Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health

through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private,
communities and individuals" (1920, C.E.A. Winslow)[1]. It is concerned with threats to the
overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question
can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for
instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health is typically divided into epidemiology,
biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health are
other important subfields.
The focus of public health intervention is to prevent rather than treat a disease through
surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors. In addition to these activities, in
many cases treating a disease may be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak
of an infectious disease. Hand washing, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are
examples of public health measures.
The goal of public health is to improve lives through the prevention and treatment of disease.
The United Nations' World Health Organization defines health as "a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."[2]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Objectives
• 2 History of public health
○ 2.1 Early public health interventions
○ 2.2 Modern public health
• 3 Schools of public health
• 4 Education and training
• 5 Public health programs
• 6 Applications in healthcare
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References
• 10 External links

[edit] Objectives
The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent rather than treat a disease through
surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors. In addition to these activities, in
many cases treating a disease can be vital to preventing its spread to others, such as during an
outbreak of infectious disease or contamination of food or water supplies. Vaccination programs
and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures.
Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as
ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. In the United States, the front line of
public health initiatives are state and local health departments. The United States Public Health
Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are involved with several international health
activities, in addition to their national duties.
There is a vast discrepancy in access to health care and public health initiatives between
developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures
are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to
provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of
disease and mortality in the developing world results from and contributes to extreme poverty.
For example, many African governments spend less than USD$10 per person per year on health
care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately USD$4,500 per
capita in 2000.
Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. For example, research has
shown that the simple act of hand washing can prevent many contagious diseases.[3]
Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world
and in developed countries, through local health systems and through international non-
governmental organizations.
The two major postgraduate professional degrees related to this field are the Master of Public
Health (MPH) or MSc in Public Health or allied fields. Doctoral studies in this field include
Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) and PhD in a subspeciality of greater Public Health disciplines.
DrPH is regarded as a leadership degree and PhD is more an academic degree.
[edit] History of public health
In some ways, public health is a modern concept, although it has roots in antiquity. From the
beginnings of human civilization, it was recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste
disposal spread communicable diseases (theory of miasma). Early religions attempted to regulate
behavior that specifically related to health, from types of food eaten, to regulating certain
indulgent behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relations. The establishment of
governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in
order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease and thus ensure social stability
prosperity, and maintain order.
The term "healthy city" used by today's public health advocates reflects this ongoing challenge to
collective physical well-being that results from crowded conditions and urbanization.
[edit] Early public health interventions

Public health nursing made available through child welfare services in U.S. (c. 1930s)
By Roman times, it was well understood that proper diversion of human waste was a necessary
tenet of public health in urban areas. The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following
a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. An individual without the disease could gain some
measure of immunity against it by inhaling the dried crusts that formed around lesions of
infected individuals. Also, children were protected by inoculating a scratch on their forearms
with the pus from a lesion. This practice was not documented in the West until the early-18th
century, and was used on a very limited basis. The practice of vaccination did not become
prevalent until the 1820s, following the work of Edward Jenner to treat smallpox.
During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, it was believed that removing bodies of the dead
would further prevent the spread of the bacterial infection. This did little to stem the plague,
however, which was most likely spread by rodent-borne fleas. Burning parts of cities resulted in
much greater benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in
the medieval period helped mitigate the effects of other infectious diseases. However, according
to Michel Foucault, the plague model of governmentality was later controverted by the cholera
model. A Cholera pandemic devastated Europe between 1829 and 1851, and was first fought by
the use of what Foucault called "social medicine", which focused on flux, circulation of air,
location of cemeteries, etc. All those concerns, born of the miasma theory of disease, were mixed
with urbanistic concerns for the management of populations, which Foucault designated as the
concept of "biopower". The German conceptualized this in the Polizeiwissenschaft ("Science of
police").
The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snow's identification of a polluted public
water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the germ
theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. Although miasma theory correctly
teaches that disease is a result of poor sanitation, it was based upon the prevailing theory of
spontaneous generation. Germ theory developed slowly: despite Anton van Leeuwenhoek's
observations of Microorganisms, (which are now known to cause many of the most common
infectious diseases) in the year 1680, the modern era of public health did not begin until the
1880s, with Louis Pasteur's germ theory and production of artificial vaccines.
Other public health interventions include latrinization, the building of sewers, the regular
collection of garbage followed by incineration or disposal in a landfill, providing clean water and
draining standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitos. This contribution was made by
Edwin Chadwick in 1843 who published a report on the sanitation of the working class
population in Great Britain at the time. So began the inception of the modern public health. The
industrial revolution had initially caused the spread of disease through large conurbations around
workhouses and factories. These settlements were cramped and primitive and there was no
organised sanitation. Disease was innevitable and its incubation in these areas was encouraged
by the poor lifestyle of the inhabitants....
[edit] Modern public health
As the prevalence of infectious diseases in the developed world decreased through the 20th
century, public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart
disease. An emphasis on physical exercise was reintroduced.[citation needed]
In America, public health worker Dr. Sara Josephine Baker lowered the infant mortality rate
using preventative methods. She established many programs to help the poor in New York City
keep their infants healthy. Dr. Baker led teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of
Hell's Kitchen and taught mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. After World War I
many states and countries followed her example in order to lower infant mortality rates.[citation
needed]

