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AQA UNIT 3 GCSE REVISION NOTES

(Higher only in italics)

The Periodic Table


History At the start of the 1800s quite a lot of elements had been discovered, but there had been no real attempt to organize them. Newlands, an English chemist and Mendeleev, a Russian chemist both worked on the problem by arranging the elements or order of their atomic weight (mass) and looking for patterns in their properties. Both were successful to some extent, but Mendeleev was much more successful because. a) He recognized that there were some elements still to be discovered, so he left gaps in his table b) He was not afraid to change the order of some elements in the table where it seemed to make sense. c) He was able use the table to successfully predict the properties of some elements which had not yet been discovered. Later when more elements had been discovered and chemists realized that the elements should be in order of atomic number rather than atomic mass, Mendeleevs Table was shown to be extremely successful. The Modern Table The periodic tables patterns are now known to be based on the structure of the atom. Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus) The group number of an element shows the number of electrons in the outer shell. The period number shows the number of shells of electrons e.g. Sodium is element number 11 and has the structure 2.8.1 It therefore has 11 protons, it is in Group1, period 3 of the periodic table. GROUP 1 , The Alkali Metals.(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) Similarities 1) All elements have 1 electron in the outer shell: Li: 2.1 Na: 2.8.1 K: 2.8.8.1 etc. 2) For this reason they all form 1+ ions when they react: Ions are Li+, Na+, K+ etc.

3) They have similar physical properties. All are very light, soft metals which are shiny when cut.

4) They have similar chemical properties. In particular they react vigorously with water giving hydrogen and an alkaline solution of the hydroxide. (e.g. 2Na + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2) For this reason, they are called alkali metals Because of the violence of this reaction with water, alkali metals are stored under oil, and only very small amounts should ever be reacted with water using safety screen, goggles etc. Differences 1) The metals are all soft and light, but going down the group from Li to Cs, they a) Have decreasing melting points (Li = 180oC, Na = 98oC, K = 64oC etc.) b) Become softer 2) There is a definite increase in reactivity going down the group from Li to Cs. Li reacts quite mildly, Na more vigorously, K quite violently etc. This is because the atoms lower down have more inner shells of electrons. These 'shield' the outer electrons from the attraction of the nucleus, and allow the outer electron to be lost more easily. Since metals react by losing electrons, they become more reactive.

GROUP 7 , The Halogens. (F, Cl, Br, I, At) Similarities 1) All are non-metals 2) They are diatomic (F2, Cl2, Br2 etc.) 3) All elements have 7 electrons in the outer shell: F: 2.7 Cl: 2.8.7 Br: 2.8.18.7 etc. 4) For this reason they all form 1- ions when they react with metals Ions are F-, Cl-, Br- etc. (They get the extra electron by sharing if they combine with another nonmetal) Differences APPEARANCE MELTING POINT REACTIVITY Fluorine Yellow gas -220 Extremely reactive Chlorine Green gas -101 Very Reactive Bromine Brown liquid -7 Quite reactive Iodine Black solid 113 Not very reactive Note: 1) The differences in appearance and state 2) The clear increase in melting point 3) The clear decrease in reactivity.

REACTIONS 1. They react readily with metals to form salts (chlorine does this most readily, then bromine, then iodine) e.g. Mg + Cl2 = MgCl2 2Na + I2 = 2NaI 2. Like metals, a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive one: e.g. chlorine + potassium bromide = bromine + potassium chloride Cl2 + 2KI = Br2 + 2KCl or bromine + sodium iodide = iodine + sodium bromide Br2 + 2NaI = I2 + 2KBr THE TRANSITION METALS This is the block which appears in the middle of the periodic table. It contains many of the metals in everyday use, such as iron, nickel and copper. Properties These metals tend to be strong and dense, with a fairly high melting point. Their reactions are similar to other metals, and their reactivity is medium to low. Compounds Like other metals, compounds are ionic, but many transition metals can have ions with different charges. e.g. Iron ions can be Fe2+ or Fe3+, so that it can form 2 sets of compounds called iron (II) compounds and iron (III) compounds. e.g. Iron (II) chloride contains Fe2+ ions and is pale green in colour Iron (III) chloride contains Fe3+ ions and is brown-yellow in colour Transition metal compounds have a variety of colours Iron (II) compounds are pale green Iron (III) compounds are yellow-brown Copper compounds are blue Nickel compounds are green Electronic Structure Transition elements are elements in which the penultimate shell is being filled. e.g. the first 5 elements in period 3 are: K = 2.8.8.1 Ca = 2.8.8.2 Sc= 2.8.9.3 Ti= 2.8.10.3 V= 2.8.11.3 etc Sc, Ti, V are transition metals, and in these elements, the 3rd rather than the 4th shell is being filled.

