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11.1 Introduction ∂F d ⎛ ∂F ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟=0 ⇒
⎟ p& 2 = − p1 (11.10)
∂x 2 dt ⎝ ∂x& 2 ⎠
This chapter deals with the control with restrictions: is
bounded and might well be possible to have discontinuities. ∂F d ⎛ ∂F ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟=0 ⇒ p 2 = µ ( β − α − 2u ) (11.11)
∂u dt ⎝ ∂u& ⎠
To illustrate some of the basic concepts involved when
controls are bounded and allowed to have discontinuities we ∂F d ⎛ ∂F ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟=0 2vµ = 0 (11.12)
start with a simple physical problem: Derive a controller such ∂v dt ⎝ ∂v& ⎠
that a car move a distance a with minimum time.
(11.12) ⇒ v = 0 or µ = 0 . We will consider these two
The motion equation of the car
cases.
d 2x (i) µ =0
=u (11.1)
dt 2 ⎧p = 0
⇒⎨ 1 ⇒ be impossible.
where ⎩ p2 = 0
(ii) v = 0
u = u (t ), − α ≤ u ≤ β (11.2) (11.5): v 2 = (u + α )( β − u ) ⇒ u = −α or u = β
Hence
represents the applied acceleration or deceleration (braking)
and x the distance traveled. The problem can be stated as
⎧β 0 ≤ t ≤τ
minimize x& 2 = ⎨
⎩− α τ <t ≤T
T
T = 1 dt
∫o
(11.3) the switch taking place at time τ . Integrating using
boundary conditions on x 2
subject to (10.11) and (10.12) and boundary conditions
⎧β t 0 ≤ t ≤τ
x(0) = 0, x& (0) = 0, x(T ) = a, x& (T ) = 0 (11.4) x 2 = x&1 = ⎨ (11.13)
⎩ − α (t − T ) τ <t ≤T
The methods we developed in the last chapter would be
Integrating using boundary conditions on x1
appropriate for this problem except that they cannot cope
with inequality constraints of the form (11.2). We can
change this constraint into an equality constraint by ⎧1 2
introducing another control variable, v, where ⎪⎪ β t 0 ≤ t ≤τ
x1 = ⎨ 2 (11.14)
⎪− 1 α (t − T ) 2 + a τ <t ≤T
v = (u + α )( β − u )
2
(11.5) ⎪⎩ 2
Since v is real, u must satisfy (11.2). We introduce th usual Both distance, x1 , and velocity, x 2 , are continuous at
state variable notation x1 = x so that
t = τ , we must have
⎧β 0 ≤ t ≤τ ∂H
u=⎨ (11.17) p& i = − (i = 1,2, L , n) (11.23)
⎩− α τ <t ≤T ∂xi
this is illustrated in Fig. 11.1 The Euler equations for the control variables, u i , do not
follow as in section 10.4 as it is possible that there are
control u discontinuities in u i , and so we cannot assume that the partial
β
derivaties ∂H / ∂u i exist. On the other hand, we can apply the
∂F
free end point condition (9.23): = 0 to obtain
∂x& i
0 τ T time t p k (T ) = 0 k = q + 1, L , n (11.24)
that is, the adjoint variable is zero at every end point where
−α the corresponding state variable is not specified. As before,
we refer to (11.24) as tranversality conditions.
Fig. 11.1 Optimal Control
Our difficulty now lies in obtaining the analogous equation to
This figure shows that the control: ∂H / ∂u i = 0 for continuous controls. For the moment, let us
- has a switch (discontinuity) at time t = τ assume that we can differentiate H with respect to u, and
- only take its maximum and minimum values consider a small variation δu in the control u such
that u + δu still belong to U , the admissible control region.
This type of control is called bang-bang control.
