Muscular System

Different Muscle Tissues:

Skeletal Muscle:
 Most cells are multinucleate
 Most are attached by tendons to bones
 Voluntary—subject to conscious control. Often activated by reflexes
 Is strong and supports the muscles because the cells are surrounded/
bundled by connective tissue
- Endomysium is around a single muscle fiber
- Perimysium is around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers. Is a course
fibrous membrane.
- Epimysium covers the entire skeletal muscle. The epimysia
blend into the strong, cordlike tendons, or into sheet like
aponeruses, which attach muscles indirectly to bones,
cartilages, or connective tissue covering each other.
- Fascia is on the outside of the epimysium
 Elongated
 Can contract rapidly and with force but must rest after short periods of activity
Cardiac Muscle:
 Has striations
 Usually has a single nucleus
 Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
 Involuntary
 Found only in the heart
Smooth Muscle:
 Has no striations
 Spindle-shaped cells
 Single nucleus
 Involuntary—No conscious control
 Found mainly in the wall of hollow organs (stomach, bladder,
respiratory passages)
 Propels substances along a definite tract within the body

Microscopic Structures:
 Cells are multinucleate
 Nuclei are just beneath the sarcolemma
 Myofibrils are the nuclei pushed aside by long ribbon like
organelles. They are really chains of tiny contractile units
called sarcomeres.
 Myofilaments within sarcomeres produce the banding
appearance.
- Myosin filaments: Thick filaments that are bundles by the
protein myosin, but also contain ATPase enzymes, which
split ATP to generate power for contractions. Extend to
the entire A band segment.
 Myosin heads are cross bridges that link the thick
and thin filaments together.
 - Actin Filaments: Thin filaments composed of the protein actin that play a role in allowing/preventing
myosin head-binding actin. Anchored to the Z disc. Don’t extend into the midline.
 Light (I) and dark (A) bands along the myofibrils give the muscle cell a striped appearance
 The I band has a midline interruption called the Z disc. The A band has a central area called the H zone. The M
line in the center of the H zone contains tiny protein rods that hold adjacent thick filaments together.

Sequence of Anatomy:
Largest to Smallest: Muscle tissue, muscle fascicles, muscle cells, myofibrils, sarcomeres,
Myofilaments (actin & myosin)

Sliding Filament Theory:

 Activation by nerves causes myosin heads (cross bridges) to attach on the binding
sites of the actin filaments. Calcium ions come from the action potentials in the
muscle cell. They attach to troponin and it changes its form and moves trypomyasin
in the sarcolemma. The movement of trypomyasin reveals the myosin binding sites
for attachment with the thin filament. The attachment causes cross bridges to open
up. Sliding soon begins as the H zone closes and the muscle cell shortens and
contracts.

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle:

 Muscle fiber contraction is all or none. Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the
same interval. Different combinations of a muscle fiber contraction may give differing responses.
- Graded Responses: Different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening. Can be produced in two ways:
 By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation
 Changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated

Types of Graded Responses:

 Twitch: Single, brief contraction. This is NOT a normal muscle
function
 Tetanus: Summing of contractions
- One contraction is immediately followed by another
- The muscle does not completely return to the resting state
- The effects are added
 Unfused/Incomplete Tetanus: Summing of contractions
- Some relaxation occurs between contractions
- The results are summed
 Fused/Complete Tetanus: Summing of contractions
- No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
- The result is a sustained muscle contraction

Energy for Muscle Contractions:

 Initially, muscles used stored ATP for energy. Bonds of ATP are broken down to release energy. Only 4-6 seconds
worth of ATP is stored by muscles. After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP.
1.) Direct Phosphorylation:
- Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP). CP is a high-energy molecule
- After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
- CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
- CP supplies are exhausted in about 20 seconds.
2.) Aerobic Respiration:
- Occurs at rest and during light to moderate exercise. 95% of ATP used for muscle activity comes
from aerobic respiration.
- Series of metabolic pathways (oxidative Phosphorylation) that occur in the mitochondria
 - Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy
- This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
- Can last for hours
3.) Anaerobic Glycolysis:
- Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
- Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce some ATP
- Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
- This reaction is not efficient, but it is fast
 Huge amounts of glucose are needed
 Produces about 5% as much ATP from each glucose molecule as aerobic respiration
 Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue if too much is built up.
 Can provide most of the ATP needed for 30-60 seconds of strenuous muscle activity.