During the 20th century, the dramatic increase in average life span is widely credited to public
health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective
safety policies such as motor-vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning,
chlorination of drinking water, smoke-free measures, and programs designed to decrease chronic
disease.
Meanwhile, the developing world remained plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases,
exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. Front-page headlines continue to present society with
public health issues on a daily basis: emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, making its way
from China (see Public health in China) to Canada and the United States; prescription drug
benefits under public programs such as Medicare; the increase of HIV-AIDS among young
heterosexual women and its spread in South Africa; the increase of childhood obesity and the
concomitant increase in type II diabetes among children; the impact of adolescent pregnancy;
and the ongoing social, economic and health disasters related to the 2004 Tsunami and Hurricane
Katrina in 2005.[citation needed] These are all ongoing public health challenges.
Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health
from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty,
and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health
across a population, rather than advocating for individual behaviour change. There is a
recognition that our health is affected by many factors including where we live, genetics, our
income, our educational status and our social relationships - these are known as "social
determinants of health." A social gradient in health runs through society, with those that are
poorest generally suffering the worst health. However even those in the middle classes will
generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social stratum.[4] The new public
health seeks to address these health inequalities by advocating for population-based policies that
improve health in an equitable manner.
[edit] Schools of public health
In the United States, the Welch-Rose Report of 1915 has been viewed as the basis for the critical
movement in the history of the institutional schism between public health and medicine because
it led to the establishment of schools of public health supported by the Rockefeller Foundation.[5]
[6]
The report was authored by William Welch, founding dean of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg
School of Public Health, and Wycliffe Rose of the Rockfeller Foundation. The report focused
more on research than practical education.[5][7] Some have blamed the Rockfeller Foundation's
1916 decision to support the establishment of schools of public health for creating the schism
between public health and medicine and legitimizing the rift between medicine's laboratory
investigation of the mechanisms of disease and public health's nonclinical concern with
environmental and social influences on health and wellness.[5][8]
Even though schools of public health had already been established in Europe and North Africa,
the US had still maintained the traditional system of housing faculties of public health within
their medical institutions. However, a year following the Welch-Rose report, the Johns Hopkins
School of Hygiene and Public Health was founded in 1916. By 1922, schools of public health
were established in Columbia, Harvard and Yale universities. By 1999 there were twenty nine
schools of public health in the US, enrolling around fifteen thousand students.[5][9]
Over the years, the types of students and training provided have also changed. In the beginning,
students who enrolled in public health schools had already obtained a medical degree. However,
in 1978, 69% of students enrolled in public health schools had only a bachelors degree. Public
health school training had evolved from a second degree for medical professionals to a primary
public health degree with a focus on the six core disciplines of biostatistics, epidemiology, health
services administration, health education, behavioral science and environmental health.[5][9]
[edit] Education and trainingc
Schools of public health offer a variety of degrees which generally fall into two categories:
professional or academic.[10]
Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings. The Master of Public
Health (M.P.H.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.PH.), Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.) and the
Master of Health Care Administration (M.H.A.) are examples of degrees which are geared
towards people who want careers as practitioners of public health in health departments,
managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms among others.
Master of Public Health (M.P.H.) degrees broadly fall into two categories, those that put more
emphasis on an understanding of epidemiology and statistics as the scientific basis of public
health practice and those that include a more eclectic range of methodologies. A Master of
Science of Public Health (M.S.P.H.) is similar to an M.P.H. but is considered an academic
degree (as opposed to a professional degree) and places more emphasis on quantitative methods
and research. The same distinction can be made between the Dr.PH. and the D.H.Sc. The Dr.PH
is considered a professional degree and the D.H.Sc. is an academic degree.
Academic degrees are more oriented towards those with interests in the scientific basis of public
health and preventive medicine who wish to pursue careers in research, university teaching in
graduate programs, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health
positions. Examples of academic degrees are the Master of Science (M.S.), Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.), Doctor of Science (Sc.D.), and Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.). The doctoral
programs are distinct from the M.P.H. and other professional programs by the addition of
advanced coursework and the nature and scope of a dissertation research project.
The Association of Schools of Public Health[11] represents Council on Education for Public
Health (CEPH) accredited schools of public health.[12]
Delta Omega is the honorary society for graduate studies in public health. The society was
founded in 1924 at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. Currently, there are
approximately 68 chapters throughout the United States and Puerto Rico.[13]
[edit] Public health programd
This 1963 poster featured CDC's national symbol of public health, the "Wellbee", encouraging
the public to receive an oral polio vaccine.
Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the
incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging, although public health generally
receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. In recent years, public
health programs providing vaccinations have made incredible strides in promoting health,
including the eradication of smallpox, a disease that plagued humanity for thousands of years.
An important public health issue facing the world currently is HIV/AIDS.[14] Antibiotic resistance
is another major concern, leading to the reemergence of diseases such as Tuberculosis.
Another major public health concern is diabetes.[15] In 2006, according to the World Health
Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes. Its incidence is
increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, this number will double. However,
in a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet, the authors opined that "The fact that
type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public
health humiliation."[16] (Type 1 diabetes mellitus is not preventable, however.)
A controversial aspect of public health is the control of smoking.[17] Non-communicable diseases
caused by smoking have been threatening public health because it requires a long term strategy
for improving unlike the communicable diseases which take a shorter period to be improved. The
reason for this is because communicable diseases have been at the top as a global health priority
while non communicable diseases have been at the bottom as a global health priority.
Simultaneously, global health policy making is increasingly aligned with industrial and trade
policies, and is being done hand in hand with business, thus weakening the firewalls necessary
for effective regulation and normative actions both at national and global levels.[18] Many nations
have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on
smoking in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is
one of the major killers in all developed countries, and that therefore governments have a duty to
reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing
fewer opportunities for smokers to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual
freedom and personal responsibility (often using the phrase nanny state in the UK), and worry
that the state may be emboldened to remove mo re and more choice in the name of better
population health overall. However, proponents counter that inflicting disease on other people
via passive smoking is not a human right, and in fact smokers are still free to smoke in their own
homes.
There is also a link between public health and veterinary public health which deals with zoonotic
diseases, diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. (See also Vector control).
Obesity is a growing problem that public health is facing. WHO’s latest projections indicate that
globally in 2008 approximately 1.5 billion adults (age 20+) were overweight and of these, more
than 200 million men and nearly 300 million women were obese. WHO further projects that by
2015, approximately 2.3 billion adults will be overweight and more than 700 million will be
obese. Nearly 43 million children under the age of 5 years were overweight globally in 2010.
The U.S. is the leading country with 30.6% of its population being obese. Mexico follows behind
with 24.2% and the United Kingdom with 23%. The weighted average percentage among 30
countries is 14.1%. Obesity is responsible for 325,000 deaths every year. It was considered a
problem in high-income countries, but now it is on the rise in low-income countries, especially in
urban settings. There are many Public Health programs dedicated to this issue of obesity. Many
of these program's objectives is to promote a hea;lthy diet, nutrition, and physical activity.

