Geometry Axioms

Point: an undefined term in geometry, a point can be thought of as a dot that represents a location on a plane or
in space; just a location, no thickness or size
Line: an undefined term in geometry, a line is understood to be straight, containing an infinite number of points,
extending infiting in two directions, and having no thickness
Line Segment: a portion of a line with two end points
Ray: consists of an intial point on a line and all of the points on that line on one side of it
Plane: an undefined term in geometry, a plane is understood to be a flat surface that extends infinitely in all
directions
Angle: a figure formed by two rayss that have the same endpoint
Collinear: three or more points not all of which lie on the same line
Noncolinear: points that lie on the same line
Perpendicular Lines: lines that cross at a 90◦ angle
Parallel Lines: Lines in the same plane that never meet and hav ethe same slope
Skewed Lines: lines that are not parallel and do not cross; lines in different planes

ä one and only one line passes through two points

ä one and only one plane passes through two lines

ä two points define an unique line

ä three non-collinear points define an unique plane

Logic

Postulate: a statement that is accepted as true without proof

Theorem: a statement that must be proved to be true
Inductive Reasoning: forming conjectures on the basis of an observed pattern
Deductive Reasoning: the process of drawing conclusion by using logical reasoning
Conjecture: an “educated guess” based on an observation
Hypothesis: the phrase in a conditional statement following the word “if”
Conditional Statement: a statement that can be written in the form: “if P then Q”
Converse Statement: the statement formed by interchanging the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional
statement
Counter Example: an example which proves that a conditional statement is false in that the hypothesis is true but
the conclusion is false
Conclusion: the phrase in a conditional statement following the word “then”

Lines

1
Ruler Postulate: The points on a line can be matched one to one with the set of real numbers. The real number
that corresponds with a point is the coordinate of the point. The distance, AB between two points, A and B on a
line is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the coordinates of A and B.
Segment Addition Postulate: If B is between A and C then AB + BC = AC
Parallel Postulate: IF there is a line and a point not on the line, THEN there is exactly on a line through the point
parallel to the given line
Perpendicular Postulate: IF there is a line and a point not on the line, THEN there is exactly on a line through the
point perpendicular to the given line
Transitive Property of Parallel Lines: IF two lines are parallel to the same line THEN they are parallel to each
other Property of Perpendicular Lines: IF two coplanar lines are perpendicular to the same line THEN they are
parallel to each other
Perpendicular Bisector Theorem: IF a point is on the perpendicular bisector of a segment THEN it is equidistant
from the endpoints of the segment
Perpendicular Bisector Converse: IF a point is equidistant from the endpoints of a segment THEN it lies on the
perpendicular bisector of the segment
Angle Bisector Theorem: IF a point is on the bisector of an angle THEN it is equidistant from the two sides of the
angle
Angle Bisector Converse: IF a point is in the interior of an angle and equidistant from the sides of the angle
THEN it lies on the bisector of the angle

ä IF two distinct planes intersect, THEN their intersection is a line

ä IF two distinct points lie in a plane, THEN the line containing them lies in the plane

ä IF two distinct lines intersect, THEN their intersection is exactly one point

ä IF three parallel lines intersect two transversals, THEN they divide the transversals proportionally

ä IF two parallel lines intersect two other parallel lines and IF the distance between the first two lines is equal
to the distance between the second two lines THEN their intersection forms four congruent segments

Angles

Protractor Postulate: Let OA be a ray and consider on of the half-plane P determined by the line OA. The rays
of the form ray DO, where D is in a half-plane P can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the real numbers
between 0 and 180, including 180. If C and D are in the half-plane P, then the measure of angle COD is equal to
the absolute value of the difference between the real numbers for ray OC and ray OD.
Angle Addition Postulate: If B is the interior of angle ∠AOC, then ∠AOB + ∠BOC = ∠AOC
Linear Pair Postulate: IF two angles form a linear pair, THEN they are supplementary; that is, the sum of their
measures is 180◦
Corresponding Angles Postulate: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, THEN the pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent
Corresponding Angles Postulate: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal so that corresponding angles are
congruent, THEN the lines are parallel
Arc Addition Postulate: The measure of an arc formed by two adjacent arcs is the sum of the measures of the
two arcs.
Exterior Angle Theorem: the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to ???????????