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt:

 Muscle fatigue occurs with a buildup of lactic acid via anaerobic glycolysis or strenuous exercise for long periods
of time. When a muscle is fatigued it is unable to contract even though it is still begin stimulated.
 Muscle fatigue is believed to be a result of oxygen debt that occurs during prolonged muscle activity. A person is
unable to take in enough oxygen fast enough to keep the muscles supplied with necessary oxygen as well as a
decrease in ATP supply. The end result is that the muscles are unable to contract efficiently and eventually stop
contracting all together.
- Oxygen must be repaid to tissues to remove oxygen debt
- Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
- This is common in marathon runners
Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory System:
 External nares, nasal conchae, internal nares,
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, alveoli.

Protective Mechanisms of the Respiratory System:

 Cilia, coughs and sneezes, mucus, epiglottis.

Structure & Function of the Lungs & Pleural Coverings:

 Left lung: 2 lobes
 Right lung: 3 lobes.
 Lungs take in oxygen. Apex and base. Visceral pleura
covers the lungs. Parietal pleura covers the thoracic cavity.
Pleural membranes allow for lung movement without
friction.

Cellular Respiration:
 Cellular respiration: process of burning glucose in the
presence of oxygen to create energy.
 Equation: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = Energy + 6 H2O + 6 CO2

Breathing:
 External Respiration: Moving gases from alveoli to
blood.
 Internal Respiration: Moving gases from blood to
cells.
 Pulmonary Ventilation: breathing
 Expiration: air leaving lungs
 Inspiration: Flow of air into lungs

Pressure & Diaphragm Activities with the Lungs:

 Inspiration: diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, thoracic cavity size increases, pressure in chest cavity
decreases, air rushes in
 Expiration: diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, thoracic cavity size decreases, pressure in chest cavity
increases, air rushes out

Respiratory Volume Characteristics:

 Tidal Volume: amount exchanged with a normal breath.
500 ml
 Vital Capacity: total amount of exchangeable air. TV + IRV +
ERV. 4800 ml
 Expiratory Reserve Volume: amount of air that can be
forcedly exhaled. 1200 ml
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume: amount that can be inhaled
above the tidal volume. 2100-3200 ml.
 Residual Air: amount of air left in lungs after normal
expiration. 1200 ml
Non-Respiratory Air Movements:
 Cough & Sneeze: clears lungs of debris.
 Laughing: emotionally induced response. Inspiration with short breaths released.
 Crying: emotionally induced response. Inspiration with short breaths released.
 Yawn: ventilates all alveoli. Possibly triggered for a need for my oxygen in the blood. Very deep inspiration.
 Hiccup: sudden inspirations from diaphragm spasms. Irritation of diaphragm or phrenic nerves. Air hitting the
vocal folds and closed glottis creates the sound.

Process of Gas Exchange:

 Oxygen passes from the alveolar air into the capillary blood and carbon dioxide leaves the blood to enter the
gas-filled alveoli. Tissue cells take oxygen from the capillaries and releases carbon dioxide into the capillaries.
The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood. Oxygen diffuses to areas of lower concentration.
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in Blood:
 Oxygen: bonds with hemoglobin to make oxyhemoglobin. Carbon dioxide: transported in plasma as bicarbonate
ion. Bicarbonate ions combine with hydrogen to make carbonic acid. Some is carried connected to hemoglobin
as well.

Brain Areas Involved in Respiration:

 Phrenic and intercostal nerves deliver nerve impulses to the diaphragm and external intercostals.
 Medulla and pons.

Physical Factors that Affect Respiratory Rates:

 Talking, coughing, exercising, body temperature.

