Approaches Teaching approaches 1) Student centered Student centered is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students , rather

than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators. This approach has many implications for the design of curriculum, course content, and interactivity of courses. For instance, a student-centered course may address the needs of a particular student audience to learn how to solve some job-related problems using some aspects of mathematics. In contrast, a course focused on learning mathematics might choose areas of mathematics to cover and methods of teaching which would be considered irrelevant by the student. Student-centered learning, that is, putting students first, is in stark contrast to existing establishment/teacher-centered lecturing and careerism. Student-centered learning is focused on the student's needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles with the teacher as a facilitator of learning. This classroom teaching method acknowledges student voice as central to the learning experience for every learner. Teacher-centered learning has the teacher at its centre in an active role and students in a passive, receptive role. Student-centered learning requires students to be active, responsible participants in their own learning. Although Student-centered learning In their book for use in second level education (postprimary), entitled A Guide to Student-Centered Learning, they present the main principles of studentcentered learning as The learner has full responsibility for her/his learning, Involvement and participation are necessary for learning, The relationship between learners is more equal, promoting growth, development, The teacher becomes a facilitator and resource person, The learner experiences confluence in his education (affective and cognitive domains flow together) and The learner sees himself differently as a result of the learning experience.

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Teacher-centered Teacher-centered emphasize the importance of transferring knowledge, information, and skills

from the older (presumably wiser) generation to the younger one. The teacher's role is to instill respect for authority, perseverance, duty, consideration, and practicality. When students demonstrate through tests and writings that they are competent in academic subjects and traditional skills, and through their actions that they have disciplined minds and adhere to traditional morals and behavior, then both the school and the teacher have been successful. The major teachercentered of education are perennialism. Teacher centered teach students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional academic disciplines. Essentialists aim to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development. This traditional or back-to-basics approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture among all Americans The teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students to learn and place little emphasis on student interests, particularly when such interests divert time and attention from the academic curriculum. Essentialist teachers rely on achievement test scores to evaluate progress. Essentialists expect that students will leave school possessing not only basic skills and an extensive body of knowledge, but also disciplined, practical minds, capable of applying schoolhouse lessons in the real world. test students for mastery of information and skills, have teachers and students work closely together, and develop strong thinking skills across subjects. In fact, schools in the coalition do not share a fixed core curriculum, but each school continually analyzes and can alter core contents. The coalition also stresses "less is more," since Sizer believes that teachers and students should focus on fewer topics, but go into them more deeply. In fact, these essential schools also incorporate components of perennialism

Techniques 1) Inductive Inductive a process of using observations to develop general principles about a specific subject. A group of similar specimens, events, or subjects are first observed and studied; finding from the observations are then used to make broad statements about the subjects that were examined. These statements may then become laws of nature or theories. For example of the Inductive Method Is Extensive observations of many species of land-dwelling turtles reveals that the observed turtles have shells, lay eggs, and eat a diet of plants as well as insects. From this, it could be induced that all land turtles have shells, lay eggs and eat plants and insects. The data gathered from observing some examples of land turtles is applied as a general rule about all land turtles. The Inductive Method Used in the Classroom deeply entrenched in education. Traditionally English courses were taught deductively, with the teacher teaching the students the facts and theory, then moving to textbook exercises and finally application. Using the inductive method, the teacher presents the students with a specific challenge or problem, such as an experiment that needs to be interpreted, or a real-world problem that needs to be solved. The students must then use their base-knowledge to investigate, test, analyze and come to their own conclusion or solution. The inductive method, which is commonly interpreted in schools as the method is widely used as a guide for observation and inquiry based learning. Although Types of Inductive Teaching and Learning Inductive teach methods come in many forms and with many names. We have already mentioned inquiry-based and discovery learning. Besides those there are problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based learning and just-in-time learning The inductive technigues is an extremely effective process for obtaining general, observation-based information about the world. In fact, the inductive method--whether guided in classrooms or occurring in non-academic settings--is one of the most common and natural forms of making logical assumptions about what we observe. Inductive reasoning allows us to gather ideas about an infinite number of events or phenomena in real life. Use of the inductive method as a teaching tool to guide students through critical thinking, awareness, evaluation of what they observe, and the drawing of logical conclusions and explanations is almost universally accepted in science education.

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Mastery Learning Mastery Learning is an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they are provided

with the appropriate learning conditions. Specifically, mastery learning is a method whereby students are not advanced to a subsequent learning objective until they demonstrate proficiency with the current one. Mastery learning curricula generally consist of discrete topics which all students begin together. Students who do not satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until they succeed. Students who master the topic early engage in enrichment activities until the entire class can progress together. Mastery learning includes many elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high-end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based instructional techniques, with frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path. Mastery learning may be implemented as teacher-paced group instruction, one-to-one tutoring, or selfpaced learning with programmed materials. It may involve direct teacher instruction, cooperation with classmates, or independent learning. It requires well-defined learning objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units. Individualized instruction has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more able or more motivated students to progress ahead of others and maximizing teacher interaction with those students who need the most assistance. The concept of mastery learning can be attributed to the behaviorism principles of operant conditioning. According to operant conditioning theory, learning occurs when an association is formed between a stimulus and response. In line with the behavior theory, mastery learning focuses on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured. The material that will be taught to mastery is broken down into small discrete lessons that follow a logical progression. In order to demonstrate mastery over each lesson, students must be able to overtly show evidence of understanding of the material before moving to the next lesson.

