AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS

SCHOOL LEVEL

V. P. SRIVASTAVA

A sharing with Fellow Teachers

At the threshold, our psyche changes, getting prepared for entry into a
venerated new realm. It is the first step into the realm. It must not be high.
Mathematics is as old as the human race, it attracted and was attended
by the best brains and served the humblest through the ages. It keeps
growing and expanding in new directions; new concepts giving birth to new
definitions, more theorems and their proofs following. There are simple
(expected) results not necessarily having easy proofs − like the four colour
problem and Fermat’s last theorem. There are bewildering results, which
likes of Ramanujan alone know how it occurred to them (like approximations
to π). In the textbooks on Mathematics, and also in the classrooms, big
space-time is spent on the proofs of the theorems. Proofs are like a defence
of the theorem to the (ignorant) judges. But someone will prepare the
defence (proof) only if he or she is able to see the theorem (the truth).
The observations which help a person in seeing and arriving at the truth
(theorem) convincingly; in the absence of which the drudgery of building of
the proof will not be taken up; deserve greater importance in the learning
of Mathematics. The observations (called examples or counter-examples in
Mathematics) precede the theorems, definitions and even the concept itself.
At the threshold of Mathematics, shall we wait a while, enjoying our first
observations! The real encounter with great things will take time and effort.
If the teaching of Mathematics follows this sequence, beginning with dis-
cussions on examples leading to the concept, it would provide the student
with the joy of discovery at every level of learning and train him/her better
in Mathematical reasoning. The common practice however has been that
the definitions are presented to the learner as if obtained from the blue and
theorems obtained through a magic wand. And then examples are presented
to illustrate the definitions and theorems. However, the scientific learning
should involve exposure to a variety of examples and situations that take a
student to such a height that the concept and related theorems twinkle to
him simultaneously. The granting of the incubation period is essential before
the natural birth of a concept or definition and their properties (theorems)
to a learner.

Date: August 4, 2008.

1
2 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

I do believe that Mathematics Laboratory work must not be only the

Physical verification of the results but include experiments that lead you to
the results.
At the threshold of Mathematics, in the following few activities, an at-
tempt is made to illustrate the proposal made in the preceding paragraphs.
Activities suggested are not meant to be read as a part of text by the stu-
dents. It is a sharing of one teacher to other fellow-teachers; hoping them to
develop and share activities for myriad of concepts and theorems they are
coming across. In this attempt, few topics have been taken up at each level;
early school, secondary school and college.

Contents
1. Looking Around 2
2. So Many Triangles 3
3. Slipping Rods Collapsing Triangles 5
4. Going Round and Round 6
5. Cyclic Quadrilaterals 9
6. Sitting spaces 11
7. Balancing of Cardboards 12

1. Looking Around
Let us explore our surroundings. We look and show our findings to our
friends nearby. Move your hand on the surface of your table, then on the
surface of the wall, the door. These surfaces are different than the surface
of an apple or an orange. The former ones are straight in character. We
may call them straight surface or simply call them plane. The surface of an
apple or an orange is called curved surface. Explore more and more planes
around you.
Look at the two adjacent walls of your room. They meet in a straight
line. Look at the edge of your table. Is that also a straight line? Can you
find the two planes meeting to make the edge of the table? Look also at
the floor and the ceiling of the room and discover the straight lines; and
the adjacent planes that make them. Look at the doors, windows, books,
boxes and other articles around you to discover more planes and straight
lines they make.
Again, look at the two adjacent edges (straight lines) of your table. They
meet at a corner. Look at the other corners of the table; and discover the
edges that make those corners. Look at one of the vertical lines that the
walls of your room make. Does this vertical line meet another line in the
ceiling? Does it meet a line at the floor of the room? How many corners you
find in your room? What straight lines make these corners? These corners
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 3

we may call “points”. Find out straight lines around you and the points
they make while intersecting other straight lines.
We human beings imitate. We make drawings imitating real flowers,
clouds, rivers and everything around. We make drawings of the faces of the
beloved ones. But imitation is not the reality. So what, we don’t mind .We
imitate and make pictures of points, the corners and straight lines also on
paper. Don’t mind, it is not the reality. When your pencil is not sharp-
pointed, the teachers don’t appreciate the straight line or point made. How
interesting! The ‘point’, the ‘straight line’ are fantasies. So is the ‘plane’
also. We believe that a straight line, a part of which we see in the form of
edge of the table or the vertical corner of the room has no breadth and a
point has neither length nor breadth. Strange it looks, we make calculations
on this hypothesis for our straight lines made on the paper.
Because these lines are being written for sharing with teachers only, most
of the routine matter is skipped.

