Chapter I

THEORIES AND APPLIED MOTIVATION INTRODUCTION Managers cannot lead unless subordinates are motivated to follow them. Motivation is the reason behind every behavior. It may be internally generated or externally induced. It is most difficult to define and understand as we will see from the different approaches used by the theorists. What is motivating? Motivating is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and impe l people to take the required action. It is a process by which a manager induces others to work to achieve organizational objectives as a means of satisfying th eir own personal desires. To inspire is meant infusing a spirit of willingness into people to perf orm most effectively. To encourage is meant stimulating people to do what has t o be done through praise, approval and help. To impel is meant driving people o r inviting action, by any necessary means including compulsion and coercion. KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN MOTIVATING 1. No person moves or does anything without a reason. There is always a ca

use for a persons behavior. Behavior results from a desire to meet certain unful filled needs. 2. People are different. No person is exactly like any other person. They differ in appearance, goals, character and personality. These differences are mainly the result of genetics and upbringing. 3. A persons behavior is influenced greatly by his daily relations with othe r people. A relationship of trust and openness leads to efficient performance w hereas hostility leads to unproductive efforts. 4. People are similar to other people. People are similar to other people in the reasons behind their action. This concept spurred psychologists to study the subject, giving rise to several theories of human behavior.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION FREDERICK TAYLOR Frederick Taylor was a pioneer in scientific management who made some ea rly discoveries in motivation while studying productivity in a steel mill. He b egan the scientific study of methods. Emphasis was largely on the work itself. Little attention was paid to the workers.

ELTON MAYO One of the first insights into motivation came in the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. Mayo and his researchers concluded that social an d psychological factors, NOT physical factors, have the greatest influence on wi llingness to work. Happy, satisfied people who are made to feel important produ ce more. People respond to trust and confidence rather than compulsion and they work most productively under friendly supervision. DOUGLAS McGREGOR THEORY X AND THEORY Y McGregor proposed that managers behave according to one of two theories. Theory X managers believe that people are lazy, without ambition, irresponsibl e, and gullible and they treat them accordingly. Theory Y managers believe that people really want to work hard. To be creative, these managers use participatio n, communication and recognition to motivate their people. McGregor emphasized the need to integrate individual and organization objectives and to help people feel an emotional ownership in their work. ABRAHAM MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Abraham Maslow proposed that needs are hierarchical. He originally pict ured five levels of needs in pyramid form (the lowest to the highest), physiolog ical, safety, acceptance, esteem and self-actualization. He said that people wi ll try to satisfy these needs either on the job or in other social situations. By providing conditions that will allow a person to satisfy some of these needs on the job, managers can help to instill a positive attitude in people about the ir work.. FREDERICK HERZBERG MOTIVATION AND HYGIENE FACTORS Herzberg maintained that two sets of factors affect workers motivators a nd hygiene factors. Motivators include personal growth, achievement, recognitio n, responsibility, advancement and interesting work. Motivators have the power

to make employees want to do better; they have positive effects on work. Hygien e factors include fringe benefits, job security, working conditions, pay and fai r treatment on the job. Hygiene factors do not motivate, they serve primarily t o prevent job dissatisfaction. If hygiene factors are unsatisfactory, they can demotivate.

B. F. SKINNER C ONDITIONAL LEARNING Skinner, a behaviorist, proposed that people tend to repeat behavior tha t is rewarded and avoid behavior that is not rewarded. The more promptly the re ward follows the action, the more a person is encouraged to repeat it. Once beh avior is established, irregular or intermittent rewards are better than regular rewards. DAVID Mc CLELLAND THREE MAJOR NEEDS McClelland believed that there are three major needs at work a need for achievem ent (n-ach) the need for affiliation (n-aff) and the need for power (n-pow) The need f or achievement is a desire for success in competitive situations. Th ree characteristics are used to identify a person with a high need for achieveme nt (1) likes to set his or her own goals; (2) will set moderately difficult goal s; and (3) likes frequent and concrete feedback about performance. The need for affiliation is the need to be liked by other people. The need for power is the need to influence other people. This need can take two form: the need for perso nalized power and the need for socialized power (exercising power for the good of the organization). Individuals are motivated to different degrees by each of the needs defined. According to McClelland, these needs can be learned and developed in people thro ugh education. His research indicated that successful managers have a high need for socialized power relative to other people. More importantly, these managers have a higher need for socialized power than they do for affiliation. PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATING 1. Principle of Human Reaction. Every action directed at another person te nds to evoke a similar increasing reaction in the terms in which it is understoo d. 2. Principle of Reciprocated Interest. People tend to be motivated to achi eve the results you want to achieve to the extent that you show interest in the results that they want to achieve. 3. Principle of Participation. To achieve better results people must be giv en opportunities to participate in the decisions affecting those results. 4. Principle of Communication. Results tend to increase as people are give n recognition for their contribution to those results. 5. Principle of Job Satisfaction. People tend to contribute to group objec tives to the extent that they find in them satisfaction of their own personal ob jectives. 6. Principle of Delegated Authority. Motivation to achieve results tends t o increase as people are given authority to make decisions affecting those resul ts. GUIDELINES FOR CREATING JOB SATISFACTION 1. Motivate through goal satisfaction 2. Develop a trust relationship 3. Understand people 4. Practice self control 5. Promote job enrichment 6. Handle conflict creatively

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN MOTIVATING 1. Know the personal objective of your people and how they feel about them. 2. Help people understand how they can achieve their personal objectives by contributing to those of the team. 3. Establish understood and accepted plans, standards and limits. 4. Enforce limits firmly and fairly. 5. Give each person maximum freedom within understood and accepted limits. 6. Reward good work promptly and generously.

Chapter II

Personality and Emotions Learning Objectives: 1. Explain the factors that determine an individuals personality. 2. Describe the MBTI personality framework. 3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model. 4. Explain the impact of job typology on the personality-job performance re lationship. 5. Differentiate emotions from moods. 6. Contrast felt vs. displayed emotions. 7. Read emotions. 8. Explain any gender-differences in emotions. 9. Describe external constraints on emotions. 10. Apply concepts on emotions to OB issues. What is Personality? Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a pers ons whole psychological system it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater t han the sum of the parts. Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition: Personality the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determin e his unique adjustments to his environment. Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts

with others. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits. A review of the personality literature offers general guidelines that can lead t o effective job performance. As such, it can improve hiring, transfer, and promo tion decisions. Because personality characteristics create the parameters for pe oples behavior, they give us a framework for predicting behavior. For example, in dividuals who are shy, introverted, and uncomfortable in social situations would probably be ill-suited as salespeople. Individuals who are submissive and confo rming might not be effective as advertising idea people.

Can we predict which people will be high performers in sales, research, or assem bly-line work on the basis of their personality characteristics alone? The answe r is no. Personality assessment should be used in conjunction with other informa tion such as skills, abilities, and experience. However, knowledge of an individ uals personality can aid in reducing mismatches, which, in turn, can lead to redu ced turnover and higher job satisfaction. We can look at certain personality characteristics that tend to be related to jo b success, test for those traits, and use the data to make selection more effect ive. A person who accepts rules, conformity, dependence, and rates high on autho ritarianism is likely to feel more comfortable in, say, a structured assembly-li ne job, as an admittance clerk in a hospital, or as an administrator in a large public agency than as a researcher or an employee whose job requires a high degr ee of creativity.

Personality Determinants An early argument centered on whether or not personality was the result of hered ity or of environment. Personality appears to be a result of both influences. Today, we recognize a third factor the situation. Heredity Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals pers onality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Three different streams of research lend some credibility to the heredity argume nt: a) The genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. b) The study of twins who were separated at birth. Genetics accounts for a bout 50 percent of the variation in personality differences and over 30 percent of occupational and leisure interest variation. c) The consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations. In dividual job satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. This is indicates that satisfaction is determined by something inherent in the person. Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. If they we re, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. Environment Factors that exert pressures on our personality formation: The culture in which we are raised

Early conditioning Norms among our family Friends and social groups The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our person alities. Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values passed from one generation to the next and creates consistencies over time. The arguments for heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personal ity are both important. Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individuals full potential w ill be determined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment. Situation Influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of on es personality. There is no classification scheme that tells the impact of various types of situ ations. Situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavi or.

