Report on

ENGINEERING COMPARISON BETWEEN

FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

Photo courtesy
WSDOT
Submitted by .

Md.

Tahmidul Islam Farabi

06 02 03 031
4th Year 2nd Semester
Department of Civil Engineering
Ahsanullah University of Science & Technology

Pavement
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel.
It's purpose is two fold, to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer
normal stresses to the underlying soils.
Typically, pavements are built for three main purposes:

1. Load support: Pavement material is generally stiffer than the

material upon which it is placed, thus it assists the in situ material in
resisting loads without excessive deformation or cracking.
2. Smoothness: Pavement material can be placed and maintained
much smoother than in situ material. This helps improve ride
comfort and reduce vehicle operating costs.
3. Drainage: Pavement material and geometric design can effect quick
and efficient drainage thus eliminating moisture problems such as
mud and ponding (puddles).

Types of pavements
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into

two, flexible pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements,
wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate
through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less
flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).
On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred
to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement
acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to these,
composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement
over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable
characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new
construction because of high cost and complex analysis required.

Flexible pavement
Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and the
subsequent layers to the surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no
reinforcement or with a specialized fabric reinforcement that permits
limited flow or repositioning of
the roadbed underground
changes.

• The design of flexible

pavement is based on
load distributing
 characteristic of the component layers. The black top pavement
including water & gravel bound macadam fall in this category.

• Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible flexible

strength flexible in their structural action). The flexible pavement
layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower
layers by grain transfer through contact points of granular structure.
• The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement
surface directly under the wheel load and is equal to contact
pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute the stress
to large area in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get
decreased in the lower layer.

• As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of

layers and the top layer has to be strongest as the highest
compressive stresses.
• To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower
layer have to take up only lesser magnitude of stress as there is no
direct wearing action die to traffic loads, therefore inferior material
with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.

Rigid pavement
The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or
flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area
of subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement.

• The rigid pavements are

made of cement
concrete either plan,
reinforced or prestressed
concrete.
• Critical condition of
stress in the rigid
pavement is the
maximum flexural stress
occurring in the slab due
to wheel load and the
temperature changes.
• Rigid pavement is
designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory.
Basic Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement
1. Deformation in the sub grade
is transferred to the upper
layers
2. Design is based on load
distributing characteristics of
the component layers
3. Have low flexural strength
4. Load is transferred by grain to
grain contact
5. Have low completion cost but
repairing cost is high
6. Have low life span
7. Surfacing cannot be laid
directly on the sub grade but
a sub base is needed
8. No thermal stresses are
induced as the pavement
have the ability to contract
and expand freely
9. Thats why expansion joints
are not needed
10. Strength of the road is
highly dependent on the
strength of the sub grade
11. Rolling of the surfacing
is needed
12. Road can be used for
traffic within 24 hours
13. Force of friction is less
Deformation in the sub grade
is not transferred to the upper
layers.
1. Deformation in the subgrade is
not transferred to subsequent
layers
2. Design is based on flexural
strength or slab action
3. Have high flexural strength
4. No such phenomenon of grain to
grain load transfer exists
5. Have low repairing cost but
completion cost is high
6. Life span is more as compare to
flexible
7. Surfacing can be directly laid on
the sub grade
8. Thermal stresses are more
vulnerable to be induced as the
ability to contract and expand is
very less in concrete
9. Thats why expansion joints are
needed
10. Strength of the road is less
dependent on the strength of
the sub grade
11. Rolling of the surfacing in
not needed
12. Road cannot be used until
14 days of curing
13. Force of friction is high
 Load distribution

Flexible pavement

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure

deflects, or flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement structure is
typically composed of several layers of material. Each layer receives the
loads from the above layer, spreads them out, then passes on these loads
to the next layer below. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure
a particular layer is, the less load (in terms of force per area) it must carry
(see Figure 1).

