Controllers:

There are a number of different standard types of control systems that have been
studied extensively. These controllers, specifically the P, PD, PI, and PID controllers
are very common in the production of physical systems, but as we will see they each
carry several drawbacks.

Proportional Controllers

A Proportional controller block diagram

Proportional controllers are simply gain values. These are essentially multiplicative
coefficients, usually denoted with a K. A P controller can only force the system poles
to a spot on the system's root locus. A P controller cannot be used for arbitrary pole
placement.

We refer to this kind of controller by a number of different names: proportional

controller, gain, and zeroth-order controller.

Derivative Controllers

A Proportional-Derivative controller block diagram

In the Laplace domain, we can show the derivative of a signal using the following
notation:

Since most systems that we are considering have zero initial condition, this simplifies
to:

The derivative controllers are implemented to account for future values, by taking the
derivative, and controlling based on where the signal is going to be in the future.
Derivative controllers should be used with care, because even small amount of high-
frequency noise can cause very large derivatives, which appear like amplified noise.
Also, derivative controllers are difficult to implement perfectly in hardware or
software, so frequently solutions involving only integral controllers or proportional
controllers are preferred over using derivative controllers.

Notice that derivative controllers are not proper systems, in that the order of the
numerator of the system is greater than the order of the denominator of the system.
This quality of being a non-proper system also makes certain mathematical analysis of
these systems difficult.
Z-Domain Derivatives

We won't derive this equation here, but suffice it to say that the following equation in
the Z-domain performs the same function as the Laplace-domain derivative:

Where T is the sampling time of the signal.

Integral Controllers

A Proportional-Integral Controller block diagram

To implemenent an Integral in a Laplace domain transfer function, we use the

following:

Integral controllers of this type add up the area under the curve for past time. In this
manner, a PI controller (and eventually a PID) can take account of the past
performance of the controller, and correct based on past errors.

Z-Domain Integral

The integral controller can be implemented in the Z domain using the following
equation:

PID Controllers

A block diagram of a PID controller

PID controllers are combinations of the proportional, derivative, and integral

controllers. Because of this, PID controllers have large amounts of flexibility. We will
see below that there are definite limites on PID control.

PID Transfer Function

The transfer function for a standard PID controller is an addition of the Proportional,
the Integral, and the Differential controller transfer functions (hence the name, PID).
Also, we give each term a gain constant, to control the weight that each factor has on
the final output:

Notice that we can write the transfer function of a PID controller in a slightly different
way:

This form of the equation will be especially useful to us when we look at polynomial
design.

PID Signal flow diagram

PID Tuning

The process of selecting the various coefficient values to make a PID controller
perform correctly is called PID Tuning. There are a number of different methods for
determining these values:

1) Direct Synthesis (DS) method

2) Internal Model Control (IMC) method

3) Controller tuning relations

4) Frequency response techniques

5) Computer simulation

6) On-line tuning after the control system is installed

Digital PID

In the Z domain, the PID controller has the following transfer function:
[Digital PID]

And we can convert this into a canonical equation by manipulating the above equation
to obtain:

Where:

b1 = − 1
b2 = 0

Once we have the Z-domain transfer function of the PID controller, we can convert it
into the digital time domain:

y[n] = x[n]a0 + x[n − 1]a1 + x[n − 2]a2 − y[n − 1]b1 − y[n − 2]b2

And finally, from this difference equation, we can create a digital filter structure to
implement the PID.

Compensation
There are a number of different compensation units that can be employed to help fix
certain system metrics that are outside of a proper operating range. Most commonly,
the phase characteristics are in need of compensation, especially if the magnitude
response is to remain constant.

Phase Compensation
Occasionally, it is necessary to alter the phase characteristics of a given system,
without altering the magnitude characteristics. To do this, we need to alter the
frequency response in such a way that the phase response is altered, but the magnitude
response is not altered. To do this, we implement a special variety of controllers
known as phase compensators. They are called compensators because they help to
improve the phase response of the system.

There are two general types of compensators: Lead Compensators, and Lag
Compensators. If we combine the two types, we can get a special Lead-Lag
Compensator system.

When designing and implementing a phase compensator, it is important to analyze the

effects on the gain and phase margins of the system, to ensure that compensation
doesn't cause the system to become unstable.
Phase Lead
The transfer function for a lead-compensator is as follows:
[Lead Compensator]

To make the compensator work correctly, the following property must be satisfied:

|z|<|p|

And both the pole and zero location should be close to the origin, in the RHP.
Because there is only one pole and one zero, they both should be located on the real
axis.

Phase lead compensators help to shift the poles of the transfer function to the left,
which is beneficial for stability purposes.

Phase Lag
The transfer function for a lag compensator is the same as the lead-compensator, and
is as follows:

[Lag Compensator]

However, in the lag compensator, the location of the pole and zero should be
swapped:

|p|<|z|

Both the pole and the zero should be close to the origin, on the real axis.

The Phase lag compensator helps to improve the steady-state error of the system. The
poles of the lag compensator should be very close together to help prevent the poles of
the system from shifting right, and therefore reducing system stability.

Phase Lead-Lag
The transfer function of a lead-lag compensator is simply a multiplication of the lead
and lag compensator transfer functions, and is given as:

[Lead-Lag Compensator]

Where typically the following relationship must hold true:

| p1 | > | z1 | > | z2 | > | p2 |