids
Cavg = %Non-Fat (Cnon-fat) + %Fat (Cfat) + %Water (Cwater)
Cnon-fat = 837.36 J/kg-oK
Cfat = 1674.72 J/kg-oK
Cwater = 4186.8 J/kg-oK

Fluid Flow

Mechanical Energy Balance:

v12 P v2 P
m + m 1 + mz 1 + hp = m 2 + m 2 + mz 2 + hf
2g ρg 2g ρg

v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z 1 + hp = 2 + 2 + z 2 + hf v = fluid velocity
2g ρ g 2g ρ g
P = fluid pressure
Z = elevation w/ respect to a particular datum
Hp = mechanical head input
Hf = head losses due to friction, bends and fittings

Viscosity – property of a fluid which gives rise to forces which resist the relative movement of adjacent layers in the fluid
- the resistance of fluid to flow, in terms of Pascal-seconds, poise, and centipoises
- 1 Pa-s = 100 Cp = 10 Poise
Reynolds Number, Re – determines if a fluid is moving turbulent or in streamline (laminar) flow.
Dvρ
Re = where: D = diameter of pipe of flow
μ
v = velocity of flowing fluid
ρ = density of substance
μ = viscosity of the substance
Re < 2100; Streamline/laminar
2100 < Re < 4000; Transition
Re > 4000; Turbulent

Energy Losses in Flow, hf – loss of energy due to friction and the bends and fittings of the conduits to which the fluid flows
through
hf = h friction + hbendsandfittings

Friction in Pipes – related to Re

 - energy lost or dissipated because of internal fluid resistance, excess turbulence, or resistance of the inner surface
of the retainer
2 fV 2 L 16
Fanning Equation: h friction = f = friction factor, f streamline =
gD Re
fturbulent – can be traced on the Moody diagram
or
f = 0.048 Re −0.20 , 1x104 ≤ Re ≤ 1x105
f = 0.193Re −0.35 , 3x103 ≤ Re ≤ 1x104
L = length of pipes
D = inner diameter of pipe
V = velocity of fluid

Energy Losses in Bends & Fittings, hbf – significant losses in energy due to restrictions to flow, sharp projections, abrupt
changes in shape and dimensions
v2
hbf = k k = friction loss factor due to bends and fittings
2
Friction Loss Factors in Fittings
Valves, fully open: gate 0.13
Globe 6.0
Angle 3.0
Elbows: 900 standard 0.74
Medium sweep 0.5
Long radius 0.25
Square 1.5
Tee, used as elbow 1.5
Tee, straight through 0.5
Entrance, large tank to pipe: sharp 0.5
Rounded 0.05

Loss Factors in Contractions

D1 / D2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
k 0.36 0.31 0.22 0.11 0.02

Flow for Granular Materials – grains, ground feed, and other similar materials flow in an entirely different manner than liquids
Angle of Repose – the angle which the side of the pile of granular materials makes with a horizontal
- tangent of the angle of repose is the coefficient of friction of the material itself.

Pumps and Fans

Pumps – device used for elevating or moving liquids
- machines used to add energy to a liquid in order to transfer the liquid from one point to another point of higher energy
level
Classification of Pumps
a. rotary pump
b. centrifugal pump
c. reciprocating pump
d. jet pumps
e. air lifts

centrifugal pump – pump in which its pumping action is accomplished by imparting kinetic energy to the fluid by a high speed
revolving impeller with vanes and subsequently converting this kinetic energy into pressure energy either by
passing through a volute or through a diffuser vane
Rotary pump – is a positive displacement pump consisting of a fixed casing containing gears, cams, screws, vanes, plungers, or
similar elements actuated by rotation of a drive shaft
Reciprocating pump – is a positive displacement unit wherein the pumping action is accomplished by the forward and backward
movement of a piston or plunger inside a cylinder usually provided with valves
Jet pumps – used for pumping sumps or processing residues that contain solid matter or chemically active materials that should
not pass through a mechanical pump satisfactorily
Air lifts – device used in elevating liquids using air under pressure

Pump Laws
a. Variation in impeller speed, if impeller diameter is constant
 2 3
Q1 N1 H1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ N1 ⎤
= =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Q2 N 2 H 2 ⎣ N2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦

b. Variation in impeller diameter, if the impeller is constant

3 2 5
Q1 ⎡ D1 ⎤ H1 ⎡ D1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ D1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Q2 ⎣ D2 ⎦ H 2 ⎣ D2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ D2 ⎦

c. Combined Pump Laws

3 2 2 5
Q1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤ H1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
Q2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦ H 2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦

Fans and Blowers – used in agricultural processing in connection with drying, ventilating, heating, cooling, refrigerating,
aspirating, elevating and conveying
Fans – machine for applying power to a gas to increase its energy content causing it to flow or move
- operates at pressures of less than 1 psi
Blower – a fan used to force air under pressure
Compressor – gas moving device which operates at pressures equal to or more than 1 psi
Types of fans
a. Propeller fan – consist of a propeller with narrow blades or disk type wheel within a mounting ring or plate and including
driving mechanism supports either for belt drive or direct connection
b. Tube Axial Fan – consist of a propeller or disk type wheel within a cylinder and including driving mechanism supports
either for belt drive or direct connection
c. Vane Axial Fan – consist of an axial flow wheel within a cylinder, a set of guide vanes located either before or after the
wheel , and including driving mechanism supports for either belt drive or direct connection
d. Centrifugal Fan – also known as Radial flow fan, consists of a wheel or rotor within a scroll spiral type housing

Pitch, P – the twist or angularity of the blades, theoretically the distance the air would be moved when turning the rotor 1
revolution
Ρ = 2πr tan α r = distance from any point of the impeller to the axis of rotation (radius)
α= angle of fan blade twist

Power Requirement, hp = Qwht Q = flow rate of the gas

w = specific weight of the gas
h = total head
hw d w
ht = hstatic + hvelocity hstatic = hw = manometer reading in unit length of water
da
2
V
hvelocity = o dw = density of water
2g
da = density of air
Vo = velocity of air at outlet

Fan Laws:
a. Variation in impeller speed, if impeller diameter is constant
2 3
Q1 N1 H1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ N1 ⎤
= =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Q2 N 2 H 2 ⎣ N2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦

b. Variation in impeller diameter, if the impeller is constant

3 2 5
Q1 ⎡ D1 ⎤ H1 ⎡ D1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ D1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Q2 ⎣ D2 ⎦ H 2 ⎣ D2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ D2 ⎦

c. Combined fan Laws

3 2 2 5
Q1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤ H1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤ P1 ⎡ N1 ⎤ ⎡ D1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
Q2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦ H 2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦ P2 ⎣ N 2 ⎦ ⎣ D2 ⎦

d. Gas density variation, constant fan size, constant speed

 H 2 ρ2 P1 ρ1
Q2 = Q1 = =
H1 ρ1 P2 ρ 2

Fans in Series or Parallel

Series: Qa = Qb = Qsystem Parallel: Qa + Qb = Qsystem
Pa + Pb = Psystem Pa = Pb = Psystem

HEAT TRANSFER
Three modes of heat transfer
a. Conduction – transfer of heat energy between adjacent molecules, not dependent on gross movement of material
b. Convection – transfer of heat by transport of heated fluid material
c. Radiation – emission of energy, without a need of a conducting or convecting medium, from the surfaces of opaque
bodies and from within semitransparent objects

Conduction
Steady state plane wall conduction
kA(to − ti )
Q= Q = heat rate
x
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity
t = temperature
x = distance through conducting medium

Steady State Composite Wall Conduction

A(To − Ti )
Q=
x1 x2 x3 x
+ + + ... + n
1 2 3 k1 k 2 k3 kn
To Ti x1 x2 x3 x
R= + + + .... + n
k1 k2 k3 kn
Q 1
U =
R
Q = UA(To − T1 )
X1 X2 X3
Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ....Qn

Steady State Composite Wall Conduction from Fluid to Fluid

A(To − Ti )
Q= ho = outside surface heat transfer coefficient for convection
1 x1 x 2 x 3 x 1
+ + + + ... + n +
ho k 1 k 2 k 3 k n hi
hi = inside surface heat transfer coefficient for convection

Conduction through Pipe Conduction through Composite Pipe

ΔT t −t t o − ti
Q= = 2 1 Q=
Rt ln (r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 ) ln(r2 r1 )
+
2πkL 2πkL 2πkL

Composite Pipe Conduction from Fluid to fluid

t o − ti
Q=
1 ln(r 3 / r 2) ln(r 2 / r1) 1
+ + +
Aho 2πkL 2πkL Ahi

Radiation
Qradiation = σ FeA ⎡⎣T14 − T2 4 ⎤⎦ σ = Stefan - Boltzmann constant (5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2-K4)
Fe = emissivity factor
A = radiating surface area
 T1 = absolute temperature of surface radiating the heat
T2 = abs. temperature of surface receiving the heat
Convection
Qconvection = hc A (T1 - T2) h = heat transfer coefficient due to convection
A = area of heat transfer

Heat exchangers – equipments for transferring heat from one fluid to another
Types of Heat Exchangers
a. Swept surface heat exchangers – the product passes through an inner cylinder and the heating or cooling medium
passes through the annular space between the inner cylinder and an outer cylinder or jacket
b. Double pipe heat exchangers – consist of one pipe inside another
c. Shell and tube heat exchangers – consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed by a shell
d. Plate heat exchanger – consists of a series of plates clamped together on a frame

