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 Dhanvantari, the Hindu god of Ayurveda
worshipped at an Ayurveda expo,
Bangalore.

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 v·d·e

Ayurveda (Sanskrit: आयु र्वे द; Āyurveda, "the complete knowledge for long life") or
ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to India[1] and practiced in
other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine.[2] In Sanskrit, the word
ayurveda consists of the words āyus, meaning "longevity", and veda, meaning "related
to knowledge" or "science".[1] Evolving throughout its history, ayurveda remains an
influential system of medicine in South Asia.[3] The earliest literature on Indian medical
practice appeared during the Vedic period in India.[2] The Suśruta Saṃhitā and the
Charaka Saṃhitā were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.[2] Over
the following centuries, ayurvedic practitioners developed a number of medicinal
preparations and surgical procedures for the treatment of various ailments .[4]

Western medicine has ayurveda classified as a system of complementary and alternative

medicine (CAM) that is used to complement, rather than replace, the treatment regimen
and relationship that exists between a patient and their existing physician.[5]

Contents
[hide]
 1 Overview
 2 Practices
o 2.1 Balance
o 2.2 Diagnosis
o 2.3 Hygiene
o 2.4 Treatments
o 2.5 Srotas
 3 History
 4 Current status
o 4.1 Within India
o 4.2 Outside India
o 4.3 In Sri Lanka
o 4.4 In the United States
o 4.5 Journals
o 4.6 Patents
o 4.7 Scientific evidence
o 4.8 Safety
 5 Notes
 6 References
 7 Further reading

 8 External links
[edit] Overview

The three doshas and the 5 great elements from which they are composed.

Traditional Indian ayurvedic spa.

Ayurveda is grounded in the physics of the "five elements" (Devanāgarī: [महा]

पञ्चभूत;Prithvi- (earth), Jala(water), Agni (fire), Vaayu (air) and Akasha (ether)) — all
of which compose the Universe, including the human body.[1] Chyle or plasma (called
rasa dhatu), blood (rakta dhatu), flesh (mamsa dhatu), fat (medha dhatu), bone (asthi
dhatu), marrow (majja dhatu), and semen or female reproductive tissue (shukra dhatu)
are held to be the seven primary constituent elements – saptadhatu (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु )
of the body.[6] Ayurveda deals elaborately with measures of healthful living during the
entire span of life and its various phases. Ayurveda stresses a balance of three elemental
energies or humors: vata (air & space – "wind"), pittha (fire & water – "bile") and kapha
(water & earth – "phlegm"). According to ayurveda, these three regulatory principles—
doshas (literally that which deteriorates – Devanāgarī: त्रिदोष)—are important for health,
because when they are in a more balanced state, the body will function to its fullest, and
when imbalanced, the body will be affected negatively in certain ways. Ayurveda holds
that each human possesses a unique combination of doshas. In ayurveda, the human body
perceives attributes of experiences as 20 Guna (Devanāgarī: गु ण, meaning qualities).[7]
Surgery and surgical instruments are employed.[7] It is believed that building a healthy
metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality.[7]
Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage.[8] Thus, body, mind,
and spirit/consciousness need to be addressed both individually and in unison for health
to ensue.

The practice of Panchakarma (Devanāgarī: पं चकर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic

elements from the body.[9]

Eight disciplines of ayurveda treatment, called ashtangas (Devanāgarī: अष्टां ग), are
given below:[10]

 Internal medicine (Kaaya-chikitsa)

 Paediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam)
 Surgery (Shalya-chikitsa)
  Eye and ENT (Shalakya tantra)
 Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya): Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry.[2]
 Toxicology (Agadatantram)
 Prevention diseases and improving immunity and rejuvenation (rasayana)
 Aphrodisiacs and improving health of progeny (Vajikaranam)

In Hindu mythology, the origin of ayurvedic medicine is attributed to the physician of the
gods, Dhanvantari.[11]

[edit] Practices

Several philosophers in India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable

examples being that of Hinduism and ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher
Nagarjuna—known chiefly for his doctrine of the Mādhyamaka (middle path)—who
wrote medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection, among
others.[12]

[edit] Balance

Hinduism and Buddhism have been an influence on the development of many of

ayurveda's central ideas — particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism
as Mādhyamaka (Devanāgarī: माध्यात्मिक).[13] Balance is emphasized; suppressing
natural urges is seen to be unhealthy, and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.[13]
However, people are cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and
measure.[13] For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,[1] sleep,
sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.[13]