2
Congruent Supplements Theorem: IF two angles are supplementary to the same angle or to congruent angles
THEN they are congruent
Congruent Complements Theorem: IF two angles are complementary to the same angle or to congruent angles
THEN they are congruent
Alternate Interior Angles Theorem: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal THEN the pairs of alternate
interior angles are congruent
Consecutive Interior Angles Theorem: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal THEN the pairs of consecu-
tive interior angles are supplementary
Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal THEN the pairs of alternate
exterior angles are congruent
Perpendicular Transversal Theorem: IF a transversal is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines THEN it is
perpendicular to the second
Alternate Interior Angle Converse: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal so that alternate interior angles
are congruent THEN the line are parallel
Consecutive Interior Angles Converse: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal so that consecutive interior
angles are supplementary THEN the lines are parallel
Alternate Exterior Angels Converse: IF two parallel lines are cut by a transversal so that alternate exterior angles
are congruent THEN the lines are parallel

ä IF two particular sets of angles are congruent on both lines, THEN the lines are parallel

ä parallel lines have the same slope

ä the slope of perpendular lines are opposite reciprocals

ä the product of the slopes of prependicular lines is always −1

ä IF two lines are perpendicular, THEN they intersect to form four right angles

ä IF two lines intersect to form a pair of adjacent congruent angles, THEN the lines are perpendicular

ä all right angles are congruent to each other

Circumcenter: common point where all of the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle meet

ä the circumcenter is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle

Incenter: the common point where all of the angle bisectors meet

ä the incenter is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle

Centroid: the common point where all of the medians meet

ä the centroid is two-thirds of the distance from each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side

Orthocenter: the common point where all of the altitudes meet

180 (n − 2)
Interior Angle: must be a regular polygon n = # of sides
n
360
Exterior Angle: must be a regualr polygon n = # of sides
n

3
Interior Angle Sum: 180 (n − 2) n = # of sides
Exterior Angle Sum: always = 360
n (n − 3)
# of Diagonals: n = # of sides
2
rise ∆y y2 − y1
Slope: = = =m
run ∆x x2 − x1
Area Congruence Postulate: IF two polygons are congruent THEN they have the same area
Area Addition Postulate: the area of a region is the sum of the areas of all its non-overlapping parts
Cavalieri’s Principle: IF two solids have the same height and the same cross-sectional area at every level, THEN
they have the same volume

ä IF two polygons are similar THEN the ratio of their perimeters is equal to the ratio of their corresponding
sides

ä IF two polygons are similar with corresponding sides in the ratio of a : b THEN the ratio of their areas is
a2 : b2

Areas

1
ä A = BH (triangle)
2
ä A = s2 (square)

ä A = BH (rectangle)

ä A = BH (parallelogram)
1
ä A= (B1 + B2 ) H (trapezoid)
2
1
ä A = d1 d2 = BH (rhombus)
2
ä A = π r2 (circle)

ä A = π r1 r2 (ellipse)
2
ä A = BH (under symmetrical parabola)
3

Surface Areas

ä SA = 6s2 (cube)

ä SA = 2 (rectangular prism)

ä SA = (rectangle parallelpiped)

ä Pyramid:

ä Cone:

4
 ä Sphere: SA = 4πr2 (sphere)

ä Ellipsoid:

Volumes

ä V = s3 (cube)

ä V = HL2 (rectangular prism)

ä V = L ×W × H (rectangular parallelpiped)

ä V = BH (irregular prism)
1
ä V = BH (pyramid)
3
1
ä V = π r2 h (cone)
3
ä V = π r2 h (cylinder)
4
ä V = π r3 (sphere)
3
4
ä V = π r1 r2 r3 (ellipsoid)
3

Triangles

Similar:
Congruent: AAS, HL
Triangle Sum Theorem: the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180◦
Exterior Angle Theorem: the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of
the two remote (nonadjacent) interior angles
Exterior Angle Inequality: the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater than the measure of either of
the two nonadjacent interior angles
Triangle Proportionality Theorem: IF a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two sides THEN
it divides the two sides proportionally
Triangle Proportionally Theorem Converse: IF a line divides tow sides of a triangle proportionally THEN it is
parallel to the third side
Midsegment Theorem: The segment connection the midpoints of two dies of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and is half its length
Triangle Inequality: the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side
Third Angles Theorem: IF two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of a second triangle THEN the
third angles are also congruent
Base Angles Theorem: IF two sides of triangles are congruent THEN the angles opposite them are congruent

ä Corollary: IF a triangle is equilateral THEN it is also equiangular

5
Hinge Theorem: IF two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the included angle
of the first is larger than the includes angle of the second THEN the third side of the first is longer than the third
side of the second
Converse of Hinge Theorem: IF two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the
third side of the first is longer than the third side of the second THEN the included angle of the first is larger than
the included angle of the second
The Pythagorean Theorem: in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
the squares of the lengths of the legs
The Converse of The Pythagorean Theorem: IF the square of the length of the longest side of a triangle is equal
to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two shorter sides, THEN the triangle is a right triangle
Concurrency Properties:

ä the lines containing the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent

– their common point is the circumcenter of the triangle

– the circumcenter is equidistant from the three vertices of the triangle

ä the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent their common point is the incenter of the triangle

– the incenter is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle

ä the medians of a triangle are concurrent

– their common points is the centroid of the triangle

ä the centroid is two thirds of the distance from each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side

ä the lines containing the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent

– their common point is the orthocenter

ä IF two angles of a triangle are congruent THEN the sides opposite them are congruent