DRYING
Moisture content – percentage the amount of moisture to the weight of a substance
Wwet −W dry Wwet −W dry
MC dry = 100 × MC wet = 100 ×
Wdry Wwet
Energy Balance
Q
Cp air (Ta − Tg )t = h fg DM ( M o − M e ) where: Q = volumetric air flow rate
v
Cpair = specific heat of air
v = specific volume of air
Ta = temperature of air entering the dryer
Tg = exit temperature of air
t = drying time
hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water
DM = dry matter
Mo = initial moisture content of grain, dry basis
Me = final moisture content of grains, dry basis

Blower/Fan Power Requirement

P = QΔPT P = power requirement
Q = Air Mass Flow
ΔPT = Total pressure drop in the system
ΔPT = ΔPfloor + ΔPgrains
2
aQa L
ΔPgrains = (Hukill & Shedd) where:
ln(1 + bQa )
L = bed depth, m
Qa = airflow, m3/s-m2
a & b = constant for a particular grain

Values for Constants in Airflow Resistance Equations

Material a, Pa-s2/m3 b, m2-s/m3
Barley 2.14 x 104 13.2
Corn, ear 1.04 x 104 325.0
Corn, Shelled 2.07 x 104 30.4
Popcorn, white 2.19 x 104 11.8
Rice, rough 2.57 x 104 13.2
Rice, long milled 2.18 x 104 8.34
Wheat 2.70 x 104 8.77

2
⎛ Q ⎞
ΔPfloor = 1.0723⎜ a ⎟ (Henderson) Qa = airflow per sq. meter of floor area, m3/s-m2
⎜ εO ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
ε = porosity of material
Of = percentage of floor openings

Drying time = (moisture load) / (moisture picked-up by air)

= (heat needed to evaporate water) / (heat needed to heat ambient air)
Burner efficiency = (heat needed to heat air) / (heat released by fuel)

Drying Capacity = initial weight of testing material (kg) / Actual drying time

Moisture reduction per hour

= [initial weight of test material (kg) – final weight of test material (kg)] / actual drying time (hr)

Heating System Efficiency (HSE) = [Heat supplied to the dryer / Heat available in the fuel] x 100

Heat Supplied to the dryer = [(h2 – h1) x air flow rate (m3/min) / s. volume of air (m3/kg)] x 100

Heat utilization (kJ/kg) = [(heat supplied (kJ/hr) x drying time (hrs)] / amount of moisture removed (kg)] x 100

Drying efficiency (%) = [total heat utilized / heat supplied to the burner] x 100

Combustion Efficiency (%)

= [heat released by the fuel (kJ/hr) / (Amount of fuel (kg/hr) x heating value of fuel (kJ/kg)] x 100

Drying system efficiency (%) = [total heat utilized (kJ/hr) / Amount of fuel (kg/hr) x heating value of fuel (kJ/kg)] x 100

Types of Dryers
• According to System of Operation
Batch type – mechanical dryer where in grain in fixed volume is held in the drying chamber in batches until the grain
reaches the desired moisture content
Flat bed type – shallow bed batch type dryer wherein a fixed volume of grain is held stationary in a horizontal grain holding
bin
Recirculating type – batch type dryer equipped to circulate and/or mixed fixed volume of grain during the drying operation
Vertical Bin type – batch type dryer wherein a fixed volume of grain is held stationary in a vertical grain holding bin
Continuous flow dryer – dryer in which the material being dried moves through the drying chamber in a substantially
continuous stream and is discharged without being recirculated
Concurrent flow type – (parallel flow type) continuous flow dryer wherein the product being dried moves in the same
direction as drying air
Counter-flow type – continuous flow dryer wherein the grain being dried moved in one direction and the drying air moves in
the opposite direction
Cross flow type – continuous flow dryer wherein the flow of air is transverse to the direction of flow of the grain being dried
Mixing type – continuous flow dryer wherein the drying bin is similar to columnar drying bin except that it includes louvers
causing mixing to occur as the grain flow through the system
Non-mixing type – continuous flow dryer wherein the grains in the drying bin flows through the column in a straight path

• According to Heating System

Direct fired – dryer in which the products of combustion come into direct contact with the product being dried
Indirect fired – dryer in which the products of combustion do not come in contact with the products being dried

• According to the Fuel Source

a. Conventional
b. Non-conventional

Conveying, Size Reduction, and Storage

Materials Handling

Common devices Used in Handling/Conveyance of Materials in Agricultural Establishments

1. Belt conveyors
2. chain conveyors
3. screw conveyors
4. bucket elevators
5. pneumatic conveyors
6. gravity conveyors
7. cranes
8. lift and carrying trucks and carts