Why it is Not Possible to Stop Breathing Voluntarily

 The brain will ignore your wishes when oxygen supply is low in the blood or blood pH is falling.

Respiratory Disorders:
 Apnea: cessation of respiration.
 Dyspnea: difficult or labored breathing. “Air hunger.”
 Hyperventilation: an increased depth and rate of breathing greater than normal because of an accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the blood and a dropping pH.
 Hypoventilation: extremely slow or shallow breathing.
 COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

COPDs:
 Chronic bronchitis: Inflamed mucosa causing excessive mucus production. “Blue bloaters.” Smoking and
pollution are causes.
 Emphysema: Airways become less elastic, inflammation of lungs and alveoli. Air outflow obstruction. “Pink
puffers.” Smoking is the leading cause.
Urinary System
Anatomy of the Kidneys:
 Lie against the dorsal body wall against the retroperitoneal position
beneath the parietal peritoneum in the superior lumbar region.
 Extend from the T12 to the L3 vertebrae. They receive some protection
from the lower part of the rib cage
 Right kidney is slightly lower than the left
 Adult kidneys are about the size of a large bar of soap
 Has a medial indentation called the renal hilus where the ureters, renal
blood vessels, and nerves enter/exit the kidneys
 Adrenal gland is on top of each kidney
 The renal capsule encloses each kidney and the adipose capsule holds
the kidney against the trunk wall.

Regions of the Kidney:

 Renal Cortex: Thin outer layer of the kidney. Usually light in
color.
 Renal Hilus: Medial indentation in the kidneys. The ureters,
renal blood vessels, and nerves enter/exit the kidney here.
 Renal Medulla: Inside the cortex. Is a dark redish color.
 Medullary Pyramids: Striped in appearance. Separated by
renal columns.
 Calyces: Extensions of the renal pelvis that form cup shaped
areas that enclose the tops of the pyramids. Calyces collect
urine that drains from the tips of the pyramids.
 Renal Pelvis: Inner collecting tube. Is continuous with the
ureters leaving the hilus. Urine flows from the pelvis to the
ureter, which transports urine to the bladder.
 Renal Columns: Separate the renal pyramids made of cortex
like tissue.

Nephrons:
 Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the
kidneys that are responsible in the formation of urine. They
are the tiny filtering units.
 There are over 1,000,000 nephrons per kidney.
 Entire blood volume is filtered 60x per day.

Parts of a Nephron:
 Glomerulus: Knot of capillaries. Blood pressure is very high
here because it receives and feeds out blood. Extremely high
BP forces fluid and solutes smaller than proteins out of the
blood into the glomerular capsule.
- Afferent Arteriole: Arises from the interlobular artery and
is the feeder vessel for the nephron. Larger diameter than
the efferent arteriole.
- Efferent Arteriole: Receives blood that has passed
through the glomerulus. Peritubular capillaries arise from
the efferent arteriole and drains into the glomerulus.
These capillaries are low pressure that are adapted for absorption.
  Renal Tubule: Knot of capillaries. Everything BUT the collecting duct.
 Glomerular/Bowman’s Capsule: The closed end of the renal tubule that is enlarged and cup-shaped and
completely surrounds the glomerulus. Blood gets put out of here. The substance looks like plasma.
 Podocytes: The inner/visceral part of the capsule is made of up highly modified cells. Have long branching
processes called foot processes that interwine with one another and cling to the glomerulus. Filtration slits exist
between the extensions and form a porous membrane around the glomerulus.
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Covered with microvilli to increase its surface area. Reabsorption begins
here where 80% of the water is absorbed by filtrate.
 Loop of Henle: The “hair pin” of the nephron. 100% of glucose and amino acids reabsorb and go back to the
blood stream.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Reabsorption of water occurs here to go back into the bloodstream. An
additional 19% of water is reabsorbed and = 99% total water reabsorbed. 19% of ADH hormone (Anti-diuretic)
is also reabsorbed with the water to recover the water in the blood. Aldosterone is also reabsorbed with the
water which reabsorbs salt with water following.
 Collecting Ducts: Receives urine from many nephrons and runs downward through the medullary pyramids,
giving them their striped appearance. They deliver the final urine product into the calyces and renal pelvis.