Personality Traits Personality traits enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior . The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Type of Social Interaction Extrovert (E) Introvert (I) Preference for Gathering Data Sensing (S) Intuitive (N) Preference for Decision Making Feeling (F) Thinking (T) Style of Decision Making Perceptive (P) Judgemental (J)

Extraversion/ Introversion During times of change, those who prefer Extraversion will want to hear and talk about the upcoming change so they can externally process their thoughs and feel ings. In contrast, people who prefer Introversion will want time to reflect and

may need some time alone to process the upcoming change internally. Sensing/ Intuition When confronted with change, Sensing types will appreciate hearing the specific and realistic data that shows why changes must be made, as well as details about how things will change and what will be expected of them. Those with preference for intuition will be more concerned with whether the changes fit with their id eas about the future of the organization, and how the big picture will be affect ed. They often will want to know why the change is happening in the first place. Thinking/ Feeling To process change, Thinking types need logical explanations for the change, as w ell as evidence that the leadership is competent, and that the change is fair an d objective. The Feeling types will be more likely to focus on how the people wi ll be affected, and will want to see that leadership is concerned and compassion ate, and that all involved parties are supported. Judgement/ Perceiving Those who prefer Judging will want plans, schedules, and time frames for changes that management should be held accountable to. This helps them know there is an end point, and that stability will return eventually. Perceivers want flexibili ty in the plans, schedules, and time frames so that they have room to respond to new information, make midcourse corrections, and use their resourcefulness The Big Five Model of Personality It is important to be aware that the personality questionnaires used in the recr uitment and selection process are the intellectual property of the companies tha t produce them. As a result, they may use different terminology to describe the aspects of personality that they set out to measure. This usually for reasons of copyright and to differentiate themselves in a market in which there are a larg e number of products that do more or less the same thing in more or less the sam e way. The personality traits used in the 5 factor model are Extraversion, Agreeablenes s, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to experience. It is important to ignore the positive or negative associations that these words have in everyday language. For example, Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for achieving and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are better liked tha n disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situati ons that require tough or totally objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers. Remembe r, none of the five traits is in themselves positive or negative, they are simpl y characteristics that individuals exhibit to a greater or lesser extent. Each of these 5 personality traits describes, relative to other people, the freq uency or intensity of a person s feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Everyone poss esses all 5 of these traits to a greater or lesser degree. For example, two indi viduals could be described as agreeable (agreeable people value getting along with others). But there could be significant variation in the degree to which they a re both agreeable. In other words, all 5 personality traits exist on a continuum (see diagram) rather than as attributes that a person does or does not have. Extraversion Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extrave rts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive e motions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are like ly to say "Yes!" or "Let s go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world. The ir lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression ; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert and prefers to b e alone. The independence and reserve of the introvert is sometimes mistaken as unfriendliness or arrogance. In reality, an introvert who scores high on the agr eeableness dimension will not seek others out but will be quite pleasant when ap proached. Agreeableness Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and so cial harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are th erefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise thei r interests with others . Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. Th ey are generally unconcerned with others well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining popularity . Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute object ive decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or so ldiers. Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints requir e a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously and impulsively c an be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as colorful, fun-to-be-wi th, and zany. Nonetheless, acting on impulse can lead to trouble in a number of ways. Some imp ulses are antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm other members o f society, but also can result in retribution toward the perpetrator of such imp ulsive acts. Another problem with impulsive acts is that they often produce imme diate rewards but undesirable, long-term consequences. Examples include excessiv e socializing that leads to being fired from one s job, hurling an insult that c auses the breakup of an important relationship, or using pleasure-inducing drugs that eventually destroy one s health. Impulsive behavior, even when not seriously destructive, diminishes a person s e ffectiveness in significant ways. Acting impulsively disallows contemplating alt ernative courses of action, some of which would have been wiser than the impulsi ve choice. Impulsivity also sidetracks people during projects that require organ ized sequences of steps or stages. Accomplishments of an impulsive person are th erefore small, scattered, and inconsistent. A hallmark of intelligence, what potentially separates human beings from earlier life forms, is the ability to think about future consequences before acting on an impulse. Intelligent activity involves contemplation of long-range goals, org anizing and planning routes to these goals, and persisting toward one s goals in the face of short-lived impulses to the contrary. The idea that intelligence in volves impulse control is nicely captured by the term prudence, an alternative l abel for the Conscientiousness domain. Prudent means both wise and cautious. Per sons who score high on the Conscientiousness scale are, in fact, perceived by ot hers as intelligent. The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals av oid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and p ersistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and relia ble. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics . Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy a

nd boring. Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lac k of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience ma ny short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy. Neuroticism Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by mental distress, emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively with the no rmal demands of life. He suggested that everyone shows some signs of neurosis, b ut that we differ in our degree of suffering and our specific symptoms of distre ss. Today neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negati ve feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience s everal of these emotions. People high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive. T hey respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their r eactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficu lt. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long period s of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic s ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotional ly stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative fee lings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; freq uency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion domain. Openness to experience. Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguish es imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open pe ople are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. T hey tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They te nd to think and act in individualistic and nonconforming ways. Intellectuals typ ically score high on Openness to Experience; consequently, this factor has also been called Culture or Intellect. Nonetheless, Intellect is probably best regard ed as one aspect of openness to experience. Scores on Openness to Experience are only modestly related to years of education and scores on standard intelligent tests. Another characteristic of the open cognitive style is a facility for thinking in symbols and abstractions far removed from concrete experience. Depending on the individual s specific intellectual abilities, this symbolic cognition may take the form of mathematical, logical, or geometric thinking, artistic and metaphori cal use of language, music composition or performance, or one of the many visual or performing arts. People with low scores on openness to experience tend to ha ve narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use. Cl osed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change. Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who ar e often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinki ng are useful in different environments. The intellectual style of the open pers on may serve a professor well, but research has shown that closed thinking is re lated to superior job performance in police work, sales, and a number of service occupations. Subordinate Personality Traits or Facets Each of the big 5 personality traits is made up of 6 facets or sub traits. These can be assessed independently of the trait that they belong to.

