Batteries

Made By Affan Qamar

Contents
a. Battery Discharge Characteristics:..............................................................................................................2
b. Battery Charging:................................................................................................................................................3
c. Self-Discharge.....................................................................................................................................................3
d. Battery Life...........................................................................................................................................................3
e. Depth of Discharge:............................................................................................................................................4
a. Advantages:.........................................................................................................................................................4
b. Disadvantages:...................................................................................................................................................5
a. Advantages:.........................................................................................................................................................8
b. Disadvantages:...................................................................................................................................................8
 Lead Batteries

1. Introduction:
Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable
battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to
supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These
features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current
required by automobile starter motors.

A lead-acid battery is a electrical storage device that

uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy. It
uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an
electrolyte consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to
convert electrical energy into potential chemical
energy and back again. The electrolyte of lead-acid
batteries is hazardous to your health and may produce
burns and other permanent damage if you come into
contact with it.

2. Charging and Discharging:

The voltage of a lead acid battery when at rest (not
supplying current or being charged) will vary according
to how fully charged the battery is. The graph shown to the right represents a typical 24 volt lead acid battery
which has not been charged or had current drawn from it for a couple of hours.

a. Battery Discharge Characteristics:

A full charged battery will have a voltage of around 25.5 volts. As current is drawn off and the
level of charge is reduced, the voltage will fall quite quickly at first (again it would be necessary to stop
drawing current for a couple of hours to be able to measure the true voltage of the battery). 
With further drawing of current, the rate of voltage drop slows down and will reach around 24.0 volts
when the bettery is at half capacity. 
As the battery approaches the fully discharged state, the voltage starts to fall more quickly again. 
It is important for a battery to never be fully discharged, so your inverter will normally disconnect the
supply when the voltage is around 22 volts. 

Anode Reaction: Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−

Cathode Reaction: PbO2(s) + HSO−4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

b. Battery Charging:

If a voltage is applied to the battery which is greater than the battery's voltage, a current will
flow through the battery in the reverse direction to when it is supplying current, and the battery will
charge. 
The rate of charge or current that will flow will
depend on the difference between the battery
voltage and the voltage that is applied to it (from
solar panels etc). Solar panels intended for a 24 volt
system are likely to be capable of producing over 30
volts. This voltage ensures that the panels are
capable of charging the battery fully. 
While it is beneficial to a battery's performance and
life to be fully charged on regular occasions, however
once a battery has been charged to it's full capacity, it
is important not to continue charging as this will
damage the battery.
Anode Reaction: 2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
Cathode Reaction: Pb(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + 2H+(aq)
+ 2e−

c. Self-Discharge
The self-discharge rate is a measure of how much batteries discharge on their own. The Self-
Discharge rate is governed by the construction of the battery and the metallurgy of the lead used
inside. 
For instance, flooded cells typically use lead alloyed with Antimony to increase their mechanical
strength. However, the Antimony also increases the self-discharge rate to 8-40% per month. This is
why flooded lead-acid batteries should be in use often or left on a trickle-charger. 
The lead found in Gel and AGM batteries does not require a lot of mechanical strength since it is
immobilized by the gel or fiberglass. Thus, it is typically alloyed with Calcium to
reduce Gassing and Self-Discharge. The self-discharge of Gel and AGM batteries is only 2-10% per
month and thus these batteries need less maintenance to keep them happy.

d. Battery Life
 Battery manufacturers define the end-of-life of a battery when it can no longer hold a proper
charge (for example, a cell has shorted) or when the available battery capacity is 80% or less than
what the battery was rated for. The life of Lead Acid batteries is usually limited by several factors:

 Cycle Life is a measure of how many charge and

discharge cycles a battery can take before its lead-
plate grids/plates are expected to collapse and
short out. The greater the average depth-of-
discharge, the shorter the cycle life.
 Age also affects batteries as the chemistry inside
them attacks the lead plates. The healthier the
"living conditions" of the batteries, the longer they
will serve you. Lead-Acid batteries like to be kept at
a full charge in a cool place. Only buy recently
manufactured batteries, so learn to decipher the
date code stamped on every battery... (inquire
w/manufacturer). The longer the battery has sat in a store, the less time it will serve you! Since
lead-acid batteries will not freeze if fully charged, you can store them in the cold during winter
to maximize their life.

e. Depth of Discharge:
In many types of batteries, the full energy stored in the battery cannot be withdrawn (in other
words, the battery cannot be fully discharged) without causing serious, and often irreparable
damage to the battery. The Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a battery determines the fraction of power
that can be withdrawn from the battery. For example, if the DOD of a battery is given by the
manufacturer as 25%, then only 25% of the battery capacity can be used by the load.

3. Energy efficiency:
Energy efficiency is calculated on the amount of power used from the battery while discharging divided
by the amount of power delivered to the batter while charging, multiplied by 100 to yield percent. Pout x
100 /Pin . A lead-acid battery has an efficiency of only 75-85%. The energy lost appears as heat and warms the
battery. Keeping the charge and discharge rate of a battery low, helps keep a battery cool and improves the
battery life.