In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers are

usually arranged in order of descending load bearing capacity with the
highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top
and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on
the bottom. This section describes the typical flexible pavement structure
consisting of:

• Surface course: This is the top layer and the layer that comes in
contact with traffic. It may be composed of one or several different
HMA sublayers.
• Base course: This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and
generally consists of aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).
• Subbase course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed.

Figure 1: Flexible & Rigid Pavement Load Distribution

Rigid pavement

Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure deflects

very little under loading due to the high modulus of elasticity of their
surface course. A rigid pavement structure is typically composed of a PCC
surface course built on top of either (1) the subgrade or (2) an underlying
base course. Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement structure
distributes loads over a wide area with only one, or at most two, structural
layers (see Figure 1).

This section describes the typical rigid pavement structure consisting of:

• Surface course: This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC
slab.
• Base course: This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and
generally consists of aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
• Subbase course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed and therefore may often be omitted.

Distress

Flexible Pavement Distress

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

Bad fatigue cracking Fatigue cracking from Fatigue cracking from

frost action edge failure
Description: Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of
the HMA surface (or stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading. In
thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer where
the tensile stress is the highest then propagates to the surface as one or
more longitudinal cracks. This is commonly referred to as "bottom-up" or
"classical" fatigue cracking. In thick pavements, the cracks most likely
initiate from the top in areas of high localized tensile stresses resulting
from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt binder aging (top-down
cracking). After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect forming
many-sided sharp-angled pieces that develop into a pattern resembling
the back of an alligator or crocodile.

Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration,

roughness, may further deteriorate to a pothole

Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by

a myriad of things. A few of the more common ones are listed here:

• Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics

o Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor
drainage or spring thaw resulting in a less stiff base).
o Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped portion
contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA
thickness decreases)
• Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than anticipated in
design)
• Inadequate structural design
• Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)

Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine

the root cause of failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or
coring the pavement to determine the pavement's structural makeup as
well as determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing
factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by
crack sealing is generally ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls
into one of two categories:

• Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade

support. Remove the cracked pavement area then dig out and
replace the area of poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that
area if necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
• Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure.
Place an HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This
overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most
likely contributes little or no strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).

Bleeding
BST bleeding in BST bleeding in HMA bleeding from
wheelpaths wheelpaths over-asphalting
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually
creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that
can become quite sticky.

Problem: Loss of skid resistance when wet

Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the

aggregate voids during hot weather and then expands onto the pavement
surface. Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather, asphalt
binder will accumulate on the pavement surface over time. This can be
caused by one or a combination of the following:

• Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix design or

manufacturing)
• Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in
the above figures)
• Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to
expand into during hot weather)

Repair: The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the

asphalt binder film on the pavement's surface but may not correct the
underlying problem that caused the bleeding:

• Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to

blot up the excess asphalt binder.
• Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a
motor grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting
surface is excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary (APAI,
no date given).

Block Cracking
Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft2)
to 9 m2 (100 ft2). Larger blocks are generally classified as longitudinal and
transverse cracking. Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion
of pavement area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature cycling.

Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract
with temperature cycles because of:

• Asphalt binder aging

• Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the block
cracking:

• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2)
further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks with raveled
edges). Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay.

Corrugation and Shoving

Description: A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation)
or an abrupt wave (shoving) across the pavement surface. The distortion
is perpendicular to the traffic direction. Usually occurs at points where
traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a rigid
object (shoving).

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping)

combined with:

• An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix

contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of
aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
• Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be investigated

to determine the root cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into
one of two categories:

• Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the

distorted pavement and patch.
• Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure.
Remove the damaged pavement and overlay.

Depression
Depression in left lane and
shoulder
Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower
elevations than the surrounding pavement. Depressions are very
noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.

Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water can cause

vehicle hydroplaning

Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from

inadequate compaction during construction.

Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A pavement

depression should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure
(i.e., subgrade settlement or frost heave). Depressions should be repaired
by removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing the
area of poor subgrade. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

Joint Reflection Cracking

Joint reflection cracking Joint reflection cracking Joint reflection cracking

on an arterial on an arterial close-up
Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement. The cracks
occur directly over the underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection
cracking does not include reflection cracks that occur away from an
underlying joint or from any other type of base (e.g., cement or lime
stabilized).

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface
because of thermal and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. In general, rigid
pavement joints will eventually reflect through an HMA overlay
without proper surface preparation.

• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Longitudinal Cracking

Longitudinal cracking as the onset Longitudinal cracking from poor

of fatigue cracking joint construction
Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or laydown
direction. Usually a type of fatigue cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible

onset of alligator cracking and structural failure.

Possible Causes:

• Poor joint construction or location. Joints are generally the least

dense areas of a pavement. Therefore, they should be constructed
outside of the wheelpath so that they are only infrequently loaded.
Joints in the wheelpath like those shown in third through fifth
figures above, will general fail prematurely.
• A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint
reflection cracking)
• HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future alligator cracking)
• top-down cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
 cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can
provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks
if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Patching

Failing patch Patch over localized Utility cut patch

distress
Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new
material to repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect
no matter how well it performs.

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes:

• Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed

and patched
• Utility cuts

Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can
be removed from a pavement's surface is by either a structural or non-
structural overlay.

Polished Aggregate
SMAs at the NCAT test 5 years of wear
track
Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of aggregate
extending above the asphalt binder is either very small or there are no
rough or angular aggregate particles.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance

Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as a

pavement ages the protruding rough, angular particles become polished.
This can occur quicker if the aggregate is susceptible to abrasion or
subject to excessive studded tire wear.

Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or BST or overlay.

Potholes

Pothole from fatigue Developing

cracking pothole
Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface
that penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down to the base
course. They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top
of the hole. Potholes are most likely to occur on roads with thin HMA
surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with
100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA surfaces (Roberts et al., 1996).

Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving

across potholes at higher speeds), moisture infiltration

Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of alligator

cracking. As alligator cracking becomes severe, the interconnected
cracks create small chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as
vehicles drive over them. The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is
dislodged is called a pothole.

Repair: In accordance with patching techniques.

Raveling

Raveling due to low Raveling from snowplot From

density operations segregation
Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the
surface downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.

Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in

the raveled locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid
resistance

Possible Causes: Several including:

• Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as

a result of:
o A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the
asphalt binder to bond with the dust rather than the
aggregate
o Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are missing from the
aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind
the remaining coarse particles at their relatively few contact
points.
o Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is
required to develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA. The
third figure above shows a road suffering from raveling due to
inadequate compaction caused by cold weather paving.
• Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires,
snowplow blades or tracked vehicles). The first and fourth figures
above show raveling most likely caused by snow plows.

Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root

cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:

• Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement

 and patch.

• Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the

damaged pavement and overlay.
Rutting

Mix rutting Mix rutting Rutting from mix

instability
Description: Surface depression in the wheelpath. Pavement uplift
(shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly
evident after a rain when they are filled with water. There are two basic
types of rutting: mix rutting and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs
when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits
wheelpath depressions as a result of compaction/mix design problems.
Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits wheelpath
depressions due to loading. In this case, the pavement settles into the
subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in the wheelpath.

Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can be
hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is
steered across the rut.

Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a pavement's layers

or subgrade usually caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the
materials due to traffic loading. Specific causes of rutting can be:

• Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it is

not compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may continue to
densify under traffic loads.
• Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement
structure)
• Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt
content, excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular
aggregate particles)

Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as the ruts
described here, but they are actually a result of mechanical dislodging
due to wear and not pavement deformation.

Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to determine

the root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade rutting,
poor mix design or studded tire wear). Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can
generally be left untreated. Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled
and overlaid.

Slippage Cracking

Slippage
cracking at a
bus stop
Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two
ends pointed into the direction of traffic.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface

to slide and deform. The resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a
low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between the surface HMA layer
and the next underlying layer in the pavement structure.

Repair: Removal and replacement of affected area.