2. So Many Triangles
Experiment: Not for Reading.
Let us take two arm-length measuring 12 units and 5 units, hinged at one
end C. Let the two arms be inclined at an angle X to each other. The two
arms named AC and BC can be moved, varying the angle X, bringing arms
closer or farther. Experiment making more and more triangles, changing X.
How many triangles can be made with arms AC and BC?

C C C
B
X
X
X
B
B

A A A

Shall we try to make triangles with larger third side AB, denoting the
measure of the third side as c? Also experiment making triangles with
smaller and smaller third side AB.
What happens of the triangle ABC when we attempt to make the third
side AB of maximum length? Shall we attempt to formulate our finding?
The teacher may please wait till the class, one student supplementing and
4 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

correcting the statement of the other and so on...... concludes the observa-
tion that the length of the third side in a triangle is ............ sum of the
lengths of the other two sides.
We continue the experiment. Shall we investigate, what we do to find a
triangle with the smallest third side? What the third side must be like? It
would not be difficult to encourage the class to formulate a result as to what
the third side must be greater than.
In terms of the usual notations, denoting BC as a and AC as b, the first
result is
c < a + b.
Analogously, we can obtain a < b + c and b < a + c. But that implies
that c > a − b. Interpreting geometrically we are getting the second result
worked out above.
Is it not wonderful!! It gives us an opportunity, how algebraic represen-
tations facilitates the study of Geometry; and reveals facts not so obvious.
II
Examine the following. Take two points A and B in a plane. Supposing,
there are no barriers in the plane. How do you travel starting from A towards
B? How about travelling via a third point C? Would it be as economical
distance-wise or time-wise? Is there a situation that it will not make any
difference, even if we travel via C? Formulate your finding in the form of a
result. Compare the result with the finding of the preceding discussion and
the result there.
III
We pick up our earlier experiment once again. May we eye upon the
space (area) enclosed by the triangle. Once again we begin with a collapsed
triangle ABC with AC upon CB enclosing a zero area.
We separate AC and CB, making an angle X, and enclosing some area.
Increase X further, area increases further.

C 111
000
10111
000 00000
11111
00
11
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11111
C
11111
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11111
B

10111
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11
C

00000
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11
x
x

00000
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000
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000
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11111
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B
00000
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A 000 11111
111 00000 A
00000
11111
A
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 5

As you repeat ‘increase X further’, in a chorus, most oftenly, the class

joins ‘area increases’. They realise to have erred only when X nearing 180o ,
they see the area vanishing to zero. Repeat the experiment. Some in the
class, growing wiser, would say in between ‘area decreases’. Repeat the
experiment, moving slow ... and in between preparing to ask, “stop me
when the area starts decreasing”.
I must take a break to share my experience, when during this experiment
in the class; at this stage, a little village girl from Orissa jumps up to ask; “Is
it not turning when the angle is 90o ”. She is able to see the truth that me
and the entire faculty at Institute of Mathematics in Bhubaneshwar found
impossible to prove to her at her age of 8 − 9; and feel guilty to ask her to
wait for another 4 − 5 years.
Bandita, the little girl expects 90o to be the turning point and not 80o or
100o . The truth is not 89o or 91o , either? Why? Mathematics depends on
faith in ‘Order’ in nature. The nature is proclaiming this ‘Order’ to everyone,
everywhere, all the while. We can expose the students to this invitation of
the Nature and help them in discovering the ‘Order’ for themselves.