Extraversion Facets Friendliness. Friendly people genuinely like other people and openly demonstrate positive feelings toward others. They make friends quickly and it is easy for t hem to form close, intimate relationships. Low scorers on Friendliness are not n ecessarily cold and hostile, but they do not reach out to others and are perceiv ed as distant and reserved. Gregariousness. Gregarious people find the company of others pleasantly stimulat ing and rewarding. They enjoy the excitement of crowds. Low scorers tend to feel overwhelmed by, and therefore actively avoid, large crowds. They do not necessa rily dislike being with people sometimes, but their need for privacy and time to themselves is much greater than for individuals who score high on this scale. Assertiveness. High scorers Assertiveness like to speak out, take charge, and di rect the activities of others. They tend to be leaders in groups. Low scorers te nd not to talk much and let others control the activities of groups. Activity Level. Active individuals lead fast-paced, busy lives. They move about quickly, energetically, and vigorously, and they are involved in many activities . People who score low on this scale follow a slower and more leisurely, relaxed pace. Excitement-Seeking. High scorers on this scale are easily bored without high lev els of stimulation. They love bright lights and hustle and bustle. They are like ly to take risks and seek thrills. Low scorers are overwhelmed by noise and comm otion and are adverse to thrill-seeking. Cheerfulness. This scale measures positive mood and feelings, not negative emoti ons (which are a part of the Neuroticism domain). Persons who score high on this scale typically experience a range of positive feelings, including happiness, e nthusiasm, optimism, and joy. Low scorers are not as prone to such energetic, hi gh spirits. Agreeableness Facets Trust. A person with high trust assumes that most people are fair, honest, and h ave good intentions. Persons low in trust may see others as selfish, devious, an d potentially dangerous. Morality. High scorers on this scale see no need for pretence or manipulation wh en dealing with others and are therefore candid, frank, and sincere. Low scorers believe that a certain amount of deception in social relationships is necessary . People find it relatively easy to relate to the straightforward high-scorers o n this scale. They generally find it more difficult to relate to the low-scorers on this scale. It should be made clear that low scorers are not unprincipled or immoral; they are simply more guarded and less willing to openly reveal the who le truth. Altruism. Altruistic people find helping other people genuinely rewarding. Conse quently, they are generally willing to assist those who are in need. Altruistic people find that doing things for others is a form of self-fulfilment rather tha n self-sacrifice. Low scorers on this scale do not particularly like helping tho se in need. Requests for help feel like an imposition rather than an opportunity for self-fulfilment. Cooperation. Individuals who score high on this scale dislike confrontations. Th ey are perfectly willing to compromise or to deny their own needs in order to ge t along with others. Those who score low on this scale are more likely to intimi date others to get their way. Modesty. High scorers on this scale do not like to claim that they are better th an other people. In some cases this attitude may derive from low self-confidence or self-esteem. Nonetheless, some people with high self-esteem find immodesty u nseemly. Those who are willing to describe themselves as superior tend to be see n as disagreeably arrogant by other people. Sympathy. People who score high on this scale are tender-hearted and compassiona te. They feel the pain of others vicariously and are easily moved to pity. Low s corers are not affected strongly by human suffering. They pride themselves on ma

king objective judgments based on reason. They are more concerned with truth and impartial justice than with mercy. Conscientiousness Facets Self-Efficacy. Self-Efficacy describes confidence in one s ability to accomplish things. High scorers believe they have the intelligence (common sense), drive, and self-control necessary for achieving success. Low scorers do not feel effect ive, and may have a sense that they are not in control of their lives. Orderliness. Persons with high scores on orderliness are well-organized. They li ke to live according to routines and schedules. They keep lists and make plans. Low scorers tend to be disorganized and scattered. Dutifulness. This scale reflects the strength of a person s sense of duty and ob ligation. Those who score high on this scale have a strong sense of moral obliga tion. Low scorers find contracts, rules, and regulations overly confining. They are likely to be seen as unreliable or even irresponsible. Achievement-Striving. Individuals who score high on this scale strive hard to ac hieve excellence. Their drive to be recognized as successful keeps them on track toward their lofty goals. They often have a strong sense of direction in life, but extremely high scores may be too single-minded and obsessed with their work. Low scorers are content to get by with a minimal amount of work, and might be s een by others as lazy. Self-Discipline. Self-discipline-what many people call will-power-refers to the ability to persist at difficult or unpleasant tasks until they are completed. Pe ople who possess high self-discipline are able to overcome reluctance to begin t asks and stay on track despite distractions. Those with low self-discipline proc rastinate and show poor follow-through, often failing to complete tasks-even tas ks they want very much to complete. Cautiousness. Cautiousness describes the disposition to think through possibilit ies before acting. High scorers on the Cautiousness scale take their time when m aking decisions. Low scorers often say or do first thing that comes to mind with out deliberating alternatives and the probable consequences of those alternative s. Neuroticism Facets Anxiety. The "fight-or-flight" system of the brain of anxious individuals is too easily and too often engaged. Therefore, people who are high in anxiety often f eel like something dangerous is about to happen. They may be afraid of specific situations or be just generally fearful. They feel tense, jittery, and nervous. Persons low in Anxiety are generally calm and fearless. Anger. Persons who score high in Anger feel enraged when things do not go their way. They are sensitive about being treated fairly and feel resentful and bitter when they feel they are being cheated. This scale measures the tendency to feel angry; whether or not the person expresses annoyance and hostility depends on t he individual s level on Agreeableness. Low scorers do not get angry often or ea sily. Depression. This scale measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and discoura ged. High scorers lack energy and have difficult initiating activities. Low scor ers tend to be free from these depressive feelings. Self-Consciousness. Self-conscious individuals are sensitive about what others t hink of them. Their concern about rejection and ridicule cause them to feel shy and uncomfortable abound others. They are easily embarrassed and often feel asha med. Their fears that others will criticize or make fun of them are exaggerated and unrealistic, but their awkwardness and discomfort may make these fears a sel f-fulfilling prophecy. Low scorers, in contrast, do not suffer from the mistaken impression that everyone is watching and judging them. They do not feel nervous in social situations. Immoderation. Immoderate individuals feel strong cravings and urges that they ha ve difficulty resisting. They tend to be oriented toward short-term pleasures an d rewards rather than long- term consequences. Low scorers do not experience str ong, irresistible cravings and consequently do not find themselves tempted to ov erindulge.

 Vulnerability. High scorers on Vulnerability experience panic, confusion, and he lplessness when under pressure or stress. Low scorers feel more poised, confiden t, and clear-thinking when stressed. Openness Facets Imagination. To imaginative individuals, the real world is often too plain and o rdinary. High scorers on this scale use fantasy as a way of creating a richer, m ore interesting world. Low scorers are on this scale are more oriented to facts than fantasy. Artistic Interests. High scorers on this scale love beauty, both in art and in n ature. They become easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural events. They are not necessarily artistically trained or talented, although many will be . The defining features of this scale are interest in, and appreciation of natur al and artificial beauty. Low scorers lack aesthetic sensitivity and interest in the arts. Emotionality. Persons high on Emotionality have good access to and awareness of their own feelings. Low scorers are less aware of their feelings and tend not to express their emotions openly. Adventurousness. High scorers on adventurousness are eager to try new activities , travel to foreign lands, and experience different things. They find familiarit y and routine boring, and will take a new route home just because it is differen t. Low scorers tend to feel uncomfortable with change and prefer familiar routin es. Intellect. Intellect and artistic interests are the two most important, central aspects of openness to experience. High scorers on Intellect love to play with i deas. They are open-minded to new and unusual ideas, and like to debate intellec tual issues. They enjoy riddles, puzzles, and brain teasers. Low scorers on Inte llect prefer dealing with people or things rather than ideas. They regard intell ectual exercises as a waste of time. Intellect should not be equated with intell igence. Intellect is an intellectual style, not an intellectual ability, althoug h high scorers on Intellect score slightly higher than low-Intellect individuals on standardized intelligence tests. Liberalism. Psychological liberalism refers to a readiness to challenge authorit y, convention, and traditional values. In its most extreme form, psychological l iberalism can even represent outright hostility toward rules, sympathy for law-b reakers, and love of ambiguity, chaos, and disorder. Psychological conservatives prefer the security and stability brought by conformity to tradition. Psycholog ical liberalism and conservatism are not identical to political affiliation, but certainly incline individuals toward certain political parties. Research found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. A broad spectrum of occupations was examined in addition to job performance rati ngs, training proficiency (performance during training programs), and personnel data such as salary level. The results showed that conscientiousness predicted job performance for all occu pational groups. Individuals who are dependable, reliable, careful, thorough, able to plan, organ ized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement-oriented tend to have higher job performance. Employees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge. For the other personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the perf ormance criterion and the occupational group.