ä the acute angles of a right triangle are complementary

ä every triangle is congruent to itself

ä IF one side of a triangle is longer than another side THEN the angle opposite the longer side is larger than
the angle opposite the shorter side

ä IF one angle of a triangle is larger than another angle THEN the side opposite the larger angle is longer than
the side opposite the smaller angle

ä IF a ray bisects an angle of a triangle THEN it divides the opposite side into segments whose lengths are
proportional to the lengths of the other two sides

ä IF the altitude is drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle THEN the two triangles formed are similar to the
original triangle and to each other

ä in a right triangle, the length of the altitude from the right angle to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of
the lengths of the two segments of the hypotenuse

6
ä in a right triangle, the altitude from the right angle to the hypotenuse divides the hypotenuse into two seg-
ments. Each leg of the right triangle is the geometric mean of the hypotenuse and the segment of the
hypotenuse that is adjacent to the leg

ä IF the square of the length of the longest side of a triangle is less than the sum of the squares of the lengths
of the two shorter sides, THEN the triangle is acute

ä IF the square of the longest side of a triangle is greater than the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two
shorter sides, THEN the triangle is obtuse

Scalene Triangles

√
1 sin (C) 2b2 + 2c2 − a2
ä K = [base] [height] = ab (area) ä ma = (median of side a)
2 2 2
a
ä R= (circumscribed circle radius) √
2 sin (A) 2a2 + 2c2 − b2
ä mb = (median of side b)
sin A2 sin B2


2
ä r=c (inscribed circle radius) √
cos C2


2a2 + 2b2 − c2
ä mc = (median of side c)
cos A2 2


ä ta = 2bc (angle bisector of side a)
b+c
ä ha = c sin (B) (altitude of side a)
cos B2


ä tb = 2ac (angle bisector of side b)
a+c ä hb = a sin (C) (altitude of side b)
cos C2


ä tc = 2ab (angle bisector of side c) ä hc = a sin (B) (altitude of side c)
a+b

7
 Right Triangles Equilateral Triangles
ab
ä hc = (altitude of c)
c √
A

3
cos 2 ä K = a2 (area)
ä ta = 2bc (angle bisector of a) 4
(b + c)
cos B2 √


ä tb = 2ac (angle bisector of b) 3
(a + c) ä ha = hb = hc = a (altitude)
2
√
2
ä tc = ab (angle bisector of c) √
(a + b) 3
√ ä ma = mb = mc = a (median)
4b2 + a2 2
ä ma = (median of a)
2
√ √
4a2 + b2 3
ä mb = (median of b) ä ta = tb = tc = a (angle bisector)
2 2
c
ä mc = (median of c) √
2 3
ab ä R=a (circumscribed circle radius)
ä r= (inscribed circle radius) 3
a+b+c
c √
ä R= (circumscribed circle radius) 3
2 ä r=a (inscribed circle radius)
6
Quadrilaterals

ä IF both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent THEN the quadrilateral is a parallelogram

ä IF both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent THEN the quadrilateral is a parallelogram

ä IF an angle of a quadrilateral is supplementary to both of its consecutive angles THEN the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram

ä IF the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other THEN the quadrilateral is a parallelogram

ä IF the diagonals of a quadrilateral are perpendicular THEN the area of the quadrilateral is half the sum of the
lengths of the diagonals or A = 0.5 (d1 + d2 )

ä IF one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent and parallel THEN the quadrilateral is a paral-
lelogram

ä a parallelogram is a rhombus IF AND ONLY IF its diagonals are perpendicular

ä a parallelogram is a rhombus IF AND ONLY IF each diagonal bisects a pair of opposite angles

ä a parallelogram is a rectangle IF AND ONLY IF its diagonals are congruent

ä a quadrilateral is a rhombus IF AND ONLY IF it has four congruent sides

ä a quadrilateral is a rectangle IF AND ONLY IF it has four right angles

8
SASAS Congruence Theorem: IF three sides and the included angles of one quadrilateral are congruent to the
corresponding three sides and included angles of another quadrilateral THEN the quadrilateral are congruent
ASASA Congruence Theorem: IF three angles and the included side of one quadrilateral are congruent to the
corresponding three angles and the included sides of another quadrilateral THEN the quadrilateral are congruent

Parallelograms

ä opposite sides are congruent

ä opposite angles are congruent

ä consecutive angles are supplementary

ä diagonals bisect each other

Trapezoids

Trapezoid Base Angles Theorem: IF a trapezoid is isosceles THEN each pair of base angles is congruent
Trapezoid Diagonals Theorem: IF a trapezoid is isosceles THEN its diagonals are congruent
Midsegment Theorem for Trapezoids: the midsegment of a trapezoid is parallel to each base and its length is
half the sum of the lengths of its bases

ä IF a trapezoid has one pair of congruent base angles THEN it is an isosceles trapezoid