Stripping

Core hole showing Stripping at Fatigue

stripping at the bottom bottom of failure from
hole stripping
Description: The loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder
that typically begins at the bottom of the HMA layer and progresses
upward. When stripping begins at the surface and progresses downward
it is usually called raveling. The third photo show the surface effects of
underlying stripping.

Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting, shoving/corrugations,

raveling, or cracking (alligator and longitudinal)

Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to recognize

because it manifests itself on the pavement surface as other forms of
distress including rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking.
Typically, a core must be taken to positively identify stripping as a
pavement distress.

• Poor aggregate surface chemistry

• Water in the HMA causing moisture damage
• Overlays over an existing open-graded surface course. Based on
WSDOT experience, these overlays will tend to strip.

Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated to determine the

root cause of failure (i.e., how did the moisture get in?). Generally, the
stripped pavement needs to be removed and replaced after correction of
any subsurface drainage issues.

Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

Large Smaller Small thermal crack

patched patched
thermal thermal
crack crack
Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centerline or
laydown direction. Usually a type of thermal cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Several including:

• Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt

binder hardening
• Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer
• top-down cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
 • Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide
years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they
are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Water Bleeding and Pumping

Water Water bleeding up close CTB base

bleeding pumping
through HMA
cracks
Description: Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs when water seeps
out of joints or cracks or through an excessively porous HMA layer.
Pumping (right-most photo) occurs when water and fine material is
ejected from underlying layers through cracks in the HMA layer under
moving loads.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high pavement

porosity (water bleeding), decreased structural support (pumping)

Possible Causes: Several including:

• Porous pavement as a result of inadequate compaction during

construction or poor mix design
• High water table
• Poor drainage

Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be investigated to determine

the root cause. If the problem is a high water table or poor drainage,
subgrade drainage should be improved. If the problem is a porous mix (in
the case of water bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be applied to
limit water infiltration.

Rigid Pavement Distress

Blowup (Buckling)
Severe blowup Severe blowup
Description: A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a joint
or crack. Usually occurs in spring or summer and is the result of
insufficient room for slab expansion during hot weather.

Problem: Roughness, moisture infiltration, in extreme cases (as in the

second photo) can pose a safety hazard

Possible Causes: During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract
leaving wider joint openings. If these openings become filled with
incompressible material (such as rocks or soil), subsequent PCC slab
expansion during hot periods (e.g., spring, summer) may cause high
compressive stresses. If these stresses are great enough, the slabs may
buckle and shatter to relieve the stresses. Blowup can be accelerated by:

• Joint spalling (reduces slab contact area and provides

incompressible material to fill the joint/crack)
• D cracking (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
• Freeze-thaw damage (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)

Repair: Full-depth patch.

Corner Break

Corner break on a Corner break on a

residential street highway
Description: A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints near the corner.
"Near the corner" is typically defined as within about 2 m (6 ft) or so. A
corner break extends through the entire slab and is caused by high corner
stresses.

Problem: Roughness, moisture infiltration, severe corner breaks will fault,

spall and disintegrate

Possible Causes: Severe corner stresses caused by load repetitions

combined with a loss of support, poor load transfer across the joint,
curling stresses and warping stresses.

Repair: Full-depth patch.

Durability Cracking ("D" Cracking)

"D" cracking at panel

corners
Description: Series of closely spaced, crescent-shaped cracks near a
joint, corner or crack. It is caused by freeze-thaw expansion of the large
aggregate within the PCC slab. Durability cracking is a general PCC
distress and is not unique to pavement PCC.

Problem: Some roughness, leads to spalling and eventual slab

disintegration

Possible Causes: Freeze-thaw susceptible aggregate.

Repair: "D" cracking is indicative of a general aggregate freeze-thaw

problem. Although a full-depth patch or partial-depth patch can repair the
affected area, it does not address the root problem and will not, or course,
prevent "D" cracking elsewhere.