Extraversion predicted performance in managerial and sales positions. Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency. Measuring Personality Personality is measured by: Self-report surveys Observer-rating surveys Projective measures Rorschach Inkblot Test Thermatic Apperception Test The Rorschach Ink Blot Test The inkblot test (also called the "Rorschach" test) is a method of psychological evaluation. Psychologists use this test in an attempt to examine the personalit y characteristics and emotional functioning of their patients. This test is ofte n employed in diagnosing underlying thought disorders and differentiating psycho tic from non-psychotic thinking in cases where the patient is reluctant to openl y admit to psychotic thinking. Thematic Apperception Test is a projective personality test, is one of most wide ly used psychological tests. A projective test is one in which a persons pattern of thought, attitudes, observational capacity and emotional responses are evalua ted on the basis of responses to ambiguous test materials. Designed by Christiana D. Morgan and Henry A. Murray on 1930s at Harvard. Major Personality Attributes Influencing Organizational Behavior 1. Locus of Control A persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Internals: People who believe that they are masters of their own fate. Externals: People who believe they are pawns of fate. Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, hav e higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are le ss involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. Internals believe that health is substantially under their own con trol through proper habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, of absentee ism, are lower. There is not a clear relationship between locus of control and turnover because there are opposing forces at work. Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one should consider differ ences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before making a decision, are mor e motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment, therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks. Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of ac tion. Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions, and do well on jo bs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on

complying with the direction of others. 2. Machiavellianism Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to ga in and use power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distanc e, and believes that ends can justify means. High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others mo re. High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they i nteract face to face with others, rather than indirectly, and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for impro visation. High Machs make good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that of fer substantial rewards for winning. 3. Self-esteem Self-esteemthe degree to which people like or dislike themselves. (SE) is directly related to expectations for success. Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. The most generalizable finding is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive ev aluations from others. In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others. High SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs. 4. Self-monitoring It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, si tuational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. They are hig hly sensitive to external cues, can behave differently in different situations, and are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public perso na and their private self. Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display t heir true dispositions and attitudes in every situation resulting in a high beha vioral consistency between who they are and what they do. The research on self-monitoring is in its infancy, so predictions must be guarde d. Preliminary evidence suggests: a. s. High self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of other

b. High self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers an d receive more promotions. c. High self-monitor is capable of putting on different faces for different a udiences.

5.

Risk-taking The propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how l ong it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require b efore making their choice. High risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices. While managers in organizations are generally risk-aversive, there are still ind ividual differences on this dimension. As a result, it makes sense to recognize these differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with spec ific job demands. 6. Type A Personality A Type A personality is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons.

They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and ca nnot cope with leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their su ccess in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. 7. Type B Personality Type Bs never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatien ce and feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplis hments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cos t and can relax without guilt.

Type As operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They subject themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative. Their behavior is easier to predict than that of Type Bs. Are Type As or Type Bs more successful? Type Bs are the ones who appear to make it to the top.

Great salespersons are usually Type As; senior executives are usually Type Bs. 8. Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until m eaningful change occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of contr aints or obstacles. Achieving Personality Fit 1) The Person-Job Fit: This concern is best articulated in John Hollands p ersonality-job fit theory. Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the pr opensity to leave a job depend on the degree to which individuals successfully m atch their personalities to an occupational environment. Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment.

Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike; their answ ers are used to form personality profiles. The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personal ity and occupation are in agreement.

2)

The Person-Organization Fit

Most important for an organization facing a dynamic and changing environment, an d requiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly betw een teams. It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalitie s. Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should resul t in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalitie s. Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should resul t in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Matching Personalities and Jobs Six personality-types model an employees satisfaction with and propensity to leav e his or her job depend on the degree to which the individuals personality matche s his or her occupational environment. Emotions are a critical factor in employee behavior. Until very recently, the t opic of emotions had been given little or no attention within the field of OB. The myth of rationality. Organizations have been specifically designed with the objective of trying to control emotions. A well-run organization was one that su ccessfully eliminated frustration, fear, anger, love, hate, joy, grief, and simi lar feelings. The belief that emotions of any kind were disruptive. The discussion focused on strong negative emotions that interfered with an employees ability to do his or h er job effectively. What Are Emotions? Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings that people exper ience and encompasses both emotions and moods. Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. They a re reactions, not a trait. Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and which lack a c ontextual stimulus. They are not directed at an object. Positive and Negative Emotions Positive emotions (goal congruent) Happiness/ Joy Love/ Affection Pride

Relief Negative emotions (goal incongruent) Anger Guilt/ Shame Envy/ Jealousy Fright/ Anxiety Sadness Disgust Emotional Labor a red emotions during le that you have to ard. You are forced situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desi interpersonal transactions. For example, when there are peop work with whom you find it very difficult to be friendly tow to feign friendliness.

Emotional Dissonance a situation in which an employee must project one emotion w hile simultaneously feeling another.

Felt vs. Displayed Emotions Felt emotions are an individuals actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered a ppropriate in a given job. They are learned. Keyfelt and displayed emotions are often different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibi t emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings. Emotion Dimentions 1. Variety

There are many emotions. Six universal emotions have been identified: anger, fea r, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. Emotions are identified along a continuum from positive to negative. The closer any two emotions are to each other on this continuum, the more people are likel y to confuse them. 2. Intensity

People give different responses to identical emotion-provoking stimuli. Sometim es this can be attributed to personality. People vary in their inherent ability to express intensityfrom never showing feel ings to displaying extreme happiness or sadness Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of emotional labor. For example, air traffic controllers must remain calm even in stressful situations. Frequency and duration

3.

 Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long duration is more demanding and requires more exertion by employees. Whether or not the employee can successfully meet the emotional demands of a job depends on both the intensity of the emotions displayed and for how long the ef fort has to be made. Can People Be Emotionless? Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the e motions of others. Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen by others as bl and and cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to discriminate among their different emotions. Are people who suffer from alexithymia poor work performers? Not necessarily. Th ey might very well be effective performers, in a job requiring little or no emot ional labor. Sales or customer service jobs would not be good career choices. Gender and Emotions Women Can show greater emotional expression. Experience emotions more intensity. Display emotions more frequently. Are more confortable in expressing emotions. Are better at reading others emotions. Men Believe that displaying emotions is inconsistent with the male image. Are innately less able to read and to identify with others emotions. Have less need to seek social approval by showing positive emotions. Every organization defines boundaries that identify what emotions are acceptable and the degree to which they can be expressed. The same applies in different cu ltures. Organizational influences: There is no single emotional set sought by all organizations.

In the United States, there is a bias against negative and intense emotions. Exp ressions of negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, and anger tend to be unacce ptable except under fairly specific conditions. Consistent with the myth of rationality, well-managed organizations are expected to be essentially emotion-free.

Cultural influences: Cultural norms in the United States dictate that employees in service organizati

ons should smile and act friendly when interacting with customers. But this norm does not apply worldwide. Cultures differ in terms of the interpretation they give to emotions. There ten ds to be high agreement on what emotions mean within cultures but not between cu ltures. For example, smiling is often seen as an expression of happiness by Ame ricans. However, in Israel, smiling by cashiers is seen as being inexperienced. Studies indicate that some cultures lack words for such standard emotions as anx iety, depression, or guilt. OB Applications of Understanding Emotions 1. Ability and Selection: People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others emotions may be more effective in their jobs. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of non-cognitive skills, cap abilities, and competencies that influence a persons ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. a. b. c. ures. d. e. Self-awareness. Being aware of what you are feeling. Self-management. The ability to manage ones own emotions and impulses. Self-motivation. The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and fail Empathy. The ability to sense how others are feeling. Social skills. The ability to handle the emotions of others.

Several studies suggest EI may play an important role in job performance. EI, no t academic I.Q., characterized high performers. The implications from the initial evidence on EI is that employers should consid er it as a factor in selection, especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction. 2. Decision making

Traditional approaches to the study of decision making in organizations have emp hasized rationality. That approach is probably nave. People use emotions as well as rational and intuitive processes in making decisions. Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and a less vigilant use of information. Positive emotions can increase problem solving and facilitate the integration of information.

3.

Motivation

Motivation theories basically propose that individuals are motivated to the exten t that their behavior is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image is that of rational exchange. Peoples perceptions and calculations of situations are filled with emotional content that significantly influences how m uch effort they exert.