ä IF a trapezoid has congruent diagonals THEN it is an isosceles trapezoid

Kites

ä diagonals are perpendicular

ä exactly one pair of opposite angles are congruent

Circles

2 2
Standard Form: (x − h) + (y − k) = r2
radius = r center = (h, k)
L= (arc length)
A= (arc sector area)
Major Arc: an arc of more than 180◦ ; represented by three letters
Minor Arc: an arc of less than 180◦ ; represented by two letters
Inscribed Angle of a Circle: an angle whose vertex is on the circle and its sides are chords of the circle
Intercepted Arc: the arc that lies in the interior of an inscribed angle
Tangent of a Circle: a line that intersects the circle at exactly one point
Secant of a Circle: a line that intersects the circle in two points

ä IF a line is tangent to a circle THEN it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency in a plane

9
 ä IF a line is perpendicular to a radius of a circle at its endpoint on the circle THEN the line is tangent to the
circle

ä IF two segments from the same exterior point are tangent to a circle THEN the segments are congruent

ä in the same circle or in congruent circles, two arcs are congruent IF AND ONLY IF their central angles are
congruent

ä in the same circle or in congruent circles, two minor arcs are congruent IF AND ONLY IF their corresponding
chords are congruent

ä IF a diameter of a circle is perpendicular to a chord THEN the diameter bisects the chord and its arc

ä IF a chord AB is perpendicular bisector of another chord THEN AB is a diameter

ä in the same circle or in congruent circles, two chords are congruent IF AND ONLY IF they are equidistant
from the center

ä IF an angle is inscribed in a circle THEN its measure is half the measure of its intercepted arc

ä IF two inscribed angles of a circle intercept the same arc THEN the angles are congruent

ä an angle that is inscribed in a circle is a right angle IF AND ONLY IF its corresponding arc is a semicircle

ä a quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle IF AND ONLY IF its opposite angles are congruent

ä IF a tangent and a chord intersect at a point on a circle THEN the measure of each angle from it is half the
measure of its intercepted arc

ä IF two chord intersect in the interior of a circle THEN the measure of each angle is half the sum of the
measure of the arcs intercepted by the angle and its vertical angle

ä IF a tangent and a secant, two tangents, or two secants intersect in the exterior of a circle THEN the measure
of the angle from is half the difference of the measure of the intercepted arcs

Trigonometry

ä A2 + B2 = C2 (Pythagorian theorem)
p  π p 2  π
ä A sin (θ) + B cos (θ) = A2 + B2 sin θ + = A + B2 cos θ − (sum of sin and cos)
4 4

Right Angle Trigonometry:

opposite hypotenuse
ä Sine = hypotenuse ä Secant = opposite

adjacent
ä Cosine = hypotenuse hypotenuse
ä Cosecant = adjacent
opposite
ä Tangent = adjacent
opposite
ä Cotangent = adjacent
sin A sin B sinC
ä = = (law of sines)
a b c

10
Law of Cosines:
A2 = B2 +C2 − 2BC cos A
B2 = A2 +C2 − 2AC cos B
C2 = A2 + B2 − 2AB cosC
Law of Tangents: cos A = − cos B cosC + sin B sinC cos A

Linear Equations

Standard Form: Ax + By = C A, B,C are integers and A is postive

Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b m = slope, b = y-intercept
Point Slope Form: y − y0 = m (x − x0 ) (y0 , x0 ) = a point on the line m = slope
y2 − y1
ä m = tan θ = (slope of a line)
x2 − x1
 
−1 m2 − m1
ä θ = tan (angle between intersecting lines)
1 + m1 m2
q
ä (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 (distance between two points)
 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
ä , (midpoint of a line segment P1 P2 )
2 2
 
m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1
ä , (point dividing a line segment P1 P2 in a ratio of m1 : m2 )
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Quadratic Equations

ä y = Ax2 + Bx +C (quadratic equation; standard form)

ä y = a (x − h)2 + k (quadratic equation; vertex form)

−b
ä x= or x = h (axis of symmetry)
2a
  
−b −2
ä , f or (h, k) (vertex)
2a 2a
ä (0,C) or (0, k) (Y intercept)
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
ä x= (quadratic formula)
2a
Completing The Square:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (standard form)
b b2
h=− k = c−
2a 4a
2
a (x − h) + k = 0 (vertex form)
r
−k
x = h± (roots)
a

11
 Polynomials

Factoring:

ä x2 − y2 = (x + y) (x − y) (difference of squares)

ä x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2 (trinomial square sums)

ä x2 − 2xy + y2 = (x − y)2 (trinomial square difference)

ä (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy2 + y3 (cubed binomial sum)

ä (x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy2 − y3 (cubed binomial difference)

ä x3 + y3 = (x + y) x2 − xy + y2


(sum of cubes)

ä x3 − y3 = (x − y) x2 + xy + y2


(difference of cubes)