Environmental health
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the
natural and built environment that may affect human health. Other terms that concern or refer to
the discipline of environmental health include environmental public health and environmental
health and protection.
Environmental health is defined by the World Health Organization as:
Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment.
It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment
that can potentially affect health.
Environmental health as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, includes both the direct
pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often
indirect) on health and wellbeing of the broad physical, psychological, social and aesthetic
environment which includes housing, urban development, land use and transport.[1]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Services
• 2 Concerns
• 3 Information
• 4 Mapping
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

[edit] Services
Environmental health services are defined by the World Health Organization as:
those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control
activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental
parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and
behaviours. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas.
Environmental health practitioners may be known as sanitarians, public health inspectors,
environmental health specialists or environmental health officers. In many European countries
physicians and veterinarians are involved in environmental health. Many states in the United
States require that individuals have professional licenses in order to practice environmental
health. California state law defines the scope of practice of environmental health as follows:
"Scope of practice in environmental health" means the practice of environmental health by
registered environmental health specialists in the public and private sector within the meaning of
this article and includes, but is not limited to, organization, management, education,
enforcement, consultation, and emergency response for the purpose of prevention of
environmental health hazards and the promotion and protection of the public health and the
environment in the following areas: food protection; housing; institutional environmental health;
land use; community noise control; recreational swimming areas and waters; electromagnetic
radiation control; solid, liquid, and hazardous materials management; underground storage tank
control; on-site septic systems; vector control; drinking water quality; water sanitation;
emergency preparedness; and milk and dairy sanitation.[2]
The environmental health profession had its modern-day roots in the sanitary and public health
movement of the United Kingdom. This was epitomized by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was
instrumental in the repeal of the poor laws and was the founding president of the Association of
Public Sanitary Inspectors in 1884, which today is the Chartered Institute of Environmental
Health.
Environmental medicine may be seen as the medical branch of the broader field of
environmental health. Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they
are used interchangeably.
[edit] Concerns
Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects of both the natural environment
and the built environment. Environmental health concerns include:
• Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor air quality, which
also comprises concerns about environmental tobacco smoke.
• Body art safety, including tattooing, body piercing and permanent cosmetics.
• Climate change and its effects on health.
• Disaster preparedness and response.
• Food safety, including in agriculture, transportation, food processing,
wholesale and retail distribution and sale.
• Hazardous materials management, including hazardous waste management,
contaminated site remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground
storage tanks and the prevention of hazardous materials releases to the
environment and responses to emergency situations resulting from such
releases.
• Housing, including substandard housing abatement and the inspection of jails
and prisons.
• Childhood lead poisoning prevention.
• Land use planning, including smart growth.
• Liquid waste disposal, including city wastewater treatment plants and on-site
waste water disposal systems, such as septic tank systems and chemical
toilets.
• Medical waste management and disposal.
• Noise pollution control.
• Occupational health and industrial hygiene.
• Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiation from X-rays or
radioactive isotopes.
• Recreational water illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas
and ocean and freshwater bathing places.
• Safe drinking water.
• Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting
and solid waste transfer stations.
• Toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces,
air, water or soil.
• Vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies,
cockroaches and other animals that may transmit pathogens.
According to recent estimates about 5 to 10 % of disease adjusted life years (DALY) lost are due
to environmental causes. By far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in
urban aihr.[3]
[edit] Information
The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[4] at the United States
National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental
health web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government
agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials,
and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the
Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[5] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental
health databases that are available free of charge on the web.
[edit] Mapping
There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information
System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services[6] of the United States
National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually
explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release
Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US
Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from
NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[7] and PubMed, and from other authoritative
sources.
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that
cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural
environment or built environment, into the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a
threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution
problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Pollutants
• 2 Sources
○ 2.1 Emission factors
• 3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)
• 4 Health effects
○ 4.1 Effects on cystic fibrosis
○ 4.2 Effects on COPD
○ 4.3 Effects on children
○ 4.4 Health effects in relatively "clean" areas
 • 5 Reduction efforts
○ 5.1 Control devices
• 6 Legal regulations
• 7 Cities
• 8 Carbon dioxide emissions
• 9 Atmospheric dispersion
• 10 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants
• 11 See also
• 12 References
• 13 External links

[edit] Pollutants
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone
concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the
environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In
addition, they may be natural or man-made.[2]
Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are directly
emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a
motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not
emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An
important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone — one of the many secondary
pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Some pollutants may be both primary and
secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the
Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
• Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula
SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and
petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4,
and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact
of the use of these fuels as power sources.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature
combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several
nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2
is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide - is a colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a
product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular
exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a colorless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas associated with
ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and
respiration
• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field
they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to
enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse
gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the
atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the
NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected
carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is
another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.
• Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or
fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol
refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or
natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest
and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also
generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic
aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the
total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are
linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer.
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary
disease.[4][5]
• Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently
banned from use.
• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
• Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
• Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
• Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau
of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area
caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come
from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere
by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the
primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night.
At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the
combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA
under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have
been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential
significant impacts on human health and the environment.
[edit] Sources
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible
for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major
categories which are:
Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel
• "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices
• "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound
etc.
 • Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management,
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both
forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled
burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the
forest.
• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it
is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an
asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may
result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement
• Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry
Natural sources
• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is
considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most
frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on
warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically,
NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds—to produce a seasonal haze of
secondary pollutants.[6]
• Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.
[edit] Emission factors
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that people attempt to relate the quantity
of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that
pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight,
volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate
emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from
various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available
data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant
emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[7] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada
and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European
Environment Agency.[8][9][10][11][12]
[edit] Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Main article: Indoor air quality
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of
their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and
trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and pl]ywood emit formaldehyde
(H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead
paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use
of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces
can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[13] Indoor pollution
fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper
ventilation.
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys,
or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from
poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas,
hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning
fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in
industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in
many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of
the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing
materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an
increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several
forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)[dead link], these
may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer,
when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).
Biologicalm sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates.
Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust
mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal
droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores,
air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and
surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation
allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.
[edit] Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly
attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[14]
"Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from
cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[15] A study by the
University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and
air pollution from motor vehicles.[16] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution
than to automobile accidents.[citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die
from air pollution annually.[citation needed] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema,
lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.[citation needed] The US EPA estimates that a
proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer
premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by
children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the
United States.[citation needed]
The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[17] Leaked
industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A.,
killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The
United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952
formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following
months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in
the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of
civilian deaths.[citation needed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States
of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and
over 7,000 were injured.[18]
The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing,
coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result
in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital
admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching,
but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual
reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of
exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed]
A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los
Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people
die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution
levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher
than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per
year.[19]
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution.
In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has
been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[20][21] This serves as
a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate
matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
[edit] Effects on cystic fibrosis
Main article: Cystic fibrosis
A study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that
patients near and around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary
exacerbations and decrease in lung function.[22] Patients were examined before the study for
amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as
well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the
United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency.[clarification needed] During the
time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived
in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had
higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As
cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as
smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices
could further compromise lung function.[23]
[edit] Effects on COPD
Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis,
emphysema, and some forms of asthma.[24]
A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London
residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low
reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40
to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more
severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function
(FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences
were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking
habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[25]
It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health
hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus
hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.[26]
[edit] Effects on children
Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children
living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well
as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in
cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate
the “pea-soup” smog.[27] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest
concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and
high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia,
and Indonesia. In the United States, the Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at
least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the
concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.[28] Those pollutants are known
as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute
ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.
[edit] Health effects in relatively "clean" areas
Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant
and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people
breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association
showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone
concentrations) would produce a $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in
2010.[29] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) effects.
[edit] Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to
reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and
transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important
part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy
and population as well as to protect the environment.
Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing
countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as
cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn
trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of
hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to
electric vehicles).
[edit] Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or
transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust
stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
• Particulate control
○ Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
○ Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas
(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow
of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as
dust and smoke from the air stream.
○ Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a
blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal
system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove
the dust).
•
○ Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The
term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or
from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into
contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it
through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the
pollutants.
• Scrubbers
○ Baffle spray scrubber
○ Cyclonic spray scrubber
○ Ejector venturi scrubber
○ Mechanically aided scrubber
○ Spray tower
○ Wet scrubber
• NOx control
○ Low NOx burners
○ Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
○ Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
○ NOx scrubbers
○ Exhaust gas recirculation
 ○ Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
• VOC abatement
○ Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon
○ Flares
○ Thermal oxidizers
○ Catalytic converters
○ Biofilters
○ Absorption (scrubbing)
○ Cryogenic condensers
○ Vapor recovery systems
• Acid Gas/SO2 control
○ Wet scrubbers
○ Dry scrubbers
○ Flue gas desulfurization
• Mercury control
○ Sorbent Injection Technology
○ Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
○ K-Fuel
• Dioxin and furan control
• Miscellaneous associated equipment
○ Source capturing systems
○ Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