Faulting
Faulting from ground Faulting in the truck Up close near a bus
level lane stop
Description: A difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually
associated with undoweled JPCP. Usually the approach slab is higher than
the leave slab due to pumping, the most common faulting mechanism.
Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting in the pavement section
reaches about 2.5 mm (0.1 inch). When the average faulting reaches 4
mm (0.15 in), diamond grinding or other rehabilitation measures should
be considered (Rao et al., 1999).

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes: Most commonly, faulting is a result of slab pumping.

Faulting can also be caused by slab settlement, curling and warping.

Repair: Faulting heights of less than 3 mm (0.125 inch) need not be

repaired. Faulting in an undoweled JPCP between 3 mm (0.125 inch) and
12.5 mm (0.5 inch) is a candidate for a dowel bar retrofit. Faulting in
excess of 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) generally warrants total reconstruction.

Joint Load Transfer System Deterioration

Exposed failure with rusted Patched

dowel bars failure
Description: Transverse crack or corner break developed as a result of
joint dowels.

Problem: Indicator of a failed load transfer system, roughness

Possible Causes: Load transfer dowel bars can fail for two principal
reasons:

• Corrosion. If inadequately protected, dowel bars can corrode over

time. The corrosion products occupy volume, which creates tensile
stresses around the dowel bars, and a severely corroded dowel bar
is weaker and may fail after repeated loading.
• Misalignment. Dowel bars inserted crooked or too close to the slab
edge may create localized stresses high enough to break the slab.
Misalignment can occur during original construction or during dowel
bar retrofits.

Repair: Removal and replacement of the affected joint load transfer

system followed by a full-depth patch for affected area.

Linear (Panel) Cracking

Large panel crack Panel Panel

cracks on a cracking in
residential the truck
street lane
Description: Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or blowups
that extend across the entire slab. Typically, these cracks divide an
individual slab into two to four pieces.

Problem: Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of

base/subbase support, cracks will eventually spall and disintegrate if not
sealed

Possible Causes: Usually a combination of traffic loading, thermal

gradient curling, moisture stresses and loss of support.

Repair: Slabs with a single, narrow linear crack may be repaired by crack
sealing. More than one linear crack generally warrants a full-depth patch.

Patching
Patch on a residential Large utility patch Patch with poor
street edges
Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new
material to repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect
no matter how well it performs.

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes:

• Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed

and patched
• Utility cuts

Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can
be removed is through an overlay or slab replacement.
Polished Aggregate

Aggregate after almost A closer look

40 years of wear
Description: Areas of PCC pavement where the portion of aggregate on the surface co
angular aggregate particles.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance

Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the p

angular particles become polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is susceptib
subject to excessive studded tire wear.

Repair: Diamond grinding or overlay.

Popouts
Large popouts Popout close-up
Description: Small pieces of PCC that break loose from the surface
leaving small divots or pock marks. Popouts range from 25 - 100 mm (1 -
4 inches) in diameter and from 25 - 50 mm (1 - 2 inches) deep.

Problem: Roughness, usually an indicator of poor material

Possible Causes: Popouts usually occur as a result of poor aggregate

durability. Poor durability can be a result of a number of items such as:

• Poor aggregate freeze-thaw resistance

• Expansive aggregates
• Alkali-aggregate reactions

Repair: Isolated low severity popouts may not warrant repair. Larger
popouts or a group of popouts can generally be repaired with a partial-
depth patch.

Pumping

Pumping in action Pumping evidence Pumping

during HVS test damage

Broken slabs with pumping Pumping evidence

evidence during HVS test
Description: Movement of material underneath the slab or ejection of
material from underneath the slab as a result of water pressure. Water
accumulated underneath a PCC slab will pressurize when the slab deflects
under load. This pressurized water can do one of the following:

• Move about under the slab.

• Move from underneath one slab to underneath an adjacent slab.
This type of movement leads to faulting.
• Move out from underneath the slab to the pavement surface. This
results in a slow removal of base, subbase and/or subgrade material
from underneath the slab resulting in decreased structural support.