Methods 1) Problem solving A problem is any situation where you have an opportunity to make a difference, to make things better; and problem solving is converting an actual current situation (the NOW-state) into a desired future situation (the GOAL-state). Whenever you are thinking creatively and critically about ways to increase the quality of life (or avoid a decrease in quality) you are actively involved in problem solving. For example, a motivated student perhaps inspired by an effective teacher can adopt a problemsolving approach to personal education by imagining the benefits of improved personal knowledge-andskill in the future. Dany Adams (Smith College) helps students learn how to think more effectively by combining critical thinking skill with scientific method: "Because the scientific method is a formalization of critical thinking, it can be used as a simple model that... puts critical thinking at the center of a straightforward, easily implemented, teaching strategy. ... Explicitly discussing the logic and the thought processes that inform experimental methods works better than hoping students will get it if they hear enough experiments described." Problem-Based Learning is a way to improve motivation, thinking, and learning: you can read a brief overview of Problem-Based Learning and (in ERIC Digests) using Problem-Based Learning for science & math plus a longer introduction - ten requirements - challenges for students & teachers (we never said it would be easy!) two websites to explore (Samford University - PBL background - process - and [click the links] evaluation & more) (Illinois Math & Science Academy - about us [with links to mission,...] and PBL Network [sitemap includes external links]) the book-intro for Problems as Possibilities - a search in ACSD for problem-based learning - and a comprehensive links-page for Problem-Based Learning. Iowa State University's ThinkSpace is "an instructional and collaborative website designed to provide real-world problems and environments to students."

Basically, this section is Part 2 of Thinking Skills in Education because problem-solving methods (like Design Method and Scientific Method) are just strategies for effectively combining familiar thinking skills in order to achieve a goal, to solve a problem. Thinking Skills and Problem-Solving Methods are closely related, as shown in an Overview of Thinking Skills that compares four perspectives: Design Method (Rusbult), Dimensions of Thinking (Marzano, et al), Infusion of Thinking Skills (Swartz), Four Frames of Knowledge (Perkins); more generally, Problem Solving & Thinking Skills in Education 2) Cooperative Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. Although, when we use Cooperative Learning, students can promote student learning and academic achievement , increase student retention, enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience, help students develop skills in oral communication, develop students' social skills, promote student selfesteem, help to promote positive race relations Class Activities that use Cooperative Learning is Brainstorming -Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with one person appointed as the recorder. A question is posed with many answers and students are given time to think about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes down the answers of the group members. The person next to the recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an answer until time is called. Three-Step Interview - Each member of a team chooses another member to be a partner. During the first step individuals interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step, members share their partner's response with the team. Team Pair Solo - Students do problems first as a team, then with a partner, and finally on their own. It is designed to motivate students to tackle and succeed at problems which initially are beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated learning. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems they could not do alone, first

as a team and then with a partner, they progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they could do only with help. Partners - The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move to one side of the room. Half of each team is given an assignment to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work to learn and can consult with other partners working on the same material. Teams go back together with each set of partners teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might improve the process 3) Collaborating Having students work in groups is another way a teacher can direct a lesson. Collaborating allows students to talk with each other and listen to all points of view in the discussion. It helps students think in a less personally biased way. When this lesson plan is carried out, the teacher may be trying to assess the lesson by looking at the student's: ability to work as a team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities. It is one of the direct instructional methods. A different kind of group work is the discussion. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles as well as interesting topics, discussions may well take up most of the lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or even in the following lesson. Discussions can take a variety of forms, e.g. fishbowl discussions. Collaborating (kinesthetic) is great in that it allows to actively participating in the learning process. These students who learn best this way by being able to relate to the lesson in that they are physically taking part of it in some way. Group projects and discussions are a great way to welcome this type of learning.

4) Demonstrating
Demonstrations are done to provide an opportunity to learn new exploration and visual learning tasks from a different perspective. A teacher may use experimentation to demonstrate ideas in a science class. A demonstration may be used in the circumstance of proving conclusively a fact, as by reasoning or showing evidence. The uses of storytelling and examples have long since become standard practice in the realm of textual explanation. But while a more narrative style of information presentation is clearly a preferred practice in writing, judging by its prolificacy, this practice

sometimes becomes one of the more ignored aspects of lecture. Lectures, especially in a collegiate environment, often become a setting more geared towards factorial presentation than a setting for narrative and/or connective learning. The use of examples and storytelling likely allows for better understanding but also greater individual ability to relate to the information presented. Learning a list of facts provides a detached and impersonal experience while the same list, containing examples and stories, becomes, potentially, personally relatable. Furthermore, storytelling in information presentation may also reinforce memory retention because it provides connections between factorial presentation and real-world examples/personable experience, thus, putting things into a clearer perspective and allowing for increased neural representation in the brain. Therefore, it is important to provide personable, supplementary, examples in all forms of information presentation because this practice likely allows for greater interest in the subject matter and better information-retention rates. Often in lecture numbers or stats are used to explain a subject but often when many numbers are being used it is difficult to see the whole picture. Visuals that are bright in color, etc. offer a way for the students to put into perspective the numbers or stats that are being used. If the student can not only hear but see what is being taught, it is more likely they will believe and fully grasp what is being taught. It allows another way for the student to relate to the material. 5) Simulations are a useful teaching strategy for illustrating a complex and changing situation. Simulations are (necessarily) less complex than the situations they represent. In a simulation, the learner acts, the simulation reacts, the learner learns from this feedback. Examples of simulations: car and flight simulators, SIM City, Monopoly, mock elections, model UN. Note that in each of these cases, the game involves rules, and the students must make decisions. Each decision a student makes affects the outcome of the game. For the students to learn what you intend for them to learn from the simulation, you must hold a discussion during and/or after the game. This is integral to the students' learning. There is so much we could have learned from playing Monopoly that went right through our heads because there was no discussion about what it all meant. (Not that there isn't time to play without focusing on learning. But that kind of play takes place outside of classrooms, not in them.)