[edit] Diagnosis

The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient.[14] The qualities
to be judged are:[14]
  constitution
 abnormality
 essence
 stability
 body measurements
 diet suitability
 psychic strength
 digestive capacity
 physical fitness
 age

In addition, Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis:[14]

 origin of the disease

 prodrominal (precursory) symptoms
 typical symptoms of the fully developed disease
 observing the effect of therapeutic procedures
 the pathological process'

Ayurvedic practitioners approach diagnosis by using all five senses.[14] Hearing is used to
observe the condition of breathing and speech.[6] The study of the vital pressure points or
marma is of special importance.[7]

[edit] Hygiene

Sesame and sunflower oil are used in ayurvedic medicine. Both contain linoleate in
triglyceride form and may have antineoplastic properties.[15]
Hundreds of plant-based medicines are used in ayurvedic medicine—including
cardamom and cinnamon.[16]

Hygiene is an Indian cultural value and a central practice of ayurvedic medicine.[6]

Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.[6]
Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.[6]

[edit] Treatments

Ayurveda stresses the use of plant-based medicines and treatments.[6] Hundreds of plant-
based medicines are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon.[6] Some animal
products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones.[6] In addition, fats are
used both for consumption and for external use.[6] Minerals, including sulfur, arsenic,
lead, copper sulfate and gold are also consumed as prescribed.[6] This practice of adding
minerals to herbal medicine is known as rasa shastra.

In some cases, alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing an operation.[6] The
advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic.[10] Both oil and tar are used to stop
bleeding.[6] Traumatic bleeding is said to be stopped by four different methods ligation of
the blood vessel; cauterisation by heat; using different herbal or animal preparations
locally which facilitate clotting; and different medical preparations which constrict the
bleeding or oozing vessels. Different oils may be used in a number of ways including
regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed
application to infected areas.[17]

Foot massage

Head massage
 

Facemask

Massage table

Steambox

[edit] Srotas

Ensuring the proper functions of channels (srotas) that transport fluids from one point to
another is a vital goal of ayurvedic medicine, because the lack of healthy srotas is thought
to cause rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, convulsions, and insanity. Practitioners induce
sweating and prescribe steam-based treatments as a means to open up the channels and
dilute the doshas that cause the blockages and lead to disease.[18]

[edit] History
The mantra ॐ मणि पद्मे हँ ू written on rocks. Chanting mantras has been a feature of
ayurveda since the Atharvaveda, a largely religious text, was compiled.[19]

Around 1500 BC, ayurveda's fundamental and applied principles got organised and
enunciated. Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas, Atharvaveda in particular, and is
connected to Hindu religion. Atharvaveda (one of the four most ancient books of Indian
knowledge, wisdom and culture) contains 114 hymns or formulations for the treatment of
diseases. Ayurveda originated in and developed from these hymns. In this sense,
ayurveda is considered by some to have divine origin. Indian medicine has a long history,
and is one of the oldest organised systems of medicine. Its earliest concepts are set out in
the sacred writings called the Vedas, especially in the metrical passages of the
Atharvaveda, which may possibly date as far back as the 2nd millennium BC. According
to a later writer, the system of medicine was received by Dhanvantari from Brahma, and
Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually
reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king [6] named Divodasa.[20]
The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the 1st millennium BC.[4] Dwivedi &
Dwivedi (2007) – on the work of the surgeon Sushruta – write:

The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was
by oral method. The language used was Sanskrit — the vedic language of
that period (2000–500 BC). The most authentic compilation of his
teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called Sushruta
Samhita. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1,120 illnesses,
700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57
preparations based on animal sources.[4]

Cataract in human eye – magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract
surgery was known to the physician Sushruta in the first millennium BC,[21] and was
performed with a special tool called the jabamukhi salaka, a curved needle used to loosen
the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[21] The eye would later be soaked
with warm butter and then bandaged.[21]

Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine
identified 'fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures,
tumours, and skin diseases (including leprosy)'.[6] Treatment of complex ailments,
including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones, also ensued during this
period.[4][22] Plastic surgery, cataract surgery, puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen,
extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations,
cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known.[6] The use of herbs and surgical
instruments became widespread.[6] The Charaka Samhita text is arguably the principal
classic reference. It gives emphasis to the triune nature of each person: body care, mental
regulation, and spiritual/consciousness refinement.
Other early works of ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka.[6] The
earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the
Bower Manuscript, dated to the 4th century AD.[23] The Bower manuscript quotes directly
from Sushruta and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian
medicine and its concepts in Central Asia.[24] Vagbhata, the son of a senior doctor by the
name of Simhagupta,[25] also compiled his works on traditional medicine.[6] Early
ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.[2] Tradition holds that the
text Agnivesh tantra, written by the sage Agnivesh, a student of the sage Bharadwaja,
influenced the writings of ayurveda.[26]

The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337–422 AD) wrote about the health care system of
the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine,
also visible in the works of Charaka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be
equipped.[27] Madhava (fl. 700), Sarngadhara (fl. 1300), and Bhavamisra (fl. 1500)
compiled works on Indian medicine.[24] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka
were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (ca. 750).[28] These
Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.[28] In Italy, the Branca
family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques
of Sushruta.[28]

British physicians traveled to India to see rhinoplasty being performed by native

methods.[29] Reports on Indian rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine
in 1794.[29] Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic
surgery methods.[29] Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the western
world in 1815.[30] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in
the Western World.[30]

[edit] Current status

A typical ayurvedic Pharmacy, Rishikesh.

[edit] Within India

In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aims to standardize qualifications
for ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research was passed by
the Parliament of India.[31] In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional
ayurvedic medicine.[8] The Indian government supports research and teaching in ayurveda
through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalize
traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.[32] The state-
sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the premier
institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.[33] The studies conducted by this
institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.[33] To fight
biopiracy and unethical patents, the Government of India, in 2001, set up the Traditional
Knowledge Digital Library as repository of 1200 formulations of various systems of
Indian medicine, such as ayurveda, unani and siddha.[34][35] The library also has 50
traditional ayurveda books digitized and available online.[36]

Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) a statutory body established in 1971, under
Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy
(AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, monitors
higher education in ayurveda.[37] The Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery
(BAMS) degree is the basic five-and-a-half year course of graduation. It includes
eighteen different subjects comprising courses on anatomy with cadaver dissections,
physiology, pharmacology, pathology, modern clinical medicine & clinical surgery,
pediatrics, along with subjects on ayurveda like Charaka Samhita, history and evolution
of ayurveda, identification and usage of herbs (dravyaguna), and ayurvedic philosophy in
diagnostics and treatment. post graduation programmes are also available in various
specialities in ayurveda including surgery, paediatrics etc. The degree is awarded as m.d
(ayurveda vachaspati) and m.s ayurveda (ayurveda dhanvantri). CCIM has also started
the post graduation diplomas in various specialities of ayurveda.

Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these
institutes.[31] Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to
demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine as the primary system of health care.[38]

[edit] Outside India

Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to

ayurveda's international visibility.[39] Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat
Ayurved University:[39]

Several international and national initiatives have been formed to legitimize the practice
of ayurvedic medicine as CAM in countries outside India:

 WHO policy of traditional medicine practice [40]

 The European Federation for Complementary and Alternative Medicine[41]
 The European Ayurveda Association[42]

[edit] In Sri Lanka

 Institute of Indigenous Medicine affiliated to University of Colombo[43]

  Gampaha Wickramarachchi Ayurveda Institute affiliated to University of
Kelaniya[44]
 Ayurveda Lanka Hospital Pvt Ltd.

Due to different laws and medical regulations in the rest of the world, the unregulated
practice and commercialization of ayurvedic medicine has raised ethical and legal issues;
in some cases, this damages the reputation of ayurvedic medicine outside India.[45][46][47]

[edit] In the United States

 The Association of Ayurvedic Professionals of North America AAPNA[48]

 The National Ayurvedic Medical Association NAMA[49]
 The US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine [50]
 California Association of Ayurvedic Medicine CAAM
 The National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine NIAM[51]
 The California College of Ayurveda CCA[52]

Early contributors to the promotion of Ayurveda in the United States include the
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation group along with Dr. Deepak
Chopra. Other important early promoters include Dr. David Frawley, Dr. Vasant Lad, Dr.
Robert Svoboda Dr. Sarita Shrestha and Dr. Marc Halpern. In 1995, the California
College of Ayurveda became the first State-Approved institution for training practitioners
of Ayurveda in the United States marking the beginning of the formalization of
Ayurvedic education in the United States. In 1997, Dr. Marc Halpern and several
graduates of the California College of Ayurveda formed the California Association of
Ayurvedic Medicine. This association was the first State association promoting the
interests of Ayurveda in the United States. In 1998, four individuals founded the National
Ayurvedic Medical Association. These four individuals were Dr. Marc Halpern, Wynn
Werner, Dr. Kumar Batra and Cynthia Copple. In 2009, the United States of America
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National
Institutes of Health expended $1.2 million[53] of its $123 million annual budget on
ayurvedic medicine-related research.