3. Slipping Rods Collapsing Triangles

Activity 1
Support a two-legged structure hinged at C, with legs CA and CB. If
we press C downwards, supporting the structure vertically; A and B taking
new positions A′ and B ′ . What happens to angles at new positions of A, B
and C? Bring C further down, and observe the changes at the new positions
of A, B, C. Press C further downwards, almost reaching the floor level. The
angles at A and B now approach zero. What approaches the angle at C to?
What seems to be the sum of the three angles at A, B and C at this stage?

C’

A’ A B B’

Figure 1. Slipping Two-Legged Structure

Slowly, raise the level of C, repeating the experiment in the reverse order.
Did you keep observing the changes in the angles at A, B and C? What
6 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

looked happening to the sum of the angles? Repeat the experiment with
the view to answer the questions better.
Let us repeat the experiment with a structure with AC and CB of dif-
ferent lengths. Again observe what increase of angle at C causes for angles
at A and B. Next make a measured increase in the angle at C, and observe
the changes at A and B. And what happens to the sum of the angles?
Shall we take up the reverse activity? Let C be raised higher and higher;
and yet higher. The angle at C becomes smaller and angles at A and B
become larger. What about the sum total of the angles?
Activity 2
Let a rod AB rest with end A on the wall and the end B at the floor. I
hope it is so placed that the foot of the perpendicular from A to the floor
and foot of the perpendicular from B to the wall coincide at C, and angle
ACB is ninety degrees. If the rod slips, A taking positions A′ , A′′ .... on the
wall and B taking positions B ′ , B ′′ ... on the floor; observe that angle at
new positions of A increases, while angles at new positions of B diminishes.

A
A’
A’’

C B B’ B’’

Figure 2. Slipping Rod

When the rod is almost horizontal, the A-end of the rod is nearly on
C; and the B-end makes almost zero angle to the floor and the angle at
A is nearly ninety degrees. What is the sum of the angles at A, B and C
in different positions of the rod? Repeat the experiment, raising the rod
straight; with A going up the wall and B nearing C. Observe the angles;
when B is almost at C. What about the sum of the angles at A, B and C?
Shall we try to formulate our observations about the sum of the angles of a
triangle.

4. Going Round and Round

Activity 3
Take a round of the field, and come back, beginning and ending at P . You
end up with your face in the same direction, as it was at the commencement
of the journey. See Figure 3.
How many degrees have you turned in the process? How many degrees
do you turn, if the field was not so circular? In fields like in Figure 4, what
is your answer?
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 7

.
P

Figure 3. Going Round

Figure 4. Non-Circular Rounds

Mischievous round takers will be disqualified, making rounds like in Figure

5.

P P

Figure 5. Mischievous Rounds

Let us go round a triangle. Take any triangle ABC (on the field . . . or
on paper). Choose any point P on the segment BC. Go from P up to C,
turn in the direction of A and travel (or trace) along CA, then along AB,
and finally along BP . Stop at P . See Figure 6.
1. How much (how many degrees) have you turned around, starting from
P and ending at P ? Which way was your face at the beginning and which
way it is, when you end? (too trivial for a hint and better not be asked to
average students)?
2. Oh . . . degrees have I turned around! When did these turning happen?
Let us repeat the travel again.
8 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

.
C
B P

Figure 6. Going Round a Triangle

A
Y

.
C C’
B P
Z

Figure 7. Measuring the turn

We were going in the direction of BC, the first turning took place at
C. Let us measure it, call it X degrees. (Going BC and CC ′ way, there
would have been no turning or zero degree turning.) There are only two
more turnings at A and at B, call the measure of the turning be Y and Z
degrees. See Figure 4. These are the only turnings, so X + Y + Z must be
the measure of the turning from P to P via C and B.
3. Observe the linear pairs

A
Y

Y’
X

Z’ X’
.
C C’
B P
Z

Figure 8. Getting the right measurements

X + X′ = ; Y +Y′ = ; Z + Z′ = .
So X ′ + Y ′ + Z ′ =.
Conclusion:
Write the above conclusion in the form of a theorem. Measurements X ′ ,
Y ′ , Z ′ were for angles at points A, B, C, respectively. How to add them?
The only way is to transfer them all at one point, say C. The measure Y ′
at A, is obtainable by line initiating at C parallel to AB (in the direction
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 9

of AB), similarly transfer the measure Z ′ at C. What is the transferred

X ′ + Y ′ + Z ′?
4. Suppose, we repeat our experiment with a quadrilateral ABCD. Pick
up a point P on the periphery and go around.