Not everyone is emotionally engaged in their work, but many are. 4. Leadership The ability to lead others is a fundamental quality sought by organizations. Effective leaders almost all rely on the expression of feelings to help convey t heir messages and is often the critical element that results in individuals acce pting or rejecting a leaders message. When effective leaders want to implement significant changes, they rely on the ev ocation, framing, and mobilization of emotions. 5. cing. A managers success in trying to resolve conflicts, in fact, is often largely due to his or her ability to identify the emotional elements in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to work through their emotions. 6. Deviant workplace behaviors Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviors. Employee Deviance: Voluntary actions that violate established norms and which t hreaten the organization, its members, or both. They fall into categories such as: a. b. c. d. Production: leaving early, intentionally working slowly Property: stealing, sabotage Political: gossiping, blaming co-workers Personal aggression: sexual harassment, verbal abuse Interpersonal Conflict Whenever conflicts arise, you can be fairly certain that emotions are also surfa

Many of these deviant behaviors can be traced to negative emotions. For example , envy is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone for having something th at you do not, and which you strongly desire and can lead to malicious deviant b ehaviors.

ATTITUDES, VALUES & ETHICS Values Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is p ersonally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or e nd-state of existence. Value System A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individuals values in terms of their intensi ty. What are Values? -Values are ideals that guide or qualify your personal conduct, interaction with others, and involvement in your career. Like morals, they help you to distinguish what is right from what is wrong and

 inform you on how you can conduct your life in a meaningful way. Values can be classified into four categories: Personal Values Cultural Values Social Values Work Val ues Importance of Values Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures. Influence our perception of the world around us. Represent interpretations of right and wrong. Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. Types of Values Terminal Values -Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person woul d like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental Values -Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving ones term inal values. Values vs. Ethics ETHICS The science of Morals in Human conduct Moral principles; rule of conducts Ethical Values are related to moral judgments about right or wrong PUTTING ETHICS INTO PRACTICE Ethics is like architecture, it is not enough to be advised to be ethical, to be c onvinced by the arguments that it would be advantageous to be ethical, but one mu st also be thought the principles of ethics, be shown.. how to acquire the habi ts of using properly all the instruments. And thus,regularly and gradually arriv ing by practice at some perfection in the art. A FORMAL ETHICS PROGRAM MAKES A DIFFERENCE Increase in reporting of misconduct Greater belief that those violating ethics policies will be punished Increase in employee morale WHAT A FORMAL ETHICS PROGRAM SHOULD INCLUDE Written standards of ethical conduct Training on standards of conduct An ethics office or telephone advice line A means to report misconduct anonymously Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures Power Distance -The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. low distance: relatively equal distribution high distance: extremely unequal distribution Individualism -The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather th an a member of groups. Collectivism - A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Achievement -The extent to which societal values are characterized by assertiven ess, materialism and competition. Nurturing-The extent to which societal values emphasize relationships and concer n for others. Uncertainty Avoidance-The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertai n and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. Long-term Orientation - A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term Orientation - A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past a nd present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations. ATTITUDES Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. Cognitive component - The opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Affective Component - The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Behavioral Component - An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Types of Attitudes Job Satisfaction A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds towar d his or her job. Job Involvement Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performa nce important to self-worth. Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintai n membership in the organization. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitu des. Measuring the A-B Relationship Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account. Self-Perception Theory Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has alread y occurred. An Application: Attitude Surveys Attitude Surveys Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel ab out their jobs, work groups, supervisors, and the organization. Attitudes and Workforce Diversity Training activities that can reshape employee attitudes concerning diversity: Participating in diversity training that provides for self-evaluation and group discussions. Volunteer work in community and social serve centers with individuals of diverse backgrounds. Exploring print and visual media that recount and portray diversity issues. Job Satisfaction Measuring Job Satisfaction Single global rating Summation score How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? Job satisfaction declined to 50.4% in 2002 Decline attributed to: Pressures to increase productivity and meet tighter deadlines Less control over work The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance Satisfaction and Productivity Satisfied workers arent necessarily more productive. Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers. Satisfaction and Absenteeism Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences. Satisfaction and Turnover Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower perfo rmers. How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction Exit -Behavior directed toward leaving the organization. Voice-Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions. Loyalty-Passively waiting for conditions to improve. Neglect - Allowing conditions to worsen. Job Satisfaction and OCB Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organizat ion are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectatio

ns of their job. Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because: They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. They are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationsh ips. They are experienced. Dissatisfied customers increase employee job dissatisfaction.

LEARNING IN ORGANIZATION LEARNING is a relatively permanent change in behavior (Behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a persons interaction with the en vironment. Is essential for open systems thinking and knowledge management. Three Elements 1. People acquire skills and knowledge through learning opportunities 2. Clarifies role perceptions 3. Motivates employees LEARNING EXPLICIT is organized and can be communicated from one person to anothe r. TACIT KNOWLEDGE knowledge embedded in our actins and ways of thinking, and trans mitted only through observation and experience. Behavior Modification: Learning Through Reinforcement A theory that explains learning in terms of the antecedents and consequences of behavior. Behavior modification does not question the notion that thinking is part of the learning process, but it views human thoughts as unimportant intermediate stages between behavior and the environment.

A-B-Cs Behavior Modification

CONTINGENCIES OF REINFORCEMENT

Four Types of Consequences 1. Positive reinforcement occurs when the introduction of a consequence inc reases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior. 2. Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequ ence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior. 3. Punishment occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future p robability of a behavior. 4. Extinction occurs when the target behavior decreases because no conseque nce follows it. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Intermittent Variable interval schedule Fixed ratio schedule Variable ratio schedule Behavior Modification in Practice Occurs in various formal programs to reduce absenteeism, minimize accidents, and improve task performance. When implemented correctly, the results are generally impressive. Social Learning Theory: Learning by Observing Social learning theory a theory stating that much learning occurs by observing o thers and then modeling the behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes and avoidi ng the behaviors that lead to punishing consequences. Three Features of Social Learning 1. Behavioral Modeling - works best when the model is respected and the models actions are follo wed by favorable consequences. - is a valuable form of learning. Behavioral modeling and Self-Efficacy 2. Learning Behavior Consequences - learn the consequences of behavior in ways other than through direct e xperience. - learn by logically thinking through the consequences of our actions an d by observing the consequences that other people experience following their beh avior.

3. Self Reinforcement - occurs whenever an employee has control over the reinforcer but doesnt take the reinforcer until completing a self-set goal. ACTION LEARNING a variety of experiential learning activities in which employees are involved in a real, complex and stressful problem, usually in teams, with imm ediate relevance to the company.

DECISION MAKING AND CREATIVITY Definition Decision making is a conscious process of making choices among one or more alter natives with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs. Problems with Rational Decision-Making Model Assumes that people are efficient and a logical information processing machines. Focuses on logical thinking and completely ignores the fact that emotions also i nfluence, perhaps dominate the decision making process Problem Identification Process Problems and opportunities are not announced or pre-defined Problem identification uses both logical analysis and unconscious emotional reac tion during perceptual process. Emotions and Making Choices 1. Emotional marker process forms preferences before we consciously think a bout choices 2. Moods and emotions influence the decision process 3. We listen in on our emotions and use that information to make our choices

Intuition Greg McDonald felt uneasy about a suspicious looking crack in the rock face, so the veteran miner warned a co-worker to stay away from the area. There was no in dication there was anything wrong just a little crack, McDonald recalled. A few minutes later, the ceiling collapse. Fortunately, the co-worker had heeded McD onald advice. If he had been there, he would be dead, said McDonald, who was clea rly shaken by the incident. Intuitive Decision Making Intuition is the ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and select the best course of action without conscious reasoning. Laymans term for intuition: Gut instinct Business judgement Should we rely on intuition or view it with caution? Making Choices more Effectively Systematically evaluate alternatives by identifying relevant factors and scoring each alternative on those criteria Balance emotions and rational influences. Evaluating Decision Outcomes Post-decisional Justification Justifying choices by unconsciously inflating the quality of the selecte d option and deflating the quality of the discarded option. Escalation of Commitment The tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing course of action.