Problem: Decreased structural support of the slab, which can lead to

linear cracking, corner breaks and faulting.

Possible Causes: Water accumulation underneath the slab. This can be

caused by such things as: a high water table, poor drainage, and panel
cracks or poor joint seals that allow water to infiltrate the underlying
material.

Repair: First, the pumping area should be repaired with a full depth patch
to remove any deteriorated slab areas. Second, consideration should be
given to using dowel bars to increase load transfer across any significant
transverse joints created by the repair. Third, consideration should be
given to stabilizing any slabs adjacent to the pumping area as significant
amounts of their underlying base, subbase or subgrade may have been
removed by the pumping. Finally, the source of water or cause of poor
drainage should be addressed.

Punchout

Severe punchout
Description: Localized slab portion broken into several pieces. Typically
a concern only with CRCP.

Problem: Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of

base/subbase support, cracks will spall and disintegrate.

Possible Causes: Can indicate a localized construction defect such as

inadequate consolidation. In CRCP, it can be caused by steel corrosion,
inadequate amount of steel, excessively wide shrinkage cracks or
excessively close shrinkage cracks.

Repair: Full-depth patch.

Reactive Aggregate Distresses

Severe crazing
Description: Pattern or map cracking (crazing) on the PCC slab surface
caused by reactive aggregates. Reactive aggregates are those that either
expand or develop expansive by products when introduced to certain
chemical compounds.

Problem: Roughness, an indication of poor aggregate - will eventually

lead to PCC slab disintegration.

Possible Causes: This type of distress is indicative of poor aggregate

qualities. Most commonly, it is a result of an alkali-aggregate reaction.

Repair: Partial-depth patch for small areas of scaling or slab replacement

for large areas of scaling.
Shrinkage Cracking

Shrinkage cracks on brand Severe shrinkage cracking

new slabs
Description: Hairline cracks formed during PCC setting and curing that
are not located at joints. Usually, they do not extend through the entire
depth of the slab. Shrinkage cracks are considered a distress if they occur
in an uncontrolled manner (e.g., at locations outside of contraction joints
in JPCP or too close together in CRCP).

Problem: Aesthetics, indication of uncontrolled slab shrinkage. In JPCP

they will eventually widen and allow moisture infiltration. In CRCP, if they
are allowed to get much wider than about 0.5 mm (0.02 inches) they can
allow moisture infiltration (CRSI, 1996).

Possible Causes: All PCC will shrink as it sets and cures, therefore
shrinkage cracks are expected in rigid pavement and provisions for their
control are made. However, uncontrolled shrinkage cracking can indicate:

• Contraction joints sawed too late. In JPCP, if contraction joints are

sawed too late the PCC may already have cracked in an undesirable
location.
• Poor reinforcing steel design. In CRCP, proper reinforcing steel
design should result in shrinkage cracks every 1.2 - 3 m (4 - 10 ft.).
• Improper curing technique. If the slab surface is allowed to dry too
quickly, it will shrink too quickly and crack.
• High early strength PCC. In an effort to quickly open a newly
constructed or rehabilitated section to traffic, high early-strength
PCC may be used. This type of PCC can have a high heat of
hydration and shrinks more quickly and to a greater extent than
typical PCC made from unmodified Type 1 portland cement.

Repair: In mild to moderate severity situations, the shrinkage cracks can

be sealed and the slab should perform adequately. In severe situations,
the entire slab may need replacement.

Spalling

Linear crack spalling Spalling onset Spalling from

a bad
construction
joint
Description: Cracking, breaking or chipping of joint/crack edges. Usually
occurs within about 0.6 m (2 ft.) of joint/crack edge.

Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, generally an

indicator of advanced joint/crack deterioration

Possible Causes: Possible causes are (AASHTO, 1993):

• Excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by infiltration of

incompressible materials and subsequent expansion (can also cause
blowups).
• Disintegration of the PCC from freeze-thaw action or "D" cracking.
• Weak PCC at a joint caused by inadequate consolidation during
construction. This can sometimes occur at a construction joint if (1)
low quality PCC is used to fill in the last bit of slab volume or (2)
dowels are improperly inserted.
• Misalignment or corroded dowel.
• Heavy traffic loading.