D
A

X
Z
B .
P C
W

Let us repeat the earlier questions: how many degrees have you turned
around, starting from P and ending at P ? When did the turnings take
place? And so
X + Y + Z + W =?.
As before, question
X + X′ = ?
Y +Y′ = ?
Z + Z′ = ?
W + W′ = ?
And so X ′ + Y ′ + Z ′ + W ′ =?.
It should not be difficult to consider the above process for any polygon
with n vertices: A, B, C, . . .. Is it not obvious that
X + Y + Z + . . . = 4 right angles
X + X + Y + Y ′ + Z + Z ′ + . . . = n times two right angles.
′

Therefore
X ′ + Y ′ + Z ′ + . . . = 2n right angles − 2 × 2 right angles
= (n − 2) times 2 right angles
= (n − 2) × 180o .

5. Cyclic Quadrilaterals
Let us take a circle and a quadrilateral ABCD in it. In the quadrilateral,
let us try to expand the angle at A by shifting B to B ′ and D to D′ . What
is the consequence at the angle C which is angle B ′ CD′ now? More we
expand the angle at A, the angle at C shrinks more. Similarly expansion of
the angle at C results in contraction of angle at A, keeping the vertices of
the quadrilateral on the given circle.
10 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

B’

A
B

D’

In this increase/decrease situations at A/C, will there be not the situation,

when the angles at A and C are equal? What is that situation? Is not that an
interesting situation? Let us now restart from this special situation. Make
a measured increase in the angle at A. What is the measure of decrease in
angle at C? Repeat the process with a new measured increases at A, make
your observations. What do you discover? Write down your discovery, in
the format of a theorem.
Using the theorem, the angle at A determines the angle at C. In a new
activity proposed, let us not change the angle at A and so B and D don’t
move from their positions. Choose another point C ′ on the circle. By our
theorem the angle at A determines the angle at C ′ also. What is the relation
between the angles at C and C ′ ? If we choose another point C ′′ on the arc
BD, what do you observe about the angles in the same segment of a circle?
Write down your discovery.

B
A

C’
D

We discover that angles in same segment of a circle are all equal. So

angles at C, C ′ , C ′′ , ... are all equal. Even at the point E, the point on the
circle obtained by extending BO , the angle remains the same.
However, EO = AO. So ∠OEA = ∠AEO.
Thus angle at the centre, i.e., ∠AOB, which is the sum of ∠OEA and
∠AEO is actually twice the angle ∠AEO. Does it say something about the
relation between the angle formed at the centre by a segment and angles at
any point on the circle made by the same segment?
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 11

6. Sitting spaces
Let two square mats be placed with one corner of one in contact with
one corner of another. It is tempting to surround the in between place for a
game, a deity, a yagya or just leave vacant by placing a square mat at P Q.
See Figure 9.

1111
0000
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1111 0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
A 0000
1111
S
00001111
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0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
A
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Figure 9. Sitting Space 1

The sitting space S provided by the third mat as shown in Figure 9 is

not as much as provided by the earlier mats. If we increase the angle θ in
between the two mats we started with, the space S is seen to increase.

11111111
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00000000
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0000
1111 00000000
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S
0000
1111 00000000
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0000
1111 00000000
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A 00000000
11111111
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θ
0000
1111 00000000
11111111
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11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
A
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

Figure 10. Sitting Space 2

Let us vary the angle θ, and study the corresponding changes on the space
S. Observe situations:
S < A, S > A.
From the situations S < A, can it suddenly turn to situations S > A?
Must it not pass through the situation S = A?
What is the corresponding value of θ?
Is it not interesting to experiment that as we increase θ further, up goes
S (above A). Continue the experiment by increasing θ and observing the
12 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

increase in S. What is the maximum possible value of θ, and what is the

corresponding value of S, in terms of A?
It is interesting to discover that you cross the situations S > 2A, S >
3A, . . ..
What happens as long as θ is acute; and what happens when it turns
obtuse? Mark the turn from situations S < 2A to S > 2A; can we charac-
terise them in terms of angle θ (acute and obtuse values of θ ). In between
must be the stage S = 2A. What is θ then? Formulate your discovery as a
theorem.
Let us repeat the experiment with the hands of a clock, attaching stiff
paper to hands making them sides of two squares with spaces A and B in
between varying angle θ. Discuss situations for acute and obtuse values of
θ. See Figure 11.