[edit] Legal regulations

Smog in Cairo
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the
U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for
specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in
attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality
Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the
public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between
different pollutants.
[edit] Cities
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in
developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent.
However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution.
[edit] Carbon dioxide emissions
Most Polluted World Cities by PM[30]
Particulate
matter, City
μg/m³ (2004)
169 Cairo, Egypt
150 Delhi, India
128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)
125 Tianjin, China
123 Chongqing, China
109 Kanpur, India
109 Lucknow, India
104 Jakarta, Indonesia
101 Shenyang, China
Total CO2 emissions
Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
Countries with the highest CO2 emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions per
Country Percentage of global total
year (106 Tons) (2006)
China
6,103 21.5%

United States
5,752 20.2%
Russia
1,564 5.5%

India
1,510 5.3%

Japan
1293 4.6%

Germany
805 2.8%
United Kingdom
568 2.0%
Canada
544 1.9%
South Korea
475 1.7%

Italy
474 1.7%
Per capita CO2 emissions[31]
Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions per year
Country
(Tons per person) (2006)
Qatar
56.2
United Arab Emirates
32.8
Kuwait
31.2
Bahrain
28.8
Trinidad and Tobago
25.3
Luxembourg
24.5
Netherlands Antilles
22.8

Aruba
22.3

United States
19
Australia
18.1

[edit] Atmospheric dispersion

Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling
The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical
models for predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal
methodologies are:
• Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources.
• Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling
• Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms
• Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric
dispersion models
The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has
been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian
dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with
consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of
atmospheric turbulence).[32][33] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with
experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.
The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in
response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of
Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of
proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were
active in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and
Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in Sunnyvale,
California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research
of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental
Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This
program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the
earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington,
Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East
Brunswick, New Jersey.
Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but
addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as
widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early
as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s,
but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation
in Los Angeles, California.
[edit] Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants
Main articles: Ocean acidification and Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the
upper atmosphere causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower
tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide from combustion of fossil fuels is the major problem.
Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons,
chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.
This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological
advancements during this period have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to
the phenomenon. Currently, scientists are studying the role of changes in composition of
greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for the effect on climate change.
A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible
effects of this on marine ecosystems.
[edit] See also
• Acid rain
• Air Hygiene Foundation
 • Air pollutant concentrations
• Air Quality Index
• Air stagnation
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
• ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
• Asian brown cloud
• Atmospheric chemistry
• Atmospheric dispersion modeling
• Beehive burner
• Best Available Control Technology
• Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
• Building biology
• List of atmospheric dispersion models
• Critical load
• Emission standard
• Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID)
• Environmental agreement
Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a combination of ailments (a syndrome) associated with an
individual's place of work (office building) or residence. A 1984 World Health Organization
report into the syndrome suggested up to 30% of new and remodeled buildings worldwide may
be linked to symptoms of SBS. Most of the sick building syndrome is related to poor indoor air
quality.[1]
Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to flaws in the heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems. Other causes have been attributed to contaminants produced by
outgassing of some types of building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), molds (see
mold health issues), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone (byproduct of some office
machinery), light industrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate fresh-air intake/air
filtration (see Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value).
Symptoms are often dealt with after-the-fact by boosting the overall turn-over rate of fresh air
exchange with the outside air, but the new green building design goal should be to avoid most of
the SBS problem sources in the first place, minimize the ongoing use of VOC cleaning
compounds, and eliminate conditions that encourage allergenic, potentially-deadly mold growth.
[2]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Symptoms
• 2 Causes
 ○ 2.1 Buildup of potentially hazardous gases
○ 2.2 Moisture buildup and mold growth
• 3 Prevention
• 4 Gender differences
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading

[edit] Symptoms
Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sensory irritation of the eyes, nose, throat;
neurotoxic or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecific hypersensitivity reactions; and
odor and taste sensations.[3]
Several sick occupants may report individual symptoms which do not appear to be connected.
The key to discovery is the increased incidence of illnesses in general with onset or exacerbation
within a fairly close time frame - usually within a period of weeks. In most cases, SBS symptoms
will be relieved soon after the occupants leave the particular room or zone.[4] However, there can
be lingering effects of various neurotoxins, which may not clear up when the occupant leaves the
building. Particularly in sensitive individuals there can be long-term health effects.
[edit] Causes
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims
made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be
removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (August 2009)
The contributing factors often relate to the design of the built environment, and may include
combinations of some or all of the following:
[edit] Buildup of potentially hazardous gases
Carbon Dioxide, as well as carbon monoxide, combined with a relative lack of oxygen, may be a
major cause of SBS.[5]
[edit] Moisture buildup and mold growth
Buildings often contain a large number of hidden internal cavities which are formed from
skeletal construction methods. These cavities commonly exist inside walls and ceilings
constructed using joists and trusses, and may also include attic, crawlspace, and drop-ceiling
spaces. Such locations may have very low direct ventilation, but air does infiltrate in and out of
these spaces as ambient atmospheric pressure changes occur.
Older building construction from before the development of insulation, moisture barriers, and
composite materials tended to be drafty, cold, and wasteful of heating, but they also suffered few
moisture problems. For example, before plywood was commonly used for floor construction,
home floors were typically constructed with two layers of narrow boards laid at 90 degree angles
from each other, and 45 degrees from the general lay of the floor joists. These boards had
typically had rough gaps between them, which allowed air to seep freely in and out of wall and
ceiling joist air spaces. Modern plywood floor construction is nearly impermeable by
comparison, and allows no airflow into the joist spaces.
Moisture can be trapped and hidden within these cavities where it builds to 70% and 95%
moisture saturation by weight. Moisture buildup can occur for example inside the wall cavities
surrounding a high-humidity kitchen, bathroom, or bathing area that is poorly ventilated. There
are few if any, mechanisms that operate to dry out these internal wall cavities once they become
saturated with moisture. Ventilation of joist spaces is typically not considered important, though
it could be accomplished during construction by drilling large vent holes inside each wall cavity,
through the floor and ceiling plywood sheeting.
If such airflows are of hot, humid air, this moist, warm air may reach a dewpoint surface,
especially if indoor temperatures are maintained much below about 78 °F (26 °C). At this degree
of moisture saturation, in this dark, undisturbed wall cavity space, most all molds, including
stachy, thrive. Molds and bacteria rarely coexist. Molds produce generally toxic substances that
create unwelcome, unhealthy environments for bacteria and insects, as well as human beings.
The toxic substances generated by mold growth may become aerosolized, released and
distributed to a much greater range by these unintentional airflows through the building's matrix
until they may be inducted into the air conditioning and heating distribution systems and
ultimately discharged into the breathing zone. These unintentional airflows create the toxicity
and obscure the true source of toxicity and earthy odors as they distribute it.
Mechanical ventilation in a hot, humid climate may deliver water vapor into a building at the rate
of approximately one pound of water per day for each cubic foot per minute per day of
unconditioned outdoor ventilation air delivered.
Radon mitigation by mechanical ventilation in hot humid climates, (Florida) is known to create
gradual increases in moisture saturation that suddenly lead to mold problems when moisture
saturation of a favored mold food material reaches 70% by weight. This increasing moisture
saturation process may take a few months or as long as four or more years.
The uninformed or poorly informed assume that the air conditioner will successfully remove
such moisture, and it may if it is operating efficiently. Many air conditioners do not, and almost
all of them decline in their ability to dehumidify efficiently over time. Residual moisture remains
and soaks into materials as if they were sponges, on a march toward full saturation. In hot, humid
climates, the worst months for mold are October, November, December and early spring...when
air conditioners rarely operate and moisture saturation increases most rapidly.