Corresponding to the small change in u , there will be small
11.2 Pontryagin’s Principle (early 1960s) change in x , say δx , and in p , say δp . The change in the
value of J * will be δJ * , where
Problem: We are seeking extremum values of the functional
n
∑ p x& }dt
T
δJ * = δ
∫
T
{H −
J =
∫ 0
f 0 (x, u, t )dt (11.18) o
i =1
i i
subject to state equations The small change operator, δ , obeys the same sort of
x& i = f i(x, u, t ) (i = 1,2, L , n) (11.19) properties as the differential operator d / dx .
initial conditions x = x 0 and final conditions on x1 , x 2 , L , x q Assuming we can interchange the small change operator, δ ,
and integral sign, we obtain
(q ≤ n) and subject to u ∈ U , the admissible control region.
For example, in the previous problem, the admissible control n
∑ p x& )]dt
T
region is defined by δJ * =
∫ 0
[δ ( H −
i =1
i i
U = {u : −α ≤ u ≤ β } n
∑ ∑ p δ x& ]dt
n T
∑ ∫
T
J* =
∫ 0
⎢ f0 +
⎢
⎣ i =1
pi ( f i − x& i )⎥ dt
⎥
⎦
(11.20) =
0
[δH −
i =1
x& i δ pi −
i =1
i i
and define the Hamintonian Using chain rule for partial differentiation
n m n n
H = f0 + ∑i =1
pi f i (11.21) δH = ∑
∂H
∂u j
δu j + ∑
∂H
∂xi
δxi + ∑ ∂p δp
∂H
i
i
j =1 i =1 i =1
using (11.19): x& i = f i(x, u, t ), (i = 1,2, L , n) . Thus We first illustrate its use by examining a simple problem. We
required to minimize
⎡ m n ⎤
∂H
∫ ∑ ∑ ( p& iδ xi + piδ x&i )⎥⎥ dt
T T
δJ * = ⎢
0 ⎢
⎣ j =1
∂u j
δu j −
i =1 ⎦
J = 1dt
∫ 0
T⎡ m
∂H
n ⎤ subject to x&1 = x 2 , x& 2 = u where −α ≤ u ≤ β and x1 (T ) = a ,
∫ ∑ ∑ ( piδ xi )⎥⎥ dt
⎢ d
= δu j −
0 ⎢ ∂u j dt x2 (T ) = 0 , x1 (0) = x 2 (0) = 0 .
⎣ j =1 i =1 ⎦
Introducing adjoint variables p1 and p 2 , the Hamiltonian is
We can now integrate the second part of the integrand to
yield given by
H = 1 + p1 x 2 + p 2 u
T ⎛⎜ m ⎞
T
n
∂H
δJ * = − ∑ ( p δ x ) + ∫ ⎜⎜ ∑
i i
0 ∂u j
⎟
δu j ⎟ dt
⎟
(11.25)
We must minimize H with respect to u, and where
i =1 0 ⎝ j =1 ⎠ u ∈U = [−α , β ] , the admissible control region.. Since H is
linear in u, it clearly attains its minimum on the boundary of
At t = 0 : xi (i = 1,L, n) are specified ⇒ δxi (0) = 0
the control region, that is, either at u = −α or u = β . This
At t = T : xi (i = 1,L , q ) are fixed ⇒ δxi (T ) = 0 illustrated in Fig.11.3. In fact we can write the optimal
For i = q + 1, L, n, from the transversality conditions, (11,24) control as
T ⎛⎜ m
∂H
⎞
∫ ∑
⎟
δJ * = ⎜ δu j ⎟ dt
0 ⎜ ∂u j ⎟
⎝ j =1 ⎠
control u
where δu j is the small variation in the j th component of the
control vector u . Since all these variations are independent, −α β
and we require δJ * = 0 for a turning point when the controls Fig. 11.3 The case p 2 > 0
are continuous, we conclude that
But p 2 will vary in time, and satisfies the adjoint equations,
∂H
= 0 ( j = 1,2, L , m) (11.26) ∂H
∂u j p& 1 = − =0
∂x1
But this is only valid when the controls are continuous and ∂H
p& 2 = − = − p1
not constrained. In our present case when u ∈ U , the ∂x 2
admissible control region and discontinuities in u are allowed.