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: every non-zero single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has ex-
actly as many complex roots as its degree, if each root is counted up to its multiplicity
Integral Root Theorem: all possible rational roots of the polynomial xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = 0 are of the form:
x = ±p where:

ä p is an integer factor of the constant term a0

Rational Root Theorem: all possible rational roots of the polynomial an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = 0 are of the
p
form: x = ± where:
q

ä p is an integer factor of the constant term a0

ä q is an integer factor of the leading coefficient an

Radical Conjugate Root Theorem:

√ √
ä if a polynomial P (x)
√ with rational coefficients has a + b as a zero, where a , b are rational and b is
irrational, then a − b is also a zero

Complex Conjugate Root Theorem:

ä if P is a polynomial in one variable with real coefficients, and a + bi is a root of P with a and b real numbers,
then its complex conjugate a − bi is also a root of P

Descarte’s Rule of Signs:

ä the number of positive roots of the polynomial an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = 0 is either equal to the number
of sign differences between consecutive nonzero coefficients, or less than it by a multiple of 2

– multiple roots of the same value are counted separately

ä the number of negative roots is the number of sign changes after negating the coefficients of odd-power
terms (otherwise seen as substituting the negation of the variable for the variable itself), or fewer than it by a
multiple of 2

12
 ä remember to check if zero is a root
n
de Moivre’s Formula: for x is real and n is an integer: (cos x + i sin x) = cos (nx) + i sin (nx) (de Moivre’s Formula)
    
1 1 1 x + 2kπ x + 2kπ
z n = [r (cos x + i sin x)] n = r n cos + i sin , k = {0 to n − 1} (de Moivre’s Theorem)
n n
Long Division:
Synthetic Division:

1 −7 0 5
3 3 − 12 − 36
1 − 4 − 12 − 31

Finding Roots:

1. IF order ≤ 1 THEN trivial

2. IF order = 2 THEN quadratic formula

3. check 0, 1, −1

4. attempt to factor

5. attempt variable order reduction substitution

6. various theorems

3rd Degree:
4th Degree:
Abel–Ruffini Theorem (Abel’s Impossibility Theorem): there is no general algebraic solution–that is, solution in
radicals– to polynomial equations of degree five or higher

Rational Expressions

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
Asymptotes: r (x) =
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0

1. vertical asymptotes of r are the lines x = a where a is a zero of the denominator

2.

(a) IF n < m THEN r has horizontal asymptote y = 0

an
(b) IF n = m THEN r has horizontal asymptote y =
bm
(c) IF n > m THEN r has NO horizontal asymptote

13
 Exponents Radicals

ä the variables m and n are integers ä even roots require ±

ä if you divid by a variable in an equation, you must

ä no denominater equals zero
check for zero as a root
√
ä a0 = 1 (a 6= 0) ä n n
a = |a| (nis even)
√ √ √
ä am · an = am+n n n n
ä a · b = ab
√n
r
ä (ab)n = an bn a a
ä √n
= n (b 6= 0)
b b
ä (am )n = amn 1 √
ä an = n a
1 √ √
m
ä a−n =
m
ä a n = n am = n a
an
 mn
am ä xn
m
= |x|
ä n = am−n
a
√ √
q
n m
 a n an ä x = mn x
ä = n
b b √ √ √
ä a n x + b n x = ab n x (like radicals)
1 √
ä an = n
a  √   √ 
ä a + b a − b = a2 − b2 (conjugates)
m √ √
m
ä a n = n am = n a
ä conjugates can be used to rationalize a binomial
denominator

Simplest Form

Can’t Have: negative exponent

Fix: make fraction and rationalize denominator or multiply by another negative
Can’t Have: rational exponent
Fix: turn base into number raised to a power equal to the denominator
Can’t Have: radical in the denominator
Fix: use conjugate for binomials multiply radical by itself number of times equal to the index

Rationalize denominator

ä make radical a fraction and make denominator perfect square, etc.

ä multiply fraction by the denominator to make denominator which is a radical into an integer

Logarithms

ä the variables M, N, and b are positive numbers

14
ä the variable b 6= 1

ä IF y = bx T HEN logb y = x

ä loga ax = x

ä loga 1 = 0

ä loga a = 1

ä aloga x = x

ä logb (MN) = logb M + logb N

 
M
ä logb = logb M − logb N
N
ä logb (M x ) = x logb M
logc M
ä logb M = (change of base; b 6= 1, c 6= 1, M > 0)
logc b

Complex Fractions

Complex Numbers
√ √
ä −x = i x, x>0


 r=0 1

r = 1 i
ä in = (value of i after dividing exponent by 4)


 r=2 −1
−i

r=3

ä Re [Z] = A = r cos θ (real part)

ä Im [Z] = B = r sin θ (imaginary part)

p
ä r = |z| = |A + Bi| = A2 + B2 (modulus; absolute value)
 