Acids, Alkalis and Bases Definitions In 1887, the Swedish Chemist Arrhenius came up with the idea that all acids produced hydrogen ions (H+) in water, while all alkalis produce OH- ions. However, these ideas were not readily accepted because a) It did not explain why ammonia (NH3) behaved as an alkali, nor how insoluble bases such as magnesium oxide (MgO) behaved. b) Ideas about particles and ions were not widely understood In 1920s, the English chemist Lowry and the Danish chemist Bronsted came up with new definitions: An acid is a proton donor (it releases H+ ions), while a base is a proton acceptor (accept H+ ions). e.g. acids HCl = H+ + ClH2SO4 = 2H+ + SO42Bases OH- + H+ = H2O NH3 + H+ = NH3 Acid Base Reactions MgO + H2SO4 = MgSO4 + H2O (here, the sulphuric acid gives 2 protons to the oxide ion to form water) NH3 + HCl = NH4Cl (here the HCl gives a proton to the ammonia) Strong and Weak Acids Strong acids are completely split up in water to their ions. e.g. HCl = H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) H2SO4= 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) HNO3 = H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) The H+ ion is always produced

Note that weak acids (like ethanoic acid in vinegar, citric acid in lemons or carbonic acid in fizzy water) do not completely split up into hydrogen ions. The low concentration of H+ ions makes them weak. When a strong alkali such as NaOH or KOH is dissolved in water, it produces dissolved OH- ions. e.g. NaOH = Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) A weak alkali is only partly ionised, e.g. ammonia NH3 + H2O = NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) (the ionisation reaction is reversible) When an acid reacts with an alkali, the ionic equation is: H+ + OH- = H2O This is the ionic equation for all acid - alkali reactions. Choice of Indicators for Titrations The volumes of solution which react with each other can be measured by titration using a burette, a pipette and suitable indicator, The most commonly used indicators are Indicator Methyl Orange Phenolphthalein Colour in Acids Pjnk Colourless Colour in Alkalis Orange Pink

For strong acid- strong alkali titrations you can use either indicator For strong acid- weak alkali titrations you must use methyl orange For weak acid- strong alkali titrations you must use phenolphthalein TITRATION CALCULATIONS (H) 1. The concentration of solutions is measured as the number of moles dissolved in one dm3 of water (1dm3 = 1000cm3 = 1 litre). This concentration is given in mol dm-3 or is sometimes written M. e.g. if 2 moles of a substance are dissolved in 1 dm3 of water, the solution is said to have a concentration of 2 mol/dm3. 2. The concentration of a solution can be found by using the relationship

Moles

Conc Vol

Concentration is measured in mol/dm3 and volume is measured in dm3 1000cm3 = 1 dm3, so always divide cm3 by 1000 before using this relationship. e.g. a) What is the molar concentration if 0.2 moles are dissolved in 250cm3 of water? volume = 250/1000 = 0.25 dm3 concentration = 0.2/0.25 = 0.8 mol/dm3 Questions Find the number of moles of a) NaCl in 3 dm3 of a 0.1M solution. b) CuSO4 in 200cm3 of a 0.2M solution. c) HCl in 50cm3 of a 0.5M solution. Complete the following table: Moles Concentration (mol dm-3) 0.1 0.5 0.15 0.8 0.01 2 0.2 0.5 Volume 3dm3 200cm3 1dm3 600cm3

CALCULATIONS FROM EQUATIONS Once the number of moles has been calculated, the balanced equation can be used in the normal way: 1) Use ' moles =conc x vol' to find number of moles of one substance. 2) Use 'big' numbers in equation to find moles of other substances. 3) Use conc = moles/volume to find the molar concentration of the other substance if required. Examples: a) 250 cm3 of a solution of NaOH of concentration 0.1 moles dm-3 reacts with hydrochloric acid. How much acid is used? 2NaOH + H2S04 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O Moles = Concentration x Volume Conc = 0.1M Vol = 250/1000 = 0.25 dm3 So Moles of NaOH = 0.1 x 0.25 = 0.025 From the equation, the moles of H2SO4 is half this: 0.025/2 = 0.0125 b) 50 cm3 of a solution of sodium carbonate of concentration 0.2 moles dm-3 reacts with hydrochloric acid. How much hydrochloric acid is used? Na2CO3 + 2HCl= NaCl + H2O + CO2 Moles = Concentration x Volume Conc = 0.2mol dm-3 Vol = 50/1000 = 0.05 dm3