The above losses don't include losses in the charging circuit which may have an efficiency of anywhere from
60% to 80% - thus the overall- total efficiency is the product of these efficiencies and ends up being 45 to 68%.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Lead Acid Batteries:

a. Advantages:
i. Inexpensive and simple to manufacture — in terms of cost per watt hours, the SLA is the least
expensive.
 ii. Mature, reliable and well-understood technology — when used correctly, the SLA is durable and
provides dependable service.
iii. Low self-discharge —the self-discharge rate is among the lowest in rechargeable batterysystems.
iv. Low maintenance requirements — no memory; no electrolyte to fill. Capable of high discharge
rates.

b. Disadvantages:
i. Cannot be stored in a discharged condition.
ii. Low energy density — poor weight-to-energy density limits use to stationary and
wheeled applications.
iii. Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles — well suited for standby
applications that require only occasional deep discharges.
iv. Environmentally unfriendly — the electrolyte and the lead content can cause
environmental damage.
v. Transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid — there are environmental concerns
regarding spillage in case of an accident.
vi. Thermal runaway can occur with improper charging.
5. Applications:
Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power
supplies for telephone and computer centers, grid energy storage, and off-grid household electric power
systems. Lead-acid batteries are used in emergency
lighting in case of power failure.

Traction (propulsion) batteries are used for in golf

carts and other battery electric vehicles. Large lead-acid
batteries are also used to power the electric
motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines and
are used on nuclear submarines as well. Motor vehicle
starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries (car batteries)
provides current for starting internal combustion engines.

Valve-regulated lead acid batteries cannot spill their

electrolyte. They are used in back-up power supplies for
alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies) and for electric
scooters, electrified bicycles, marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles, and
motorcycles.

Lead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage (usually between 2 and 12 volts with 2 V
being most common) in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.
 Nickel-cadmium batteries

1. Introduction:
The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd or NiCad) is a type ofrechargeable
battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.

The abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly
used to describe all nickel-cadmium batteries. The abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical
symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd).

2. Charging:
The charging voltage is in the range of 1.4–1.6 V/cell. In
general, a constant-voltage charging method cannot be
used for automatic charging. When fast-charging, it is
advisable to charge the NiMH cells with a smart battery
charger to avoid overcharging, which can damage cells
and cause dangerous conditions. A NiCd charger should
not be used as an automatic substitute for a NiMH
charger.

NiCd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured.
The charge rate is measured based on
the percentage of the hour
capacity the battery is fed as
a steady current over the duration of
the charge. Regardless of the
charge speed, more energy must be
supplied to the battery than its
actual capacity, to account for
energy loss during charging, with
faster charges being more
efficient. For example, an
"overnight" charge, might consist of
supplying a current equals to one
tenth the ampere-hour rating
( C/10 ) for 14–16 hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery takes 10mA for 14 hours, for a total of 140 mAh to charge
at this rate. At the rapid-charge rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity of the battery in 1 hour (1C), the
battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 120 mAh to charge (that is,
approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). Some specialized NiCd cells can be charged in as little as 10–15
minutes at a 4C or 6C charge rate, but this is very uncommon. It also exponentially increases the risk of the
cells overheating and venting due to an internal overpressure condition: the cell's rate of temperature rise is
governed by its internal resistance and the square of the charging rate. At a 4C rate, the amount of heat
generated in the cell is sixteen times higher than the heat at the 1C rate. The downside to faster charging is
the higher risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery.  and the increased temperatures the cell has to
endure.

3. Discharging:
A fully-charged cell measures 1.4–1.45 V (unloaded), [citation needed] and supplies a nominal average 1.25
V/cell during discharge, down to about 1.0–1.1 V/cell (further discharge may cause permanent damage in the
case of multi-cell packs, due to polarity reversal). This voltage varies depending on the discharge rate of the
cell (lower discharge loads result in an increased voltage output for longer periods, approaching the 1.4 V
unloaded cell voltage).

Under a light load (0.5 ampere), the starting voltage of

a freshly charged AA NiMH cell in good condition is
about 1.4 volts;[12] some measure almost 1.5 volts.
[citation needed] This voltage falls rapidly to about
1.25 volts at 10% depth of discharge (DOD) and then
remains almost constant until the cell is over 80%
discharged. The voltage then falls rapidly from about
1.2 volts down to 0.8–1.0 volts at which the cell is
considered "flat" in most devices. Mid-discharge at a
load of 1 ampere, the output is about 1.2 volts; at 2
amperes, about 1.15 volts; the total effective
differential internal resistance is about 0.05 ohms. Nickel metal hydride batteries provide a relatively constant
voltage for most of the discharge cycle, unlike a standard alkaline where the voltage falls steadily during
discharge.