−1 B
ä θ = tan (argument)
A

– arguments have 2π periodicity

ä z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) (polar form)

ä z = reiθ (alternate polar form)

ä eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (Euler relation)

ä z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )] (complex product; polar form)

15
 z1 r1
ä = [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )] , z2 6= 0 (complex quotient; polar form)
z2 r2
ä zn = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) , n = integer (complex to power; polar form)
    
1 θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
ä wk = r n cos + i sin , k = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} (root of complex; polar form)
n n
d  iθ(t)  dθ
ä e = ieiθ(t) (complex derivative)
dt dt
 
d dZ
ä (Re [Z]) = Re (commutativity)
dt dt

Inequalities

Trichotomy Property: given any two real numbers a and b, then only one of the following statements must hold
true

ä a<b ä a=b ä a>b

ä for a, b, and c are real numbers:

ä all of the following properties hold for ≤ and ≥ in addition to < and >

ä remember to change the direction of the inequality when multiplying or dividing by a negative number

– IF: a < b THEN: a+c < b+c (inequality addition property)

– IF: a > b THEN: a+c > b+c (inequality addition property)
– IF: a < b THEN: a−c < b−c (inequality subtraction property)
– IF: a > b THEN: a−c > b−c (inequality subtraction property)
– IF: a < b THEN: ac < bc (inequality multiplication property; c > 0)
– IF: a > b THEN: ac > bc (inequality multiplication property; c > 0)
– IF: a > b THEN: ac < bc (inequality multiplication property; c < 0)
– IF: a < b THEN: ac > bc (inequality multiplication property; c < 0)
a b
– IF: a < b THEN: < (inequality division property; c > 0)
c c
a b
– IF: a > b THEN: > (inequality division property; c > 0)
c c
a b
– IF: a > b THEN: < (inequality division property; c < 0)
c c
a b
– IF: a < b THEN: > (inequality division property; c < 0)
c c

Absolute Values

16
 ä |a| ≥ 0 ä |a − b| = 0 ⇐⇒ a = b
ä |a| = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0
ä |a − b| ≤ |a − c| + |c − b|
ä |ab| = |a| |b|  a  |a|
ä  = if b 6= 0
 
ä |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| b |b|
ä |−a| = |a|
ä |a − b| ≥ ||a| − |b||

Number Theory

Number Divisibility Condition

1 automatic
2 last digit is even
3 sum of the digits is divisible by 3
4 the last two digits are divisible by 4
5 the last digit is a 0 or a 5
6 the number is divisible by 2 AND 3
7 the sum of [three times the first digit] and [the second digit] is divisible by 7
8 the last three digits are divisible by 8
9 the sum of the digits is divisible by 9
10 the last digit is zero

" #
√
n 1 A
ä lim A = xk+1 = (n − 1) xk + n−1 (nth root numerical approximation algorithm)
k→∞ n xk

Greatest Common Divisor (Greatest Common Denominator) (GCD) Properties:

ä every common divisor of a and b is a divisor of gcd (a, b)

ä if a divides the product b·c, and gcd (a, b) = d , then a/d divides c

ä if m is a non-negative integer, then gcd (m · a, m · b) = m · gcd (a, b)

ä if m is any integer, then gcd (a + m · b, b) = gcd (a, b)

a b

gcd(a, b)
ä if m is a nonzero common divisor of a and b, then gcd m, m = m

ä the gcd is a multiplicative function in the following sense: if a1 and a2 are relatively prime, then gcd (a1 · a2 , b) =
gcd (a1 , b) · gcd (a2 , b)

ä the gcd is a commutative function: gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, a)

ä the gcd is an associative function: gcd (a, gcd (b, c)) = gcd (gcd (a, b) , c)

Fundamental Theorem of Artihmetic (Unique Prime Factorization Theorem): any integer greater than 1 can
be written as a unique product (up to ordering of the factors) of prime numbers

ä there are infinitely many prime numbers

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Mihailescu’s Theorem (Catalan’s Conjecture): the only solution in the natural numbers of xa − yb = 1 for x, a, y, b > 1
is x = 3, a = 2, y = 2, b = 3

Combinatorics

Artihmetic Series: constant adding or subtracting

Geometric Series: constant multiplying or dividing

ä an = a1 + r (n − 1) (nth term of arithmetic series)

n
ä Sn = (a1 + an ) (sum of first n terms of arithmetic series)
2
ä an = a1 rn−1 (nth term of geometric series)

a1 (1 − rn )
ä Sn = (sum of first n terms of geometric series)
1−r
a1
ä S∞ = , |r| < 1 (infinite sum of geometric series)
1−r
Factorials:
n
ä n! = ∏ (n > 0 )
1

ä 0! = 1

Permutation: n things ordered in the permutation number of ways taking r at a time

n!
ä n Pr = (1 ≤ r ≤ n )
(n − r)!