So Moles of NaOH = 0.2 x 0.05 = 0.01 From the equation, the moles of HCl is twice this: 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 moles c) 100 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.5 moles dm-3 reacts with 25cm3 of hydrochloric acid. NaOH + HCl= NaCl + H2O i) How many moles of hydrochloric acid is used? ii) What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid? i) Moles = Concentration x Volume Conc = 0.5mol dm-3 Vol = 100/1000 = 0.1 dm3 So Moles of NaOH = 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.05 From the equation, the moles of HCl is the same: 0.05 moles ii) For the HCl, Concentration = Moles/ Volume Moles = 0.05 Volume = 25/1000 = 0.025 dm3 Concentration = 0.05/0.025 = 2 mol dm-3 WATER CHEMISTRY WATER Water is the most common chemical on the planet. One of its most important properties is as a solvent. It is an extremely good solvent for a wide variety of chemicals, and for this reason it is difficult to obtain pure. Sea water is formed when rainwater runs through rocks & soils, dissolving out minerals. These are taken by rivers to the seas where the minerals are concentrated through evaporation. The most common is sodium chloride (salt) but there are many others as well. HARD & SOFT WATER Hard water has the following properties: 1) It is difficult to make a good lather. 2) Scum is formed with soap. 3) Lime scale forms in kettles, pipes etc. Hard water contains Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions in solution. These ions react with soap to form scum. This is because soap is sodium stearate, which reacts with calcium ions to form insoluble calcium stearate which is scum. Calcium is usually dissolved in the form of calcium sulphate or calcium hydrogen carbonate. If calcium hydrogen carbonate is present, it can be removed by boiling. This decomposes the calcium hydrogen carbonate to calcium carbonate, which forms scale. This is called temporary hardness. If calcium sulphate is present, hardness cannot be removed by boiling. This is called permanent hardness (although, it can in fact be removed by other water-softening methods).

The hardness usually comes about by rainwater falling on limestone or chalk. Rainwater is made acidic by dissolved CO2, and this dissolves the calcium carbonate to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2 The presence of dissolved Ca2+ ions from the calcium hydrogen carbonate makes the water hard. If water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate is heated, insoluble calcium carbonate is formed again as lime scale in your kettle, pipes etc. Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Some people choose to soften their water because 1) Less soap is used. 2) No scum is formed. 3) No lime scale is formed. There are 2 popular methods 1) Calcium ions may be taken out of solution by adding another ion to form an insoluble calcium salt. e.g. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) reacts to form insoluble calcium carbonate. 2) An ion exchange resin can be used. This is a material containing a high concentration of sodium ions. When hard water is passed through, the calcium ions in the water are replaced by sodium ions, which do not cause hardness. SOLUBILITY Water is good solvent for many substances. It will dissolve most ionic substances Some covalent simple molecular substance will dissolve, but many do not. SOLUBILITY CURVES A solubility curve shows how much of a substance can be dissolved in a certain amount of water at different temperatures. Usually more can be dissolved at higher temperatures. By reading off the amounts which can be dissolved at different temperatures, you can work out how much will crystallise out of solution when the temperature changes.

Solubility Curve for Sodium Sulphate


60

Grams dissolving in 1kg of water

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temperature/oC

This shows that at 50C 100g of water can dissolve a maximum mass of 30g of sodium sulphate, while at 70C 100g of water can dissolve a maximum of 40g of sodium sulphate. (a solution dissolving as much solute as it can is called a saturated solution) Therefore, if 1 kg of a saturated solution of sodium sulphate is cooled from 70C to 50C then 10g (40g - 30g) of sodium sulphate would be precipitated out. SOLUBILITY OF GASES Many gases dissolve in water (e.g. ammonia & carbon dioxide). They dissolve more under pressure, but become less soluble as the temperature rises. Fizzy water is a solution of carbon dioxide, but only remains fizzy if kept under pressure. Fish need the oxygen that is dissolved in water, but if the temperature rises, the amount of dissolved oxygen will decrease. WATER QUALITY Water of the correct quality is essential for life. For humans, drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microorganisms. This is achieved by choosing an appropriate source, passing the water through filter beds to remove any solids and then sterilising with chlorine. Water filters containing carbon, silver and ion exchange resins can remove some dissolved substances from tap water to improve the taste and quality. Pure water can be produced by distillation.