The arguments presented above follow through in the same Thus p1 = A , a constant, and p 2 = − At + B , where B is
way, except that (∂H / ∂u j )du j must be replaced by constant. Since p 2 is a linear function of t, there will at most
be one switch in the control, since p 2 has at most one zero,
H (x; u1 , u 2 ,L, u j + δu j ,L, u m ; p) − H (x, u, p)
and from the physical situation there must be at least one
switch. So we conclude that
We thus obtain
(i) the control u = −α or u = β , that is, bang-bang control;
T m
δJ * =
∫∑0
j =1
[ H (x; u1 ,L, u j + δu j ,L, u m ; p) − H (x, u, p)] dt (ii) there is one and only one switch in the control.
H (x; u1 ,L, u j + δu j ,L, u m ; p) ≥ H (x, u, p) (11.27) In the last section we met the idea of a switch in a control.
The time (and position) of switching from one extremum
for all admissible δu j and for j = 1,L, m . So we have value of the control to another does of course depend on the
initial starting point in the phase plane. Byconsidering a
established that on the optimal control H is minimized with specific example we shall show how these switching
respect to the control variables, u1 , u 2 ,L, u m . This is known positions define a switching curve.
as Pontryagin’s minimum principle.
u =1 x2
while moving from (a, b) to (0,0) in the x1 − x 2 phase plane
and subject to (11.28), (11.29) and
−1 ≤ u ≤ 1 (11.31)
⎧+1 if p1 + p 2 < 0 A
u=⎨
⎩− 1 if p1 + p 2 > 0
So the control is bang-bang and the number of switches will Fig. 11.4 Trajectories for u = 1
depend on the sign changes in p1 + p 2 . As the adjoint
equations, (11.23), are Follow the same procedure for u = −1 , giving
∂H x2 = log | x1 − 1 | +C (11.33)
p& 1 = − = p1
∂x1 p1 = Ae t
⇒ , A and B are constant and the curves are illustrated in Fig. 11.5.
∂H p2 = B
p& 2 = − =0
∂x 2
x2 B
and p1 + p 2 = Ae t + B , and this function has at most one
sign change.
x1 = Ae −t + k
, A and B are constants
x2 = k t + B
The basic problem is to reach the origin from an arbitrary Following the usual procedure, we form the Hamiltonian
initial point. All the possible trajectories are illustrated in
Figs. 11.4 and 11.5, and we can see that these trajectories are H = 1 + p1 x2 + p 2 u (11.39)
only two possible paths which reach the origin, namely AO
in Fig. 11.4 and BO in Fig. 11.5. We minimize H with respect to u, where −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 , which
gives
x2 B
u = −1 ⎧+1 if p2 < 0
u=⎨
⎩− 1 if p2 > 0
⎧& ∂H
0 x1 ⎪ p1 = − ∂x = 0 ⎧p = A
⎪ 1
−1 1 ⎨ ⇒ ⎨ 1
⎪ p& = − ∂H ⎩ p 2 = − At + B
= − p1
⎪⎩ 2 ∂x2
{
x1 (T ) = 0 but x2 (T ) is not given, and minimize
T+
T T−{
∫
J = 1.dt
0
(11.37) ( a, b ) A
subject to (11.35), (11.36), the above boundary conditions Fig. 11.8 Initial point below OA
on x1 and x 2 , and such that
We first consider initial points (a, b) for which a > 0 . For
−1 ≤ u ≤ 1 (11.38) points above the curve OA, there is only one trajectory,
x 2 (T ) − x 2 (0) = ±T
that is
T = | x 2 (T ) − x 2 (0) | (11.42)
x2
u = +1 u = −1
0 x1