Repair: Spalling less than 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face can
generally be repaired with a partial-depth patch. Spalling greater than
about 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face may indicated possible
spalling at the joint bottom and should be repaired with a full-depth patch.

Construction

Flexible Pavement Plant Operation

HMA production is the first step in construction. The basic purpose of an HMA plant is to
properly proportion, blend, and heat aggregate and asphalt to produce an HMA that meets the
requirements of the job mix formula (JMF) (Roberts et al., 1996). There are two basic types
of HMA plants commonly in use today: the batch plant, and the drum mix plant. Batch
plants produce HMA in individual batches while drum plants produce HMA in a continuous
operation. Each type of plant can produce the same types of HMA and neither type of plant
should impart any significant plant-specific HMA characteristics. The choice of a batch or
drum mix plant depends upon business factors such as purchase price, operating costs,
production requirements and the need for flexibility in local markets; both can produce
quality HMA. This section gives a brief overview of batch and drum mix plants. More
detailed information on plant operations can be found in:
 • Transportation Research Board (TRB). (2000). Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving
Handbook 2000. Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council. Washington, D.C.
• Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S., Brown, E.R., Lee, D.Y., and Kennedy, T.W.
(1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design, and Construction.
National Asphalt Pavement Association Research and Education
Foundation. Lanham, MD.

Batch Plants

Batch plants, which produce HMA in individual batches, are the older of the two types of
HMA production facilities. HMA was originally made in batches; it was not until the 1970s
that drum plants became a popular HMA production option. Currently about 70 percent of all
operational HMA plants in the U.S. are batch plants while about 95 percent of all newly
manufactured plants in the U.S. are drum plants (Roberts, et al., 1996). This means that as
older batch plants are retired they are more than likely to be replaced by new drum plants,
which can provide greater mobility and production capacity. Typical batch quantities range
from 1.5 to 5 tons of HMA. Figure 7.18 shows the basic components of a batch plant and
their functions.

Drum Plants

Drum plants, which produce HMA in a continuous manner, generally offer higher production
rates than batch plants for comparable cost. Typical production rates for drum plants vary
between about 100 tons/hr up to over 900 tons/hr depending upon drum design. Figure 7.19
shows the basic components of a drum plant and their functions.

Figure 7.20: Batch Plant Figure 7.21: Drum Plant

Interactive Picture Interactive Picture
(click figure to launch) (click figure to launch)

Video 7.5: Drum Plant Burner

This burner is running on diesel fuel, which

results in a bright orange flame. A natural
 gas flame would be essentially invisible.
Burners like these can reach temperatures
in excess of 760°C (1400°F). Typical
HMA temperatures out of the drum are on
the order of 150 - 160°C (300 - 325°F).

Figure 7.22: Infrared View of a Drum Mix Plant

Rigid Pavement Plant Operation

All PCC intended for pavement use is ready-mixed concrete. Ready-mixed concrete refers to
PCC that is delivered to the customer in a freshly mixed and unhardened state (NRMCA,
2002). Therefore, PCC production involves the batching and mixing of portland cement,
aggregate, water and admixtures to form a ready-mixed concrete in accordance with the
approved mix design. There are three basic production methods: truck mixing, central
mixing and shrink mixing. Other methods of PCC mixing do exist but they are not common
in pavement applications and are therefore not covered in this Guide. Truck mixed PCC is
dry batched into a concrete mixing truck then blended in the truck either at the batching plant
or in route to the job site. Central mixed PCC is batched and mixed in a central facility and
then loaded into a truck for transport to the job site. Shrink mixed PCC is partially mixed in a
plant mixer and then discharged into a truck mixer where the mixing is completed. This section provides a
brief overview of truck, central and shrink mixing. More detailed information on plant
operations can be found in:

• American Concrete Pavement Association. (1995). Construction of

Portland Cement Concrete Pavements. National Highway Institute Course
 No. 13133. AASHTO/FHWA/Industry joint training. Federal Highway
Administration, Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C.
• National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA). (2002). NRMCA
web site, Concrete Basics home page. National Ready Mixed Concrete
Association. Silver Spring, MD. http://www.nrmca.org.

