Chapter 4: Developing Chemical Equations

4.1: Representing Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are compounds made up of oppositely charged ions that transfer electrons. Ions are particles that become charged after losing or gaining one or more electrons. Cations are positively charged ions. Anions are negatively charged ions. y Ionic compounds are formed by a metal and a non-metal y In ionic compounds, one or more electrons from one of the atoms transfers to the other atom, creating a neutral bond. y The atoms transfer electrons to fill the outer ring of valence electrons. Valence electrons are the electron(s) in the outer ring of an atom. y In the periodic table, the elements are arranged by the number of valence electrons they have. y All the elements in group 1 have 1 valence and all the elements in group 17 have 7 valence. Binary ionic compounds are compounds that are composed of a metal cation and a non-metal anion. There are two rules for naming binary ionic compounds: - The first part is always the metal, which is the positive ion. - The second part is always the non-metal, which also includes the suffix -ide y The number of electrons given by the metal must equal the number of electrons gained by the nonmetal y When they are not equal, you must add more atoms to make it equal For example: Aluminum Chloride

Multivalent metals are metals that contain more than one charge (Lead, Copper) y When writing multivalent metals, you use roman numerals to identify which charge it has Polyatomic ions are ions that are made up of more than one ion Ternary compounds are a compound composed of three different elements y When writing the chemical formulas for polyatomic ions, remember to keep them together by using a bracket For example: Ammonium Sulfate - (NH4)2SO4

4.2: Representing Molecular Compounds

Molecular compounds(covalent compounds) are compounds that are formed when two atoms share valence electrons. Molecules are a neutral particle composed of two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds. Molecule is also used to describe two or more atoms combined in a covalent compound, only 7 elements exist in this form: H2, N2, O2, Cl2, Br2, I2, and F2

Binary molecular compounds are compounds that consist of two non-metals. y When naming molecular compounds, you include prefixes in the element name that indicate the number of each element. Prefix Number Prefix Number Mono1 Penta5 Di2 Hexa6 Tri3 Hepta7 Tetra4 Octa8 y When using the prefixes to name elements, if the first element only contains one atom, you do not include the prefix. y You also do not reduce when naming molecular compounds. Examples Nitrogen Dioxide - NO2 Bromine Monochloride - BrCl Molecular compounds have great importance in energy generation and in the agricultural industries, but they are also pollutants.

4.3 Conservation of Mass and Chemical Equations

Reactants are a pure substance(s) that go under chemical changes. Products are the result of a reactant; a new pure substance with new properties. Chemical reactions are a process where new substances with new properties are formed. y Antoine Lavoisier has conducted many experiments and they all came out with the same results, he concluded that In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants . This is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass.

Writing Chemical Equations Chemical equations are a representation of what happens to the reactants and products during a chemical change. There are three forms of chemical questions: Word Equations: y The name of each reactant is written on the left followed by an arrow, then the product on the right side of the arrow y On the reactant side, there is a + sign between the reactants, it means reacts with . The + on the product side represents the word and The arrow means reacts to produce. Example: the reaction between hydrogen and water is hydrogen + oxygen water

Skeleton Equations: y Instead of the name of the reactants, the chemical formulas are used in this equation Example: the reaction between hydrogen and water is H2 + O2 H2O Balanced Chemical Equations: y Demonstrates the law of conservation of mass by showing a coefficient that is placed in front of a chemical formula to show equal numbers of each element Example: the reaction between hydrogen and water is 2H2 + O 2H2O

5.1 Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions

New substances are made in a chemical change There are five ways you can tell a chemical change has happened: - A new colour formed - Gases produced (bubbles/odor/steam) - Change of state (Precipitate- solid formed when two liquids mix) - Heat can be given off (exothermic); heat can be absorbed (endothermic) - Light is produced There are 4 types of chemical changes: synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, and double displacement y y A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction when two reactants combine to make a new product It is shown as:

A+B

AB

y Important product made by synthesis is ammonia (NH3) which is used in fertilizers y Ammonia is also used for making paper, extracting zinc and nickel, in explosives, and cleaning products y Fritz Haber, a German chemist first created this compound and is now referred to as the Haber process The balanced chemical equation for this reaction is N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) To determine the product of a synthesis reaction you have to: 1. Write element symbols 2. Write charges 3. Criss-cross 4. Balance A decomposition reaction is when a product breaks down (decomposes) into simpler elements Opposite of synthesis It is shown as:

AB

A+B

Important example of decomposition is the electrolysis of water, which is when electric current is used to break apart bonds in water (hydrogen and oxygen)

To write a decomposition reaction you have to: 1. Write the compound 2. Separate the elements 3. Criss-cross the charges so they go back to the original charge

5.2 Displacement Reactions

A single displacement reaction is a chemical reaction where one element takes the place of another element in a compound. The chemical equations for single displacement reactions are: A + BC AC + B or A + BC BA + C y y y y y Metals can only replace metals and non-metals can only replace non-metals Only metals of a higher reactivity can replace the metals in the compound An activity series is a list of elements organized according to their chemical reactivity; the most reactive at the top and the least reactive element at the bottom Hydrogen is in the activity series even though it isn t a metal because its ions are positively charged so hydrogen can take the place of metals There is a separate activity series for non-metals

A double displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which the metals in two different compounds exchange places, creating two new compounds. The chemical equation for a double displacement reaction is:

AB + CD

AD + CB

Sometimes one of the new compounds will precipitate Sulfur dioxide is a compound that is produced by a double displacement, then decomposition The balanced chemical equations for these reactions are