ENERGY, FUELS AND POLLUTION


EXOTHERMIC reactions are reactions which release heat or other forms of energy to the surroundings. Most reactions are exothermic, the most obvious ones are combustion reactions. Other examples are respiration & fermentation e.g. Magnesium + oxygen = Magnesium oxide When an exothermic reaction occurs, the products of the reaction have less energy than the reactants, since some energy has been released. This can be shown on an 'Energy Profile'

Magnesium + Oxygen

Energy

Heat given out to surroundings (-1245kJ) Magnesium oxide

e.g. 2Mg + O2 = 2MgO = -1254 kJ/mole H The energy change is represented by H, which is measured in kJ per mole, and is negative for exothermic reactions. ENDOTHERMIC reactions are reactions which take in heat from the surroundings the most usual examples are thermal decompositions, i.e. reactions in which a substances is split up by heat. Another example is photosynthesis. e.g. Calcium carbonate = Calcium Oxide + carbon dioxide When an endothermic reaction occurs, the products of the reaction have more energy than the reactants, since some energy has been taken in. This can be shown on an 'Energy Profile'
Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide Energy Heat taken in from surroundings (+345kJ) Calcium carbonate

The energy change is represented by H, which is measured in kJ per mole, and is positive for endothermic reactions. e.g. CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 H = +345 kJ/mole Practical Measurement of Energy of Reaction

When a reaction is carried out, it is usually carried out in such a way that the heat evolved is transferred to some water (in some cases a dilute solution is used in place of water, but the effect is very similar). The formula used is q= mcT Where q= Energy change is measure in Joules m = mass in grams of water or solution whose temperature is raised. (remember 1cm3 of water weighs 1g) c = heat capacity of water (usually given as 4.2 J/K/g) T = change in temperature If the value of H is required in kJ, the enthalpy change is divided by 1000 If the value is required is in kJ /mol, then divide by the number of moles of reactant. i.e. H = mcT where n is the number of moles used. 1000 n Remember that if the temperature increased, the reaction is exothermic (H -ve) and vice versa. e.g. 10g of octane (C8H18) is burned and used to raise the temperature of 100cm3 of water from 18oC to 57oC q= mcT m = total mass of solution whose temperature was raised = 100g c = heat capacity of solution = 4.2 T = 57 - 18 = 39oC Energy given out = 100 x 4.2 x 39 = 16380J Energy in kilojoules = 16380/1000 = 16.38kJ The number of moles octane used = Mass/Mr = 10/114 = 0.0877 H = 16.38/0.0877 = -186kJ/mol 9negative because reaction is exothermic) Bond Energies 1. When a chemical reaction occurs, the bonds between the atoms in the reactants must be broken, before the new bonds in the products can be formed. e.g. H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl Showing the bonds: H-H + Cl-Cl = H-Cl + H-Cl The bonds between the 2 hydrogen atoms in H2 and between the 2 chlorine atoms in Cl2 must be broken before new bonds between H & Cl can be made The process of bond breaking is endothermic (takes in energy) The process of bond making is exothermic (gives out energy) To calculate the energy change for the above reaction, we need to know the bond energies: Bond energy of H-H bond = 436 kJ/mole Bond energy of Cl-Cl bond = 242 kJ/mole Bond energy of H-Cl bond = 431 kJ/mole Energy needed to break 1 H-H bond and 1 Cl-Cl bond = 436 + 242 = 678 kJ

Energy given out when 2 H-Cl bonds are formed = 2 x 431 = 862 kJ The difference is 862-678 = 184 kJ given out. So we can write H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl = -184 kJ/mole H (remember that a minus H means an exothermic reaction) Activation Energy Many exothermic reactions need a small input of energy before the main reaction will start (e.g. the match that lights the bonfire). This is called ACTIVATION ENERGY, and is needed to start breaking the bonds in the reactants so that new ones can be formed.
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Fuels & Pollution Pollution of the atmosphere is mainly caused by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). Power stations use huge amounts of these fuels and so are a major source of pollution. Cars and lorries are another major source of atmospheric pollution, however the use of fuels is essential for our economy, and viable alternatives to fossil fuels will need to be developed. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS TESTS FOR METAL IONS FLAME TEST Clean a piece of nichrome wire with sandpaper, then water, and dip it into your test substance. Now hold the wire at the edge of a blue Bunsen flame.