Combination: n things grouped in the combination number of ways taking r at a time

n n!
ä nCr = = (0 ≤ r ≤ n)
r r! (n − r)!

Binomial Theorem:

ä faster than Pascal’s triangle and distribution after (a + b)3

ä the series contains n + 1 terms

ä once the combinations start to repeat, just go back down the pattern

ä if a or b is a variable with a nonzero coefficient, both the variable and the coefficient must be raised to the
appropiate power

ä to find a single term, realize that the sum of the exponents of a and b is equal to n
n
ä (a + b)n = ∑ nCr an−r br (Compact Formal)
r=0

ä (a + b)n = nC0 an b0 + nC 1 an−1 b1 + nC 2 an−2 b2 · · · + nCn−1 a1 bn−1 + nCn a0 bn (Formal)

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 ä (a + b)n = an + n · an−1 b + nC 2 an−2 b2 · · · + n · abn−1 + bn (Simplified)

(nCr−1 ) (n − r)
ä nCr = (coefficient of the r term using the previous term)
r−1

Probability

Disjoint: can’t occur together

Conditional: if A occurs then P (B)

ä P (A and B) = P (A) · P (B) (independent)

ä P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) (disjoint)

P (A and B)
ä P (B | A) = (conditional)
P (A)
ä P (A and B) = P (A) · P (B | A) (general)

ä P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A and B) (general)

 
n
ä P (x = k) = · Pk (1 − P)n−k (binomial)
k

Statistics

Median: in a set with an odd number of values, the value exactly in the middle of the set ordered from smallest to
largest; with an even number of values, the average of the two in the middle
Mode: the most frequently occuring value or values in a set
Range:
Interquartile Range (IQR):

1 N
ä A = x̄ = ∑ xi (arithmetic mean)
N i=1
!1
n n
√
ä G= ∏ ai = n
a1 a2 . . . an (geometric mean)
i=1

1 n
ä H= 1 n 1
= 1 1
(harmonic mean)
n ∑i=1 ai a1 + a2 + · · · + a1n

– H ≤G≤A (relation of means)

∗ the means are only equal when every element of the data set are equal
s
1 N
ä σ= ∑ (xi − x̄)2 (population standard deviation)
N i=1
s
1 n
ä σ= ∑ (xi − x̄)2
n − 1 i=1
(sample standard deviation)

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 Conics

Conic Section: a geometric figure created by the intersection of a plane and a hollow double napped cone
Locus: the set of points sharing a given property
Focus:
Directrix:
Focal Parameter: the distance between a focus and the nearest directrix
Latus Rectum:
Eccentricity (e):
Linear Eccentricity: the distance between the center and one of the foci

c [distance between foci]

ä e= = (eccentricity)
a [distance between vertices]

– e=0 (circle)
– 0<e<1 (ellipse)
– e=1 (parabola)
– e>1 (hyperbola)

ke
ä r= (polar conic)
1 + e cos θ

Discriminant Test: Ax2 + Bxy +Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (general quadratic curve)

ä B2 − 4AC < 0 (ellipse)

ä B2 − 4AC = 0 (parabola)

ä B2 − 4AC > 0 (hyperbola)

Degenerate Cases:

ä No Real Graph: circle or ellipse with negative right hand side

ä Point: circle or ellipse with right hand side equal to zero

ä Single Line: neither variable squared or only one variable present and equal to zero

ä Parallel Lines: one variable squared and the other absent and the right hand side positive

ä Intersecting Lines: hyperbola with a negative right hand side

Rotation of Axes:

ä x = x0 cos α − y0 sin α

ä y = x0 sin α − y0 cos α

Angle of Rotation:

B
ä tan (2α) = ()
A −C

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Parabola: the locus of points in a plane where each point is equidistant from a focus and a directrix

ä (x − h)2 = 4p (y − k) (parabola standard form; opens up)

– (h, p + k) (focus)
– y = k− p (directrix)
– (h, k) (vertex)

ä (x − h)2 = −4p (y − k) (parabola standard form; opens down)

– (h, k − p) (focus)
– y = k+ p (directrix)
– (h, k) (vertex)

ä (y − k)2 = 4p (x − h) (parabola standard form; opens to the right)

– (p + h, k) (focus)
– y = h− p (directrix)
– (h, k) (vertex)

ä (y − k)2 = −4p (x − h) (parabola standard form; opens to the left)

– (h − p, k) (focus)
– y = h+ p (directrix)
– (h, k) (vertex)

Circle: the locus of points in a plane that are equidistance from a focus

ä (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = a2 (circle standard form)

– (h, k) (center)
– a (radius)

Ellipse: the locus of points in a plane where the sum of the distances between two focii are equal to a constant

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
ä + =1 (ellipse standard form; foci on the x-axis)
a2 b2
– a = semimajor axis b = semiminor axis
p
– c= a2 − b2 (center to focus distance)
– (h ± c, k) (foci)
– (h ± a, k) (vertices)
– (h, k) (center)