Escalation of Commitment Causes 1. Self-justification 2. Gamblers fallacy 3. Perceptual blinders 4. Closing costs Evaluating Decisions Better 1. Separate decision choosers from evaluators 2. Establish a preset level to abandon the project 3. Involve several people in the evaluation process Employee Involvement (Participative Management) The degree to which employees influence how their work is organized and carried out. CREATIVITY Is the development of an original product, service, or idea that makes a sociall y recognized contribution. Creative Process Model Preparation Effort to acquire knowledge and skills regarding the problem or opportunity. Involves developing a clear understanding of what you are trying to achieve.

Incubation Stage of reflective thought Assist divergent thinking reframing the problem in a unique way and generating d

ifferent approaches to the issue. Insight Refers to the experience of suddenly becoming aware of a unique idea. Merely rough ideas. Verification Conscious evaluation and experimentation. Final stage of creativity it is really the beginning of a long process of exper imentation and further creativity Characteristics of Creative People Above average intelligence Persistence Relevant knowledge and experience Inventive thinking style Creative Work Environments (Organizational Condition Supporting Creativity) Learning orientation Encourage experimentation Tolerate mistakes Intrinsically motivating work Task significance, Open communication and sufficient resources Team competition and time pressure have complex effect on creativity

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE CULTURE Some of the definitions of culture describe it as:

Symbols, language, ideologies, rituals and myths A conventional behavior of a society A product; historical; based on symbols; and an abstraction from behavior and th e products of behavior TYPES OF CULTURE Some organizations have a dominant type of culture, other organizations have multiple cultures working simultaneously in different locations, department s or projects. There is no superior, ideal, or fixed culture. 1. BUREAUCRATIC CULTURE An organization that emphasizes rules, policies, procedures, chain of command, a nd centralized decision making has a bureaucratic culture. The military, governm ent agencies and firms managed by autocratic managers are some examples of this culture. 2. CLAN CULTURE Being part of a working family, following tradition and rituals, teamwork and sp irit, self-management, and social influence. In a clan culture employees are socialized by other members. Members help each o ther celebrate successes together. 3. ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE Innovation, creativity, risk taking, and aggressively seeking opportunities illu strate an entrepreneurial culture. Employees are encouraged and given autonomy t o work on projects. 4. MARKET CULTURE An emphasis on sales growth, increased market share, financial stability and pro fitability are attributes of market culture. Employees have a contractual relati onship with the firm. They cooperate and work together in order to achieve marke t share and financial performance goals. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture is a collective understanding, a shared and integ rated set or perceptions, memories, values and attitudes that have been learned over time and which determine the expectations of behavior that are taught to ne w members in their socialization into the organization. Culture has on impact to the society. It gives identity, provides collec tive commitment, builds social system stability and allows people to make sense of the organization Also, culture permeates the organization through knowledge acquisition, organiza tional symbols, organizational stories, and organizational rites. Organizational knowledge In acquiring knowledge, it is thru explicit or implicit. Explicitformalized and widely distributed Implicitnorms or how we do things around here Explicit knowledge about culture is usually formalized and widely distributed in printed statements of values, beliefs, or mission. Organizational symbols What language is in use and where? Who is pictured on annual reports, web pages, or brochures? What colors represent the company; where are they used? What logos are in use? Even a glance at who is pictured on an annual report can tell us much ab out the organization and what it represents. Organizations sometimes develop th eir own unique language to convey a particular cultural value. For example, Nik e s "Just do it" campaign reflected their preference for action. Organizations also convey messages in verbal and nonverbal forms. For example, logo colors an d pictures convey a particular image of the organization. Organizational stories what the employee is supposed to do when in doubt what to do when a high-status person breaks the rules

how the little person advances within the organization A good example of this is the CEO of PepsiCo was featured in an article that rep orted that on a family outing, the CEO had left a restaurant because they only s erved Coca Cola. What are you going to do in a given situation? Are you going to patronize your competitor product, breaks your company rules or act like what t he CEO did? Organizational rites Rites of enhancement recognize accomplishments or enhance power Rites of renewal lubricate social relations Rites of conflict reduction reduces conflict by partitioning it Rites of integration revive common feeling Organizational rites of passage such as a promotion party honor the transition f rom one role to another. Rites of renewal such as year-end parties help to lubri cate social relations, and rites of integration such as team-building exercises or executive retreats may revive or develop a shared sense of organizational pur pose. ORGANIZATION CULTURE AND ITS EFFECTS Since organizational culture involves shared expectations, values and attributes , it exerts influence to individuals, families, professional trainings and subgr oups. For example, members are influenced to be a good citizen and to go along. If a quality customer service is important in the culture, then individuals basi cally adopt this behavior. Also, increasingly we see business influences come not only from domesti c influences but also from international and global business activities-subsidia ries and joint ventures and other strategic alliances. Business Influences culture thru: Global entertainment and electronic media Global travel Global language Global demographic groups Global elite Global teens Business behaviors These global business influences central normally to cultural change, cultural c oncern and cause them to interact more with social actors such as NGOs and gover nments. BENEFITS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE They give an organizational identity to employees Source of stability and continuity of the organization Helps newer employees interpret what goes on inside the organization Helps stimulate employee enthusiasm for their tasks. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Basic assumptions on Knowledge Management Approach: Knowledge is either codified, or is codifiable (tacit knowledge can be converted into an explicit form)- not totally true Knowledge can be shared via IT systems- not totally true People will be willing to share the knowledge- very often not true Knowledge sharing.. Human, social, and cultural factors are fundamental to understand both the attit udes of workers to knowledge management initiatives and the dynamics of knowledg e management processes It is problematic to assume that people will be willing to actively participate in knowledge management initiatives Factors affecting willingness to share knowledge: Intergroup /Personal Conflict

Concerns over whether status/expertise Sense of equity/fairness in organizational processes Interpersonal trust Organizational commitment General organizational culture HRM Practices (reward/recognition) IMPACT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATION IMPACT ON PEOPLE Employee Learning- This could be accomplished thru externalization, internalizat ion & socialization. Externalization- e.g. writing a report on lessons learned from a project. Internalization- e.g. when employees preparing for a later project read it. Socialization- e.g. through joint activities such as meetings or informal chats Employee Adaptability- They more likely to accept change. Companys KM efforts were intended to continually expose its employees to new idea s and enable them to learn from these ideas Employees were prepared for change a s a result of being in touch with the latest ideas and developments - and conseq uently, embraced change instead of fearing it Employee Satisfaction- They feel better because of their knowledge acquisition a nd skill enhancement Providing tried-and-tested solutions amplifies employees effectiveness in perform ing their jobs .It also helps keep employees motivated. Employees market value is enhanced relative to other organizations employees. IMPACT ON PROCESSES KM enables improvements in organizational processes such as marketing, m anufacturing, accounting, engineering, and public relations. These impacts can b e seen along three major dimensions: Effectiveness is performing the most suitable processes and making the best poss ible decisions KM enables organizations to quickly adapt their processes according to the curre nt circumstances, thereby maintaining process effectiveness in changing times. O n the other hand, organizations lacking in KM find it difficult to maintain proc ess effectiveness when faced with turnover of experienced and new employees. Efficiency is performing the processes quickly and in a low-cost fashion. Reduce the costs associated with finding and accessing different types of valuab le knowledge Innovation is performing the processes in a creative and novel fashion, that imp roves effectiveness and efficiency or at least marketability. Organizations can increasingly rely on knowledge shared across individuals to pr oduce innovative solutions to problems as well as to develop more innovative org anizational processes. IMPACT ON PRODUCTS Value added products KM processes can help organizations offer new products or improved products that provide a significant additional value as compared with earlier products. Knowledge based products KM can have a significant impact on products that are knowledge based, e.g. cons ulting, software development IMPACT ON ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE Direct Impacts Knowledge is used to create innovative products that generate revenue and profit Indirect Impacts Use of KM to demonstrate intellectual leadership within the industry, which, in turn, might enhance customer loyalty