Identification and termination of these unintentional building matrix airflows has rarely been
recognized and acted upon, hence heroic efforts to heal the sick building have been largely
unsuccessful. Out of a sense of frustration with enormously expensive and ineffective healing
approaches, total building destruction is sometimes selected as a way out.
With proper application of currently available instrumentation, identification of unintentional
building matrix airflows is relatively easy, quick and inexpensive for a knowledgeable,
experienced, building science practitioner. Pressure and micropressure management can result in
immediate odor and toxics distribution system termination. With application of correct
technology, and often without installation of any additional equipment, relying only on what is
already there, within hours of completion a sick building can begin a gradual drying out process
to heal itself completely.
As Joe Lstiburek has said, the approach of building disassembly and rebuild or destruction on
one hand (expensive) or micropressure management on the other (much less expensive) is
decided by who is paying. Micropressure management correctly applied has the potential to
eliminate the true cause of the sick building.
The other approach rarely addresses the cause and treats the symptoms only.
• Indoor air quality (including smoking where not prohibited)
• Toxic mold
• Artificial fragrance, such as dryer sheets
• Poor or inappropriate lighting (including absence of or only limited access to natural
sunlight)
• Poor heating or ventilation
• Microbial or mite contamination of HVAC systems.
• Bad acoustics or infrasound[6]
• Poorly designed furnishings, furniture and equipment (e.g. computer monitors,
photocopiers, etc.).
• Poor ergonomics.
• Chemical contamination.
• Biological contamination.
To the owner or operator of a "sick building", the symptoms may include high levels of
employee sickness or absenteeism, lower productivity, low job satisfaction and high employee
turnover. Clarification of the link between a sick building and employee health has and will
likely continue to result in increased worker's compensation and personal injury claims. Business
owners will likely find increasingly happy customers and a better bottom line with successful
healing of sick buildings.
[edit] Prevention
• Roof shingle cleaning non pressure removal of algae, mold & Gloeocapsa magma.
• Pollutant source removal or modification to storage of sources.
• Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting.
• Use paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well-ventilated areas, and use of these
pollutant sources during periods of non-occupancy.
• Increase the number of air exchanges, The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration &
Air Conditioning Engineers recommend a minimum of 8.4 air exchanges per 24 hour
period.
• Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems
• UV-C light in the HVAC plenum
• Regular vacuuming with a HEPA filter vacuum cleaner to collect and retain 99.97% of
particles down to and including 0.3 micrometres
[edit] Gender differences
There might be a gender difference in reporting rates of sick building syndrome because women
tend to report more symptoms than men. Along with this, there have been studies where they
found that women have a more responsive immune system and are more prone to mucosal
dryness and facial erythema. Also, women are alleged by some to be more exposed to indoor
environmental factors because they have a tendency to have more clerical work where they are
exposed to unique office equipment and materials (example: Blueprint machines), whereas men
have jobs based outside of offices.[7]
Florence Nightingale (1820–1910), considered the founder of educated and scientific nursing and
widely known as "The Lady with the Lamp"[1], wrote the first nursing notes that became the basis
of nursing practice and research. The notes, entitled Notes on Nursing: What it is, What is not
(1860), listed some of her theories that have served as foundations of nursing practice in various
settings, including the succeeding conceptual frameworks and theories in the field of nursing.[2]
Nightingale is considered the first nursing theorist. One of her theories was the Environmental
Theory, which incorporated the restoration of the usual health status of the nurse's clients into
the delivery of health care—it is still practiced today.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Environmental effects
• 2 Environmental factors affecting
health
• 3 Provision of care by environment
• 4 See also
• 5 References

[edit] Environmental effects

She stated in her nursing notes that nursing "is an act of utilizing the environment of the patient
to assist him in his recovery" (Nightingale 1860/1969),[3], that it involves the nurse's initiative to
configure environmental settings appropriate for the gradual restoration of the patient's health,
and that external factors associated with the patient's surroundings affect life or biologic and
physiologic processes, and his development.[4]
[edit] Environmental factors affecting health