Bright orange flame - SODIUM (Na+) Lilac - POTASSIUM (K+) Crimson - LITHIUM (Li+) Brick red - CALCIUM (Ca2+) Apple green BARIUM (Ba2+) TESTING WITH SODIUM HYDROXIDE Since most metal hydroxides are insoluble, adding sodium hydroxide solution to a solution of a metal salt will give a precipitate. e.g. Copper sulphate + Sodium hydroxide = Copper Hydroxide + sodium sulphate. CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) = Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq) The copper hydroxide is seen as a blue precipitate. Method The substance is dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide solution is added until in excess. No Precipitate Sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) or ammonium (NH4+) must be present, as the hydroxides of these are soluble. If ammonium ions (NH4+) are present, then ammonia gas will be given off which turns red litmus paper blue (alkaline) White Precipitate which does not redissolve in excess NaOH CALCIUM (Ca2+) or MAGNESIUM (Mg2+) must be present, as Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are both white and insoluble. White Precipitate which dissolves in when excess NaOH is added ALUMINIUM (Al3+) present. Al(OH)3 is insoluble in water, but soluble in sodium hydroxide solution. Coloured Precipitate COPPER (Cu2+) ions give a blue ppt of Cu(OH)2 IRON (II) (Fe2+) ions give a dirty green ppt of Fe(OH)2 IRON (III) (Fe3+) ions give a brown ppt of Fe(OH)3 TESTS FOR NON-METAL IONS 1) Test for Carbonates Add dilute acid. If it fizzes, test for CO2.with lime water (goes cloudy). This indicates a CARBONATE (CO32-) 2) Test for Halides (Chloride, Bromide & Iodide)

Add a little nitric acid, followed by a few drops of silver nitrate solution. CHLORIDE (Cl-) gives a white ppt of AgCl, BROMIDE (Br-) gives a cream coloured ppt of AgBr IODIDE(I-) gives a yellow ppt of AgI 3)Test for Sulphates Add a little dilute HCl, followed by barium chloride solution. SULPHATE (SO42-) gives a white ppt of BaSO4. 4) Test for Nitrates Add a little aluminium powder and dilute sodium hydroxide solution and warm gently. NITRATE (NO3-) will produce ammonia gas which turns damp litmus paper blue ORGANIC COMPOUNDS When heated, organic substances may char (turn black) because of the carbon in them. Unsaturated compounds containing a carbon-carbon double bond. These will decolourise bromine water. When organic compounds undergo complete combustion, they form carbon dioxide and water. By weighing the amounts of these produced, the amounts of carbon and hydrogen present can be calculated, and hence the empirical formula. In water 2/18 of the mass is hydrogen (mass of H atoms =2, mass of H2O molecule =18) In carbon dioxide 12/44 of the mass is carbon (mass of C atom =12, mass of CO2 molecule =44) e.g. An organic compound is burned and produces 8.8 g of CO2 and 3.6g of H2O. Find its empirical formula Mass of CO2 = 8.8g. Mass of carbon = 8.8 x 12/44 = 2.4g Mass of H2O = 3.6g Mass of hydrogen = 3.6 x 2/18 = 0.4g Empirical Formula Element Carbon Hydrogen Mass 2.4g 0.4g Ar 12 1 Mass/Ar 0.2 0.4 Divide thru by smallest 0.2/0.2 = 1 0.4/0.2 = 2 So the ratio of C:H = 1:2 and the empirical formula is CH2. INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS Many modern labs use instrument to analyse compounds rather than wet chemistry. These include Absorption Spectrophotometers which analyse the elements in a compound

Mass Spectrometers which can find the mass of particles Infrared Spectrometers which give information about bonds in substances.

Advantages These methods use much smaller quantities of chemicals than traditional methods, and generally produce more accurate results. Disadvantages Instrumental methods use much more expensive equipment, and require a greater skill level to operate and interpret results.

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