Use of knowledge to gain an advantageous negotiating position with respect to co mpetitors or partner organizations

Chapter III

Power, Politics and Influence Power Power is a measure of an entity s ability to control the environment around itse lf, including the behavior of other entities. The term authority is often used f or power, perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as so cial beings. The use of power need not involve coercion (force or the threat of force). At on e extreme, it more closely resembles what everyday English-speakers call "influe nce", although some authors make a distinction between power and influence - the means by which power is used

Balance of Power Because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the balance of power between parties to a relationship: all parties to all rela tionships have some power: the sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stabl e or subject to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyze relationships in w hich the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constra int rather than of power. Thus power has a connotation of unilateralism. If th is were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of power , a nd its meaning would be lost. Even in structuralism social theory, power appears as a process, an aspect to an ongoing social structure. One can sometimes distinguish primary power: the direct and personal use of forc e for coercion; and secondary power, which may involve the threat of force or so cial constraint, most likely involving third-party exercisers of delegated power . Types and sources of power Power may be held through: Delegated authority (for example in the democratic process) Social class (material wealth can equal power) Personal or group charisma Ascribed power (acting on perceived or assumed abilities, whether these bear tes ting or not) Expertise (Ability, Skills) (the power of medicine to bring about health; anothe r famous example would be "in the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king" Desiderius Erasmus) Persuasion (direct, indirect, or subliminal) Knowledge (granted or withheld, shared or kept secret) Money (, control of labour, control through ownership, etc) Fame Force (violence, military might, coercion). Moral persuasion (including religion) Operation of group dynamics (such as public relations) Social influence of tradition In relationships; domination/submissiveness Power by order In ordered groups, such as school classrooms and military groups, the leader s p ower over an individual is amplified by the virtual power gained from having the other group members already obeying the leader s order. For example, if a schoo l student gets out of her seat, she can be identified easily if all the other st udents are already sitting in their seats. Each disobedient student is thus easi ly identified and can expect to be confronted by the teacher Five bases of power Positional Power Also called "Legitimate Power", it refers to power of an individual because of t he relative position and duties of the holder of the position within an organiza tion. Legitimate Power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the positi on. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power such as uniforms, o ffices etc. This is the most obvious and also the most important kind of power.

Referent Power Referent Power means the power or ability of individuals to attract others and b uild loyalty. It s based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power h older. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this admi ration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Here the person unde r power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfactio n from being an accepted follower. Nationalism or Patriotism counts towards an i ntangible sort of referent power as well. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country. This is the second least obvious power, but th e most effective. Advertisers have long recognized referent power in making use of sports figures for products endorsements, for example. The charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, althou gh the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena

Expert Power Expert Power is an individual s power deriving from the skills or expertise of t he person and the organization s needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike th e others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the parti cular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. Reward Power Reward Power depends upon the ability of the power wielder to confer valued mate rial rewards, it refers to the degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind such as benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions or inc reases in pay or responsibility. This power is obvious but also ineffective if a bused. People who abuse reward power can become pushy or became reprimanded for being too forthcoming or moving things too quickly . Coercive Power Coercive Power means the application of negative influences onto employees. It m ight refer to the ability to demote or to withhold other rewards. It s the desir e for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld that ensures the obedie nce of those under power. Coercive Power tends to be the most obvious but least effective form of power as it builds resentment and resistance within the target s of Coercive Power. Information Power Information Power is derived from possession of important information at a criti cal time when such information is necessary to any organizational functions Politics Political power (imperium in Latin) is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth . There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state le

vel political legitimacy for political power is held by the representatives of n ational sovereignty. Political powers are not limited to heads of states, howeve r the extent to which a person or group such as an insurgency, terrorist group, or multinational corporation possesses such power is related to the amount of so cietal influence they can wield, formally or informally. In many cases this infl uence is not contained within a single state and it refers to international powe r.

Politics Politics is a process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is gene rally applied to behaviour within civil governments, but politics has been obser ved in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religiou s institutions. It consists of "social relations involving authority or power" a nd refers to the regulation of a political unit, and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy. Influence Occurs when an individual s thoughts or actions are affected by other people. So cial influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, pe er pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing Three broad varieties of social influence. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others, but actually keep their d issenting opinions private. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respect ed, such as a famous celebrity or a favorite uncle. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both public ly and privately. Factors of Influence Charisma Social influence can also be described as power - the ability to influence a per son/group of people to one s own will. Usually people who possess beauty, signif icant sums of money, good jobs and so on will possess social influence on other, "ordinary" people. So even if the person doesn t possess any "real" or politica l power but possesses the things listed above (good looks, money, etc.), he coul d persuade other people into doing something. However, good looks are not solely why attractive people are able to exert more influence than average looking peo ple, e.g. confidence is the by-product of good looks. Therefore, the individual s self-esteem and perceived Persona is the critical factor in determining the am ount of influence one exerts. Reputation Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perce ived expertise. This involves credibility, a form of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, etc. Ad ditionally, pressure to maintain one s reputation and not be viewed as fringe ma y increase the tendency to agree with the group, known as groupthink

Bully pulpit Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence th e public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to s upport issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. Th is is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit". Another example would be movie stars, who do not usually possess any political p ower but are familiar to many of the world s citizens and therefore possess soci al status. They get a lot of media coverage and they have many enthusiastic fans Peer pressure In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something (such as ill egal drugs) which they might not want to do, but which they perceive as "necessa ry" to keep a positive relationship with other people, such as their friends.

LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATION TOPICS Leadership Traits, Styles and Behavior Contingency Theory of Leadership Transformational Leadership Charismatic Leadership Substitutes for Leadership

The Nature of Leadership -Leadership is defined as influence, that is, the art or process of infl uencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward th e achievement of group goals Leaders Deal with change by formulating a vision of the future and setting a direction f or that vision. Focus on Inspiration, Vision, and Human Passion. Are also heavily involved in persuading and motivating others and spearheading u seful changes. Example of a Good Leader We Were Soldiers "We are moving into the Valley of the Shadow of Death where you will watch the b ack of the man next to you, as he will watch yours, and you won t care what colo r he is, or by what name he calls God. We are going into battle against a tough and determined enemy. I can t promise you that I will bring you all home alive. But this I swear. .. when we go into battle, I will be the first to step on the field and I will be the last to step off. And I will leave no one behind. .. dea d or alive. We will all come home together. "

Leadership Traits and Characteristics Illustrative Leadership Qualities: Cognitive Skills Personality Traits Motives Contingency Theories of Leadership Fiedlers Contingency Model Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leaders style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situa tion allows the leader to control and influence. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership Specifies what the leader must do to achieve high morale and productivity in a g iven situation. Refers to focus on helping employees find the correct path to goal attainment. Situational Leadership II (SLII) Explains how to match leadership style to the capabilities of group members on a given task. It is designed to increase the frequency and quality of conversations about the performance and professional development, commitment takes place, and turnover a mong talented workers is reduced.