Chain Conveyors
Mass of grains, M = 0.001bdLD , tons
where: b = breadth of trough, m
d = depth of grain in trough
L = length of conveyor between sprocket centers, m
D = bulk density of grain, kg/m3
Capacity, C = 3.6bdDV , ton/hr where: V = velocity of conveyor
• If angled 200 w/ horizontal, multiply 0.77
• If angled 300 w/ horizontal, multiply 0.55
Tension in chains, T = 9.81L[(2.05M c Fc ) + ( M g Fg )] , Newton
Where: Mc = mass of chain & attachments/unit length, kg/m
Fc = friction coefficient of chain on trough
Mg = mass of grain per unit length of trough
Fg = friction coefficient of grain on trough

Sliding Friction Coefficients

Material F
Metal on oak 0.50 - 0.60
Oak on oak, parallel fibers 0.48
Oak on oak, cross fibers 0.32
Cast iron on mild steel 0.23
Mild steel on mild steel 0.57
Grain on rough board 0.30 - 0.45
Grain on soft board 0.30 – 0.35
Grain on iron 0.35 – 0.40
Malleable roller chain on steel 0.35
Roller-bushed chains on steel 0.20

Effective tension, Te = 3T
TeV
Power requirement, P = , kW
1000

Belt Conveyors
Capacity, C = 3.6ADV, tons/hr where: A = cross-sectional area of load on belt, m2
D = bulk density of commodity carried, kg/m3
V = belt speed, m/s

Te = 9.8[ LeF (Wc + W g ) + W g h] where: Le = effective length of conveyor, m

F = friction factor of conveyor (0.03 average)
Wc = weight of moving parts of conveyor, kg/m
Wg = weight of grain load, kg/m
H = vertical lift, m
TeV
P=
1000

Bucket elevators:

V = DN (w/ conversion factors) where: V = velocity of belt/chain

D = diameter of pulley
N = rotational speed of pulley
Capacity, C = 3.6D B n V where: D = bulk density of commodity carried, kg/m3
B = capacity of one bucket, m3
n = number of buckets per meter of belt
V = velocity
Power, P = CH where: H = height (elevation)

Screw Conveyors
Capacity, C = ( D 2 − d 2 ) PN where: D = screw diameter
d = shaft diameter
P = screw pitch (normally equal to D)
N = angular velocity of shaft
Power, P = C L W F where: L = conveyor length
W = bulk material density
F = material factor
Storage of Bagged Grains
- Interior layout shall be designed in accordance with the First-in First-out method of holding inventory
- Stack height must not exceed the height of the walls or must have an allowance of 1 m from the top of the stacks to the
roof frames
- Maximum stacking height for polyethylene bagged grains – 3 meters
 Optimum Recommended Stack Heights
Wheat, Barley & Maize 18 4.57
Paddy 16 4.27
Rice 16 4.27
- Dimensions of Maximum piling = 7.3 m x 21.9 m x 4.5 m
- Pathways : 3 - 3.65 m (1m wider than the widest vehicle to be used in the warehouse if two vehicles are to be used
simultaneously, 0.6 m wider if only one forklift/vehicle is to be used)
- Spaces between piles: 0.6 m
- Spaces between pile and wall: 0.5 m
- Ceiling height: 6 m distance from the floor to the beam
- Size of pallets: 152 cm x 61 cm

Grain Reduction
Milling – trade term used relative to the reduction of grains into meal or flour
- an over-all process which includes size reduction, hulling, scarifying, polishing, sorting, mixing, and in some instances,
chemical reactions
Classes of reduced materials
a. Dimension range – minimum measurement: 1/8 inch or more
b. Sieve range – minimum dimension range: 0.125 – 0.0029 in
c. Microscopic range – minimum dimension range: 0.0029 below

Fineness modulus – indicates the uniformity of grind

Daverage = 0.0041(2) FM

Size Reduction Devices

Hammer mills – consist of a rotating beater (hammer) and a perforated screen
Attrition mills – burr mills, consist of two roughened plates in which one is stationary and the other is rotating
Crushers, roller mills – reduce the material by pressing or squeezing it until the material breaks
Postharvest Principles of Dry Corn Milling Process

Harvested Uncleaned
grains Corn Large Impurities

Drying Small Impurities

Cleaned Corn

Pre-cleaning
Milling /
Processing Plant
Hulling

Main Product By - Product

Husk Aspiration

Paddy separation
Grit 10 Grit 12 Grit 20 Bran
30% 3% 2% 12%
Whitening & polishing
Grit 12 Grit 12 Grit 24 Germs
12% 7% 2% 5%

Grit 12 Floured
8% Corn 8%

Stages/Steps in Slaughtering

Lairage

Holding

Stunning & Bleeding

Stripping & Skinning

Dressing

Hanging & Cooling