Na2SO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2SO3(aq) (double displacement) H2SO3(aq) H20(L) + SO2(g) (decomposition)
y y Sulfur dioxide is used for preserving dried fruits such as raisins, apples, and apricots The sulfur dioxide gas is used and is absorbed by the skin of the fruit, preserving the colour and taste

5.3 Reactions and Environmental Issues

In a car engine, the gasoline burns and reacts with oxygen y Usually, it would create combustion, but a car s engine doesn t provide the right conditions to create a complete combustion y It creates incomplete combustion which produced poisonous carbon monoxide gas which is bad for the environment y A catalyst converter is used to reduce the harmful emissions released from a car y They help decompose nitrogen oxides in the exhaust into nitrogen and oxygen elements A catalyst is a substance that makes a reaction happen faster and is not used up in the reaction

y y y

There is a lot of chemistry used in gold mining There are several reactions needed to retrieve the gold from rocks or ores Gold is formed with cyanide ions (CN-) in a soluble substance, then zinc (Zn) is used to displace the gold so the gold can be retrieved, this method is called leeching

Usually chlorinating agents are used to disinfect pools y Different types of chlorinating agents should not be mixed since it can create an explosive mixture y Users of a product can find information about how to handle and use it safely by looking at the safety precautions and symbols on the label of the product y For consumer products (use for homes), HHPS (Hazardous Household Products Symbols) system is used y For workplace and laboratory products, WHIMIS symbols are used

6.1 Identifying Acids and Bases

Acids y An acid is a compound that produced hydrogen ions, H+ (aq), when dissolved in water y Some acids are safe to eat (vinegar, citric acids), while most are not y They have a sour taste y Many acids are corrosive and will react with metals y When an acid dissolves in water, it reacts with water to form ions, in a process called ionization For example, when hydrogen chloride gas is bubbled through and dissolved in water, hydrogen and chloride ions separate in the solution.

HCL(aq)

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Naming Acids Acids have to be named according to the type of acid that it is; binary acid or oxoacid Binary acids are acids composed of hydrogen and a non-metal To name binary acids, you have to: 1. Write the root of the non-metal name 2. Add the prefix hydro- to the root name 3. Add the ending -ic acid to the root name Oxoacids are acids composed of hydrogen, oxygen and another element To name oxoacids, you have to: 1. Write the name of the anion, without the ate or ite ending 2. If the anion name ended with ate, replace it with ic 3. If the anion name ended with ite, replace it with ous 4. Add the word acid Writing Chemical Formulas for Acids 1. First, determine the anion to use in the formula 2. You have to find the charge of the anion (can be found in chart of polyatomic ions) 3. Use the criss-cross method

Bases y y y y

Bases are a compound that forms hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), when dissolved in water Common examples of bases are: soap and baking soda They are bitter in taste and have a slippery feel When a base dissolves in water, the ions separate from one another and hydroxide ions are released into the water, in a process called dissociation For example, when sodium hydroxide dissolves in water, the ions separate, as shown here:

NaOh(aq)

Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Naming Bases They are named the same way you would name an ionic compound Some bases have common names used for consumer products Writing Chemical Formulas for Bases Same rules as writing them for acids

6.2 The pH Scale and Indicators

The pH Scale y A scale ranging from 0 to 14 used to classify liquid solutions as acidic, basic or neutral is called the pH scale y Acidic solutions have a pH below 7, the lower the number, the more acidic y Some examples of acidic solutions: lemon, milk, tomatoes y Basic solutions have a pH above 7, the higher the number, the more basic y Some examples of basic solutions: soap, eggs, baking soda y A solution neither basic or acidic (neutral) have a pH of 7 y Pure water and sodium chloride are examples of neutral solutions y The pH scale differs from the value of hydrogen ions above or below it by a power of 10 For example: a solution that has a pH of 4 has 10 times more hydrogen ions than a solution that has a pH of 5 and 100 times more hydrogen ions than a solution that has a pH of 6 Determining the pH of a Solution There are several methods used to determine the pH of a solution Some of them are: y pH Meter y Litmus Paper- uses a pH indicator (a substance that changes colour to show the concentration of hydrogen ions) y Universal Indicator and pH Paper- an indicator that indicates from a range of pH 0 to pH 14

6.3 Reactions of Acids and Bases

Acid-Base Neutralization y When an acid and a base react and produce a salt and water, it is called neutralization For example, when a hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide react, it forms water and salt

HCL (aq) + NaOh (aq)

y y

H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

Antacids are used to help neutralize the excess acids in our systems which may cause heartburns They contain a base (usually magnesium hydroxide) that helps increase the pH of the gastric juices

Acid Precipitation y Rainwater is naturally acidic and has a pH of around 5.6 y Forms from non-metal oxides like the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen from cars and other sources of pollution y The oxides react with water to form acids to produce acid rain Effects of Acid Precipitation y Abrupt changes in the acidity in rivers or lakes can be deadly for fish y The pH of a lake determines what variety of organisms can live in it; the more acidic, the less variety y At a pH of 6, some insects plankton and crustaceans die y At a pH of 5, there is a large change in the variety of plankton, loss of some fish population, and invasion by less desirable species of plankton and moss y A pH of less than 5, only a few fish remain and land animals are affected by the loss of fish y To renew a lake, the process of liming is used, where the use of lime based products are added to neutralize the acid in the lake Acid Leaching and Metals y Acids are a very important part in refining metals y The acid reacts with the metals and forms soluble compounds, then the solution containing the unwanted material is separated from the solution with the metal y The process of refining metals with acids can also contaminate the area y The same process can also be used for leaching toxic metals from contaminated soils