4. Over-discharging:
A complete discharge of a cell until it goes into polarity reversal can cause permanent damage to the cell. This
situation can occur in the common arrangement of four AA cells in series in a digital camera, where one will be
completely discharged before the others due to small differences in capacity among the cells. When this
happens, the good cells will start to drive the discharged cell in reverse, which can cause permanent damage
to that cell.
 5. Self-discharge:
NiMH cells historically had a somewhat higher self-discharge rate (equivalent to internal leakage) than NiCd
cells. The self-discharge is 5–10% on the first day and stabilizes around 0.5–1% per day at room
temperature. This is not a problem in the short term but makes them unsuitable for many light-duty uses,
such as clocks, remote controls, or safety devices, where the battery would normally be expected to last many
months or years.

6. Energy Efficiency:
These batteries offer much better energy densitythan lead-acid batteries. NiCd batteries perform best when
they are regularly discharged completely and then recharged completely; otherwise, they display the memory
effect, which limits their depth of discharge and usefulness. NiCd batteries can last for about 1,000 charge-
discharge cycles and function well in extreme temperatures.

Many countries now impose strict disposal regulations on lead-

acid and NiCd batteries. The heavy metals used in their
manufacture can cause serious environmental pollution if not
recycled or stored. Compliance with these regulations may add
significantly to the cost of these batteries.

NiMH batteries lasts approximately 40% longer per charge than

comparable Nickel-Cadmium batteries. They are lighter in weight and last up to 700 charge/discharge cycles.

Both NiCd and NiMH batteries cost substantially more than lead-acid batteries.

7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Nickel-cadmium Batteries:

a. Advantages:
i. Fast and simple charge — even after prolonged storage.
ii. High number of charge/discharge cycles — if properly maintained, the NiCd provides over
1000 charge/discharge cycles.
iii. Good load performance — the NiCd allows recharging at low temperatures.
iv. Long shelf life – in any state-of-charge.
v. Simple storage and transportation — most airfreight companies accept the NiCd without
special conditions.
vi. Good low temperature performance.
vii. Forgiving if abused — the NiCd is one of the most rugged rechargeable batteries.
viii. Economically priced — the NiCd is the lowest cost battery in terms of cost per cycle.
ix. Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options — mostNiCd cells are cylindrical.

b. Disadvantages:
 i. Relatively low energy density — compared with newer systems.
ii. Memory effect — the NiCd must periodically be exercised to prevent memory.
iii. Environmentally unfriendly — the NiCd contains toxic metals.
iv. Some countries are limiting the use of the NiCd battery.
v. Has relatively high self-discharge — needs recharging after storage.

8. Features of different cell types:

a. Long service life and economical 
The cell can provide more than 500 charge and discharge cycles. This makes it extremely
economical, and provides an expected life similar to that of the device in which it is used.
b. Excellent discharge characteristics 
The batteries have low internal resistance and high, flat voltage characteristics during strong
current discharge, which ensures a wider application field. 
c. Outstanding charge/dischargecharacteristics at high temperature.
The high temperature "H" type battery has a high trickle-charge efficiency even in temperature
as high as 35 to 70 .
d. Long shelf life
The cells provide long storage life with few limiting conditions. It offers problem-free charge
after long storage, permitting to use in a wide range of applications.  
e. High-rate charging
For those applications that require it the cells can be quick charged or rapid charged in 1-2
hours. Ni-Cd batteries can be fully charged in 1.2 hours.
f. Excellent high-current discharge characteristics 
The High rate discharge type (P Type) cells have about 90% at 6CmA discharge and 85% at
10CmA discharge for the rated capacity of 0.2 CmA discharge.
g. Wide-Temperature Range
The normal type cell can be used at extreme temperature. The high temperature type cells can
be used at 70oC or more.
h. Reliable, self-resealing vent
Each cell is equipped with a self-resealing safety vent that provides safety and maintenance-
free function. The cell can be used in any desired position during charge, 
discharge or storage. Thanks to the special material in the gasket and our original liquid sealing
compound, the occurrence of electrolyte leakage occurs very rarely. 
i. Maintenance free
The General type cells have easy handling just like dry cells. Avoids overcharging or over
discharging.
j. Stable in performance
The battery is not sensitive to heat, and thus can be used in a wide temperature range.
k. Interchangeable with 1.5V dry cells
In the Consumer Type cells, though the nominal voltage is 1.2V, this battery can be used for
1.5V dry cell equipment without trouble.
 l. Wide application field
Batteries with capacity from 100mA to 7,000mA are available. With four types available for
general use as described below, the batteries can be applied in any cordless equipment.
m. High quality and reliability
Produced using a ISO 9000 certified quality control system.
9. Applications:
Sealed NiCd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more
cells. Small NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys, often using cells manufactured in
the same sizes as primary cells. When NiCds are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal
voltage and smaller ampere-hour capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells.
Miniature button cells are sometimes used in photographic equipment, hand-held lamps (flashlight or
torch), computer-memory standby, toys, and novelties.

Specialty NiCd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, and other
applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, a NiCd battery can supply high surge currents.
This makes them a favourable choice for remote-controlledelectric model airplanes, boats, and cars, as
well as cordless power tools and camera flash units. Larger flooded cells are used for aircraft starting
batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.

The End