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
ä + =1 (ellipse standard form; foci on the y-axis)
b2 a2
– a = semimajor axis b = semiminor axis

21
 p
– c= a2 − b2 (center to focus distance)
– (h, k ± c) (foci)
– (h, k ± a) (vertices)
– (h, k) (center)

Hyperbola: the locus of points in a plane where the difference of the distances between two focii are equal to a
constant

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
ä − =1 (hyperbola standard form; horizontal foci)
a2 b2
– a = semi-transverse axis (major axis)
– b = semi-conjugate axis (minor axis)
p
– c= a2 + b2 (center to focus distance)
– (h ± c, k) (foci)
– (h ± a, k) (vertices)
– (h, k) (center)
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 b
– − =0 or (y − k) = ± (x − h) (asymptotes)
a2 b2 a

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
ä − =1 (hyperbola standard form; vertical foci)
b2 a2
– a = semi-transverse axis (major axis)
– b = semi-conjugate axis (minor axis)
p
– c= a2 + b2 (center to focus distance)
– (h, k ± c) (foci)
– (h, k ± a) (vertices)
– (h, k) (center)
(y − k)2 (x − h)2 a
– − =0 or (y − k) = ± (x − h) (asymptotes)
a2 b2 b

Trig Identities

Pythagorian: Exponential:

eiθ − e−iθ 2i
ä sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 ä sin θ = ä csc θ =
2i eiθ − e−iθ

ä 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x eiθ + e−iθ 2

ä cos θ = ä sec θ =
2 eiθ + e−iθ
ä 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x eiθ − e−iθ i eiθ + e−iθ


ä tan θ = ä cot θ = iθ
i eiθ + e−iθ


e − e−iθ

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Negation: Reciprocal:

1
ä sin (−x) = − sin (x) ä csc (−x) = − csc (x) ä sin (x) =
csc (x)

ä cos (−x) = cos (x) ä sec (−x) = sec (x) 1

ä cos (x) =
sec (x)
ä tan (−x) = − tan (x) ä cot (−x) = − cot (x) 1 sin (x)
ä tan (x) = =
cot (x) cos (x)

Periodicity:
 π
ä sin x + = cos (x) ä sin (x + π) = − sin (x) ä sin (x + 2π) = sin (x)
2
π ä cos (x + π) = − cos (x)

ä cos x + = − sin (x) ä cos (x + 2π) = cos (x)
2
 π ä tan (x + π) = tan (x)
ä tan x + = − cot (x) ä tan (x + 2π) = tan (x)
2
 π ä csc (x + π) = − csc (x)
ä csc x + = sec (x) ä csc (x + 2π) = csc (x)
2
ä sec (x + π) = − sec (x)
 π
ä sec x + = − csc (x) ä sec (x + 2π) = sec (x)
2 ä cot (x + π) = cot (x)
 π
ä cot x + = − tan (x) ä cot (x + 2π) = cot (x)
2
Cofunction:
π  π 
ä sin − x = cos (x) ä cos − x = sin (x)
2 2
π  π 
ä tan − x = cot (x) ä cot − x = tan (x)
2 2
π  π 
ä sec − x = csc (x) ä csc − x = sec (x)
2 2
Addition and Subtraction:

ä sin (x + y) = sin (x) cos (y) + cos (x) sin (y) tan (x) + tan (y)
ä tan (x + y) =
1 − tan (x) tan (y)
ä sin (x − y) = sin (x) cos (y) − cos (x) sin (y)

ä cos (x + y) = cos (x) cos (y) − sin (x) sin (y)

tan (x) − tan (y)
ä cos (x − y) = cos (x) cos (y) + sin (x) sin (y) ä tan (x − y) =
1 + tan (x) tan (y)

Double Angle:

ä sin (2x) = 2 sin (x) cos (x)

2 tan (x)
ä tan (2x) =
1 − tan2 (x)

ä cos (2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x)

23
Half Angle: Reducing Powers:
r
x 1 − cos x 1 − cos (2x)
ä sin =± ä sin2 (x) =
2 2 2
1 + cos (2x)
r
x 1 + cos x ä cos2 (x) =
ä cos =± 2
2 2
 x  1 − cos x sin x 1 − cos (2x)
ä tan = = ä tan2 (x) =
2 sin x 1 + cos x 1 + cos (2x)
Product to Sum: Sum to Product:
   
1 x+y x−y
ä sin (x) cos (y) = [sin (x + y) + sin (x − y)] ä sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2 2
1 
x+y
 
x−y

ä cos (x) sin (y) = [sin (x + y) − sin (x − y)] ä sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2 2
1
ä cos (x) cos (y) = [cos (x + y) + cos (x − y)]
   
x+y x−y
2 ä cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2
1
ä sin (x) sin (y) = [cos (x − y) − cos (x + y)] 
x+y
 
x−y

2 ä cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
2 2

24