[edit] Journals

A variety of peer reviewed journals focus on the topic of ayurvedic medicine:

 Ancient Science of Life[54]

 Theoretical and Experimental Journal of Ayurveda and Siddha
 Journal of Research & Education in Indian Medicine (JREIM),[55]
 AYU[56]
 The International Journal for Ayurveda Research (IJAR)[57]

None of the journals except IJAR[58] are PubMed indexed. The first subspeciality journal
for the field of ayurvedic medicine was launched in July 2010.[59] Its focus is
rheumatology and it is titled the Journal of Clinical Rheumatology in Ayurveda.[60]
[edit] Patents

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to
them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing.[61]
The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), on the grounds that traditional ayurvedic
practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance for centuries,
and that this prior art made the patent a case of bio-piracy.[62] The Government of India
had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.[3] R A Mashelkar,
director-general of the Indian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, made the
following observation:[63]

This is a significant development of far-reaching consequences for the

protection of the traditional knowledge base in the public domain, which
has been an emotional issue for not only the people of India but also for
the other third world countries.

[edit] Scientific evidence

Chemical structure of curcumin used in ayurvedic medicine. Shown here in its ketone
form.

As a traditional medicine, many ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous
scientific studies and clinical trials. In India, research in ayurveda is largely undertaken
by the statutory body of the Central Government, the Central Council for Research in
Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.[64] A
systematic review of ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid arthritis concluded that there
was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-
quality trial showed no benefits.[65] A review of ayurveda and cardiovascular disease
concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate,
some herbs are promising, and yoga is also a promising complementary treatment.[66]

Some ayurvedic products, mainly herbs used for phytotherapy, have been tested with
promising results. Studies suggest that Turmeric and its derivative curcumin are
antioxidants.[67][68] Tinspora cordifolia has been tested.[69] Among the medhya rasayanas
(intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of Salvia have been tested in small trials; one trial
provided evidence that Salvia lavandulifolia (Spanish sage) may improve word recall in
young adults,[70] and another provided evidence that Salvia officinalis (Common sage)
may improve symptoms in Alzheimer's patients.[71] In some cases, ayurvedic medicine
may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of snake venom
have various therapeutic properties.[72] Many plants used as rasayana (rejuvenation)
medications are potent antioxidants.[73] Neem appears to have beneficial pharmacological
properties.[74]
Mitra & Rangesh (2003) hold that cardamom and cinnamon stimulate digestive enzymes
that break down polymeric macromolecules in the human body.[16] Research suggests that
T. arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina pectoris and in treating heart failure
and coronary artery disease.[75] T. arjuna may also be useful in treating
hypercholesterolemia.[75]

Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina
pectoris and in treating heart failure and coronary artery disease. T. arjuna may also be
useful in treating hypercholesterolemia.[75]

Azadirachta indica—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an

anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of IL-2 and increase immunity
in human volunteers by boosting lymphocyte and T-cell count in three weeks.[76]

Black pepper and long pepper are combined with ginger to form the traditional trikatu
mixture in ayurveda. This mixture increases appetite, promotes the secretion of digestive
juices, and cures certain gastric disorders, particularly achlorhydria and hypochlorhydria.
[77]

[edit] Safety
Rasa shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbs, is a source of toxic
heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.[78] Adverse reactions to herbs due to their
pharmacology are described in traditional ayurvedic texts, but ayurvedic practitioners are
reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and the reliable information on herbal toxicity
is not readily available.[79]

A 2004 study found such toxic metals in 20% of ayurvedic preparations that were made
in South Asia for sale around Boston and extrapolated the data to the United States more
broadly. It concluded that excess consumption of these products could cause health risks.
[80]
A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies
(and 40% of rasa shastra medicines) purchased over the Internet from both US and
Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.[78][81][82]