111111111
000000000
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111111111
00000000
11111111 000000000
111111111
00000000
11111111 000000000
111111111
00000000
11111111 000000000
111111111
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11111111 000000000
111111111
00000000
11111111 000000000
111111111
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11111111 000000000
111111111
S
00000000
11111111 000000000
111111111
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11111111
B 00000
11111 000000000
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11111 000000000
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11111 000000000
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1111111
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11111
S 000000000
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0000000
1111111
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0
1 00000
11111
00000
11111 000000000
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0000000
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11111111
0
1 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
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1111111
θ
00000
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00000000
11111111 000000000
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0 11111
1 0000000
00000
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B000000000
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0000
1111
0000000
1111111
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11111 0000
1111
0000000
1111111
00000
11111
A 0000
1111
0000000
1111111
00000
11111 0000
1111
0000000
1111111 A
00000
11111 0000
1111
0000000
1111111
00000
11111 0000
1111
0000000
1111111
Figure 11. Clock Hand Spaces

Can situations S < A + B suddenly turn to S > A + B? When is

S = A + B? Formulate your finding in the form of a theorem. Investigate
whether your theorem remains true in case, the sitting mats we start with
are semicircular or triangular (equilateral) instead of being square.

7. Balancing of Cardboards
An apple fell on Newton’s head. Not yours! Good. Have you not seen a
book or notebook falling from the table? I have seen full tray overturning
from the table, as soon as a glass has been removed.
Let us perform the experiment of falling from the tables; of course not of
the book or notebook. Take a hard thin rectangular cardboard and place it
on the table.
Slowly move it towards the edge of the table, and beyond it, not allowing
it to fall. Be very slow in moving more and more of it beyond the edge. Can
 AT THE THRESHOLD OF MATHEMATICS 13

you bring it to a situation that even the slightest push would make it fall!
With your pencil, mark a line on the cardboard along the edge of the table.
What is the significance of this line to this cardboard piece?
The line divides the weight of the cardboard in two equal parts. Can
you find more such lines on the cardboard? Do they intersect? (Can there
be such lines not intersecting?) Mark the point of intersection. Sharpen
your pencil pin-pointed or else you may take a pin. Could you balance the
cardboard on your pin at this point?
Now take cardboard of different shapes, regular and irregular.

Could you discover balancing points in each of them? Enough of balancing

act, you qualify to be a joker in my circus!!! Ha Ha.
Let us take the triangular cardboard ABC. Keeping A on the edge of the
table, keep B and a little more off the table. Without moving A, take B
farther and farther from the table; in search of the point D on BC, so that
AD becomes the dividing line for the weight of the triangle ABC. Can you
guess the location of D, so that AD is dividing the area ABC in two equal
halves? Simple . . . height-base formula for the area ensures that D must be
the mid-point. You actively knew that AD, the median is the dividing line.
BE, the other median is the other dividing line. The point P ; the point
of intersection of AD and BE must be the balancing point for the triangle
ABC. The balancing point could be obtained by taking the intersection of
medians through A and C also. Can there be more than one balancing point
to triangle ABC? If not, physically at least the third median must meet
the other two at the same point P . What do you discover, write it out and
prove it analytically.
Discover the balancing points in Cardboards of following shapes.
14 V. P. SRIVASTAVA

Discuss your achievements and your problems.

Discover balancing points in the three dimensional objects. Discuss whether
a glass full of milk is more stable or when emptied. Make a glass taller, it
becomes more stable or less, discuss.

***
E-mail address: vp.srivastava@rediffmail.com