Truck Mixed PCC

Truck mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients directly into
the concrete mixing truck. The ingredients are usually charged in a certain order to ensure
good mixing of all ingredients. Although the specific order depends upon local practice,
mixing plant procedures and possibly job specifications.

Truck mixed PCC (see figure 7.68) is appropriate for all types of pavement construction, but
is particularly well-suited for instances that can take advantage of a concrete mixing truck's
monitored, continuously agitated storage volume (the mixing drum) and its ability to
precisely deliver PCC through its chute (see Figure 7.69). These situations might include:
intersection paving, street paving, pavement repair, urban environments, high traffic areas
and staged/phased construction. Disadvantages of truck mixed PCC are longer load and
unload times (due to the nature and opening size of the mixing drum) and the higher
operating cost of a concrete mixing truck when compared to an end or bottom dump truck.

Figure 7.69: Using the Mixing Truck

Figure 7.68: Loading PCC for Truck
Chute to Deliver PCC to a Precise
Mixing
Location
Central Mixed PCC

Central mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients into a central
plant mixer (see Figures 7.70 through 7.73) where they are completely mixed before
discharge into a transport vehicle. Transport vehicles can be concrete mixing trucks or
conventional end and bottom dump trucks depending upon travel distance and other
requirements. About 20 percent of the concrete plants in the U.S. use a central mixer
(NRMCA, 2002). Central mixing plants can either be permanent or mobile (see Figure 7.74)
and offer the following advantages (NRMCA, 2002):

• High production volume. A high production volume would be on the order

of 3000 m3/day (3950 yd3/day). Most central mix drums can mix about 9
m3 (12 yd3) in a single batch and produce fully mixed PCC in excess of 150
m3/hr (200 yd3/hr). Mixing times are on the order of 30 to 90 seconds
(ACPA, 1995).
• Improved quality control. Since mixing is controlled by a central facility
and not by individual truck, PCC quality can be more closely monitored
and controlled.
• Reduced wear on truck mixer drums. If used, concrete mixing trucks are
used as an agitating haul unit rather than a mixing unit. Agitating rotation
speeds are much slower than mixing speeds and thus, produce less wear
on drum components.

Figure 7.71: Tilting Drum Mixer Showing

Figure 7.70: Central Mixing Plant
Material Charging Apparatus
 Figure 7.73: Loading a Bottom Dump
Figure 7.72: Aggregate Feed Bins
Truck from a Central Mixing Plant

Figure 7.74: Mobile Central Mixing Plant

Shrink Mixed PCC

Shrink mixed PCC is partially mixed in a plant mixer before discharging into a truck mixer.
The short mixing period in the plant mixer reduces the bulk volume of the overall ingredients
by allowing fine aggregate, portland cement and water to fill the large void space in bulk
coarse aggregate. Typically, 1 m3 (1.3 yd3) of fully mixed PCC requires about 1.58 m3 (2.07
yd3) of individual ingredients (ACPA, 1995). Thus, with shrink mixing, more PCC can be
loaded into each truck mixer. Many central mixing plants use a stationary plant-mounted
mixer to shrink mix PCC before charging their truck mixers. The amount of mixing that is
needed in the truck mixer varies in these applications and should be determined via mixer
uniformity tests. Generally, about thirty turns in the truck drum, or about two minutes at
mixing speed, is sufficient to completely mix shrink-mixed concrete (NRMCA, 2002).

References:

1. http://training.ce.washington.edu/wsdot/
2. http://www.acpa.org/
3. http://www.enggpedia.com