Traditionally the toxicity of these materials are believed to be reduced through

purification processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals), which is similar to
the Chinese pao zhi, although the ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve
prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques. One medical journal reported:

Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance, yet ayurveda looks upon it

as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed, i.e. it undergoes
'samskaras' before being utilised in the ayurvedic formulations. This study
was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether "processed" aconite is less
toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude
aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of
2.6 mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-
toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite).
Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete
detoxification.[83][84]

Following concerns about metal toxicity, the Government of India ruled that ayurvedic
products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product.[85] The
harmful effects of the samples is attributed in part to the adulterated raw material and
lack of workers trained in traditional medicine.[86] In a letter to the Indian Academy of
Sciences, director of the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Pune
Patwardhan Bhushan stated that the metal adulteration is due to contamination and
carelessness during the much faster modern manufacturing processes, and does not occur
with traditional methods of preparation.[87]

[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b c d Chopra 2003, p. 75
2. ^ a b c d e "Ayurveda". New Delhi, India: Department of Ayurveda, Yoga &
Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare,
Government of India. http://indianmedicine.nic.in/ayurveda.asp.
3. ^ a b Sharma, H. M.; Bodeker, Gerard C (1997). "Alternative Medicine (medical
system)". Encyclopædia Britannica (2008 ed.).
4. ^ a b c d Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)
5. ^ "A Closer Look at Ayurvedic Medicine". Focus on Complementary and
Alternative Medicine (Bethesda, MD: National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), US National Institutes of Health (NIH)) XII (4). Fall
2005/Winter 2006. http://nccam.nih.gov/news/newsletter/2006_winter/ayurveda.htm.[dead
link]

6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Underwood & Rhodes (2008)

7. ^ a b c d Chopra 2003, p. 76
8. ^ a b "Ayurveda". Encarta. Redmond, WA: Microsoft. 2008.
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10. ^ a b Chopra 2003, p. 80
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17. ^ Wujastyk, p. XX
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[edit] References
 Chopra, Ananda S. (2003). "Āyurveda". In Selin, Helaine. Medicine Across Cultures:
History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Norwell, MA: Kluwer
Academic Publishers. pp. 75–83. ISBN 1-4020-1166-0. http://books.google.com/books?
id=of-gv8-pPcsC&pg=PA75.
 Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the
Clinician – Teacher par Excellence". Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied
Sciences (Delhi, India: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, U. of Delhi / National College
of Chest Physicians) 49: 243–244. http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf.
(Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)
 Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain
Function. Oxford, England/New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
514694-8.
 Kurup, P. N. V. (2003). "Ayurveda – A Potential Global Medical System". Scientific
Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies. op. cit.. in Lakshmi C. Mishra (2004). Scientific basis for
Ayurvedic therapies. Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 0-8493-1366-X.
 Kutumbian, P. (1999). Ancient Indian Medicine. Andhra Pradesh, India: Orient Longman.
ISBN 978-81-250-1521-5.
 Lock, Stephen; et al. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine. Oxford U.
Pr. ISBN 0-19-262950-6.
 Mitra, K. S.; Rangesh, P. R. (2003). "Irritable Colon (Grahni)". Scientific Basis for
Ayurvedic Therapies. op. cit..
 Sharma, H. M.; Bodeker, Gerard C (1997). "Alternative Medicine (medical system)".
Encyclopædia Britannica (2008 ed.).
 Underwood, E. Ashworth; Rhodes, P. (2008). "Medicine, History of". Encyclopædia
Britannica (2008 ed.).
 Wujastyk, D. (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings.
Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044824-1.
[edit] Further reading
 Drury, Col. Heber (1873). The Useful plants of India. William H Allen & Co.,
London. ISBN 1446023729.
http://www.archive.org/stream/usefulplantsind01drurgoog#page/n5/mode/2up.
 Rudolf, August Friedrich (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Part I:
Osteology. The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
http://www.archive.org/stream/studiesinmedicin01hoeruoft#page/n3/mode/2up.
 Kishor Patwardhan 2008. Concepts of Human Physiology in Ayurveda, in
Sowarigpa and Ayurveda, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath,
Varanasi. Samyak Vak Series-14, Editor: Pabitra Kumar Roy, pp. 53–73. ISBN
978-81-87127-76-5 Kishor Patwardhan Concepts of Human Physiology in
Ayurveda

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