Adequate ventilation has also been regarded as a factor contributing to changes of

the patient's process of illness recovery

Defined in her environmental theory are the following factors present in the patient's
environment:
• Pure or fresh air
• Pure water
• Sufficient food supplies
 • Efficient drainage
• Cleanliness
• Light (especially direct sunlight)[5]
Any deficiency in one or more of these factors could lead to impaired functioning of life
processes or diminished health status.[6]
[edit] Provision of care by environment
The factors posed great significance during Nightingale's time, when health institutions had poor
sanitation, and health workers had little education and training and were frequently incompetent
and unreliable in attending to the needs of the patients. Also emphasized in her environmental
theory is the provision of a quiet or noise-free and warm environment, attending to patient's
dietary needs by assessment, documentation of time of food intake, and evaluating its effects on
the patient.[7]
Nightingale's theory was shown to be applicable during the Crimean War when she, along with
other nurses she had trained, took care of injured soldiers by attending to their immediate needs,
when communicable diseases and rapid spread of infections were rampant in this early period in
the development of disease-capable medicines. The practice of environment configuration
according to patient's health or disease condition is still applied today, in such cases as patients
infected with Clostridium tetani (suffering from tetanus), who need minimal noise to calm them
and a quiet environment to prevent seizure-causing stimulus.
[edit] See also
Nursing
portal

• Crimean War Memorial

• Florence Nightingale
• Nursing
• Nursing process
• Nursing theory

[edit] References
1. ^ Florence Nightingale - Wikipedia
2. ^ Nursing Theory and Conceptual Framework, Fundamentals of Nursing:
Human Health and Function, Ruth F. Craven and Constance J. Hirnle, 2003,
pp.56
3. ^ The Nat/m,ure of Nursing, Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process and
Practice, Second Edition, Barbara Kozier, Glenora Erb, Audrey Berman,
Shirlee Snyder, 2004, p.38
4. ^ Fundamentals of Nursing: Human Health and Function, Ruth F. Craven and
Constance J. Hirnle, 2003, p. 58
5. ^ The Nature of Nursing, Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process and
Practice, Second Edition, Barbara Kozier, Glenora Erb, Audrey Berman,
Shirlee Snyder, 2004, p.38
 6. ^ The Nature of Nursing, Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process and
Practice, Second Edition, Barbara Kozier, Glenora Erb, Audrey Berman,
Shirlee Snyder, 2004, p.38
7. ^ The Nature of Nursing, Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process and
Practice, Second Edition, Barbara Kozier, Glenora Erb, Audrey Berman,
Shirlee Snyder, 2004, p.38
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Master of Science in Public Health
Programme Name: Master of Science in Public Health
Programme Code: PMRPUHEFTU1
PROGRAMME DESCRIPTION
The fundamental philosophy is for the graduate to be trained to function seamlessly at the
Community and Institutional levels especially in developing countries.
• The student will be trained to be creative and innovative in solving problems in
communities
• To apply modern information and communication technology and techniques in the
management of health problems
• To strive at all times to introduce best practices in public health interventions
• To adopt the tried and proven principles and methods of prevention in Public health
practice in Jamaica, the Caribbean and Developing countries.
 • To use scarce resources to maximum effect in achieving best outcomes
The MPH curriculum also includes 4 cross-cutting/Interdisciplinary modules namely:
• Programme Planning and Public Health Management
• Advanced Research Methods
• Information & Communication & Informatics for Public Health Professionals
• Professionalism & Leadership for Public Health.
The Practicum/Theses component will comprise 240 hours (6 weeks) of placement in a
discipline specific area followed by a placement-based presentation and report.
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
(a) Admission will be open to all UTECH graduates in the Nursing, Pharmacy, Dietetics and
Nutrition, Environmental Health, Child Care and Development, Medical Technology, and other
Health Sciences, and Allied Health programmes.
(b) Graduates of accredited degree programmes in medicine, nursing, dental,
environmental/occupational health, and other allied health professions from other tertiary
institutions.
(c) Admissions may be considered for all other degree level certifications from recognized
institutions in other fields. Candidates admitted among this group may be required to take some
identified additional modules to augment their Health Sciences background.
(d) Special consideration, after evaluation on a case by case basis, will be given to graduate
students from underserved communities with limited resources in the Caribbean.
Detailed Programme Structure
YEAR 1 (Semester 1)
Module Code Module Name Credits
PHE5001 Health Policy & Community Health Practice 3
Biostatistics 3
PHE5005 Environmental Health Sciences 3
PHE5006 Epidemiology 3
Applied Research Methods 3
PHE5007 Socio- Psychology for Public Health 3
TOTAL 18

(Semester 2)
Programme Planning & PH Mgmt 3
Health Education & Health Promotion 3
Diversity & Cultural influences in Public Health 3
* Professionalism & Leadership for P/Health 3
*Communication & Informatics for P/H Professionals 3
*Public Health Biology 3
**Discipline Specific module 3
TOTAL (5 modules only) 15

* Electives: students will be required to do only one module

** Specialization Modules; students will be required to do one discipline specific module.
 MODULE Credits
Research Project 4
Externship Placement 3
TOTAL 7
GRAND TOTAL 40
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