Urine Formation:
 Filtration: A nonselective, passive process. The filtration that is formed is essentially blood plasma without blood
proteins. Glomerulus acts a filter and is where it first occurs. Everything except for RBC’s and proteins is forced
from glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule.
 Reabsorption: Filtrate takes up many useful ions, amino acids, glucose, and some water. These ions must be
reclaimed by the filtrate and this is where reabsorption for the substances to go back to the bloodstream.
Tubular reabsorption occurs as soon as the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule. Nitrogenous wastes
such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These ailments are found in high concentrations in the urine. Most
reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
 Secretion: Essentially reabsorption in reverse. Additional harmful substances are added to the urine(drugs,
medications, etc.) and can control blood pH. Occurs in the collecting duct.

Function of the Kidneys:

 The kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream. The kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes to be excreted
out of the body while returning the valuable nutrients to the blood stream. The kidneys also regulate the blood’s
volume and chemical makeup so that the proper balance between water and salts and between acids and bases
in maintained. They also regulate blood pressure. Lastly, they manufacture urine.

Disorders:
 Polyuria: excrete large volumes of urine
 Anuria: excreting less than 100 ml of urine a day
 Oliguria: excreting between 100 and 400 ml of urine a day
 Diuresis: urine production
 Diabetes Mellitus: Lack of insulin
 Diabetes Insipidus: Lack of ADH

Composition of Normal Urine

 Volume is about 1000-1500 ml
 Sterile
 Slightly aromatic
 pH=6 (slightly acidic)
 Specific Gravity of 1.001-1.020
 Does not contain glucose, bile, rbc’s , hemoglobin, or wbc’s
 Clear pale to deep yellow because of urochrome
 Has sodium, potassium, urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, and bicarbonate ions.
Abnormal Urine Components & Disorders:
 Glucose: excessive intake of sugary foods, diabetes mellitus
 Blood proteins: physical exertion, pregnancy, glomerulonephritis, hypertension
 Red blood cells: bleeding in the urinary tract because of trauma, kidney stones, or infection
 Hemoglobin: transfusion reaction, hemolytic anemia
 White blood cells/pus: urinary tract infection
 Bile: liver disease (hepatitis)
 Ketones: product of fat metabolism when in starvation mode or when the body can’t digest glucose because of
diabetes.

Functions of Urinary System Organs:

 Ureters: 10-12 inches long, carry urine by peristalsis
 Bladder: transitional cells, adipose tissue, renal capsules. Temporary storage sac for urine.
 Urethra: males 8 inches long, females 1 inch, carries urine to the outside of the body.

Sphincters:
 External Urethral Sphincter: Superiorly located and is voluntary. Once the internal sphincter is filled and the
person feels the urge to void, we can choose to hold in our urine or release it. The external sphincter can be
relaxed so that the urine is flushed from the body.
 Internal Urethral Sphincter: Inferiorly located and is involuntary. As the contractions become stronger, stored
urine is forced past the internal urethral sphincter. It is then that a person finally feels the urge to void.
- Control the flow of urine from the bladder. The bladder continues to collect urine until about 200 mL. At
this point, stretching of the bladder wall activates stress receptors. Impulses transmitted to the sacral
region of the spinal cord and then back to the bladder via the pelvic sphincter.
- Bladder can hold 750 mL of urine before voiding involuntarily

ADH Regulation of Water Balance in Kidneys:

 When the ADH hormone is released, a final 19% of water is reabsorbed into the paritubular capillaries at the
distal convoluted tubule. It concentrates the urine.

Aldosterone Regulation of Water Balance in Kidneys:

 Aldosterone causes kidney tubule cells to reclaim sodium ions and secrete more potassium ions into the urine
when sodium is reabsorbed, water follows.