Normative Decision Model Explains that leadership is the decision-making process in which the leader exam ines certain factors within the situation to determine which decision making sty le will be the most effective. Five Decision Making styles:

1. Decide 2. Consult (individually) 3. Consult (Group) 4. Facilitate Delegate The decision making style chosen depends on these factors: Decision significance Importance of commitment Leadership expertise Likelihood of commitment Group support Group expertise Team Competence Transformational leadership Leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation, a nd who possess charisma. CHARACTERISTICS: Idealized Influence Inspiration Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individual Consideration Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self confident leader whose personality and actions influence p eople to behave in certain ways. CHARACTERISTICS: Self-Confidence Vision Articulate Strong convictions Unconventional Charge agent Environment Substitutes for Leadership When sometimes decrease the importance of leadership? -Information Technology Leadership Quotes: The most important leadership lesson I teach is the law of the lid. Leader ship ability determine a persons level of effectiveness. if your leadership is a 5 from scale 1-10 then your effectiveness will be no greater than a 5. Leadership is the glass ceiling of personal achievement. The same is true of the people you lead. Your Leadership if it i s not continually growing can be a lid to the potential of your people. Why? Bec ause you teach what you know but you reproduce what you are. You cant give people what you do not have. If you want to increase the potential of your team you ne ed to keep growing yourself. -From the book : 360 Degree by John Maxwell

TIME MANAGEMENT

Definition of Time Management Time management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manag e time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set encompass a wide scope of activities, and these include planning, allocating, setting goa ls, delegation, analysis of time spent, monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and prioritizing. Initially time management referred to just business or work activi ties, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities also. A t ime management system is a designed combination of processes, tools and techniqu es. Definition of Time Management Time management may be defined as the discovery and application of the most effi cient method(s) of completing assignments of any length in the optimum time and with the highest quality. This definition of time management has widespread applications: It applies to the entire spectrum of activities ranging from (1) simple "do-it-t his-morning tasks" assigned by individuals to themselves or to others (e.g., pre pare several short letters) to(2) large projects developed for a large organizat ion by many people with completion contemplated to take a long period of time (e .g., write a book or open a new branch office). It denotes the "best" time, which is usually but not always the shortest time. It pertains either to (1) continuing and repetitious activities (e.g., daily log ging-in of shipments received) or to (2) occasional activities(e.g., selection o f new CEO). It includes production of anything, such as manufacture of a tangible product, p rovision of a service, preparation of a written document, development of a proce dure, or arrival at a decision. It may include a progress-point assignment (e.g. , development of plans for the preliminary testing of a new product) or an end-g oal assignment (e.g., a final marketing plan for a new product). Development of plans for time management must necessarily presume the existence and application of such desirable personal and work qualities as motivation, dis cipline, consideration for others, and the desire to succeed. Benefits of Good Time Management Many valuable rewards potentially await those willing to develop good time-manag ement practices. In individual careers, increased job performance and promotions may result. In personal lives, individuals may achieve successful marriages, mo re family time, less debt, and less stress. In addition, all types of organizati ons business, civic, school, political, and religious may receive productive, comp etitive, and financial benefits from observance of good time-management practice s.

Achievement of Good Time Management Business firms and other organizations often find it profitable to take tangible steps to learn the best possible time-management strategies. Some or all of the following approaches may be considered: Call in an outside person or organization that specializes in time-management co nsulting and have a detailed evaluative study conducted of the practices being f ollowed. Develop task forces within the firm or organization to undertake time-management studies with the goals of finding, analyzing, and "curing" areas experiencing w asteful time procedures.

Have individuals within the firm or organization engage in educational and resea rch activities related to time management, such as enrolling in college courses, checking the Internet, participating in correspondence courses, and/or attendin g seminars. Check into the possibility of visiting and studying other firms noted for their efficient time-management practices. Procrastination: The Thief of Time Procrastination is a behavior which is characterized by the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time. Psychologists often cite procrastination as a mechani sm for coping with the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task o r decision. Psychology researchers also have three criteria they use to categori ze procrastination. For a behavior to be classified as procrastination, it must be counterproductive, needless, and delaying. 8 Most Typical Causes of Procrastination Internal Forces Fear of Change Fear of Failure Addiction to Cramming Tendency to over commit External Forces Unpleasant Tasks Overwhelming Tasks Unclear Task Flow Unclear Goals (2) Development of Short- and Long-Range Goals Establishing short- and long-range goals is essential to successful time managem ent in both one s personal life and one s work life. When establishing goals, it is necessary to determine and specify standards that must be achieved within stated dates and/or times. This involves identifying a series of specific steps designed to bring one closer and closer to a stated goa l. A good plan must include amounts of time per day or hour (or other time measu rement) that will be devoted to work geared to achievement of the goal. It shoul d include estimated time costs that might result from barriers or obstacles enco untered along the way. Prioritizingthat is, ranking goals in order of importanceis necessary in situation s where the most important of the possible goals may not be easily determined. Value of Time To realize To realize by. To realize To realize To realize To realize . the value of one year, ask a student who failed a grade. the value of one month, ask a mother who gave birth to a premature ba the the the the value value value value of of of of one one one one week, ask the editor of a weekly newspaper. hour, ask the lovers who are waiting to meet. second, ask the person who just avoided an accident. millisecond, ask the person who won an Olympic medal

One day a time management expert spoke to a group of business students. He set a wide mouthed, one gallon mason jar on the table in front of him. Then he produ ced about a dozen fist-sized rocks and placed them carefully, one at a time, ins ide the jar. When the jar was filled to the top and no more rocks would fit inside, he asked, Is the jar full? Everyone in the class answered , Yes.

The he asked, Really? He reached under the table and pulled out a bucket of grave l. Then he dumped some gravel in and shook the jar, causing pieces of gravel to work down into the spaces among the big rocks. He asked the group once more, Is the jar full now? By this time the class was on to him. Probably not, one of them answered.Good! he exclaimed. He reached under the table and brought out a bucket o f sand. He started adding sand to the jar and it slid into the spaces remaining among the rocks and gravel. Once more he asked the question, Is this jar full? No! t he class shouted. Good, he shouted back, grabbing a pitcher of water and pouring it into the jar unt il it was full to the brim. Whats the point of what the management expert did? Whats Your Clock? A morning person wakes up and says, Rise and shine! The night person responds, Shut up and drop dead. Chronobiology - the science that studies how the bodys systems relate to time. Morning people tend to wake easily & fully alert. Midday people their energy tends to peak in the early afternoon. Evening people sleep late & tend to wake groggy.

When youre fully alert, schedule: Large, involved projects Critical, pressing matters Important reading Material thats potentially boring Meeting with your boss Meetings & phone calls where you mostly listen Anything that should not be interrupted Whats Your Clock?... cont When youre alert, schedule: Mathematically based activities Meetings with colleagues or those you supervise Dining with prospective client Creative work Physical activity that requires concentration Most writing, typing and computer work Whats Your Clock?... cont When youre sluggish, schedule: Short-duration projects A variety of brief tasks Activity that requires physical movement where concentration is not critical Calls or meeting with people you like Interactive computer programs Things you find extremely interesting ---- the end ----

STRESS MANAGEMENT Part One General Awareness What is Stress? Types of Stresses Individuals Symptoms Costs of Stress Stress is the reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of dema nd placed upon them. It arises when they worry that they cant cope. Stress is the wear and tear our minds and bodies experience as we attempt to cope with our continually changing environment . STRESS FEELINGS Worry Tense Tired Frightened Elated Depressed Anxious Anger TYPES OF STRESSORS EXTERNAL STRESSORS External stressors are the sources of stress that we are aware of around us. The se stressors are things that create a situation of perceived threat in our minds and bodies. Over the last few years a lot of research has been done on external stressors. These stressors can affect us in various settings- at work, at home, while driving and in a social setting. We are all free sprits in Nature. Anythi ng that constraints our freedom of expression, thought or action creates a situa tion of stress that out bodies and our minds would like to change. It results in a feeling of unhappiness and discontent. For example, the same home can be a ha ppy place or a stressful place. If things do not happen according to our desires at home, our wishes are unfulfilled and we feel stressed. In the workplace, our expectation of our work, our employers, our colleagues and our own commitments, if unfulfilled, create a situation that our mind perceives as a threat. We find ourselves helpless and unable to change the situation. Our free spirit is stilted. We feel the pressure. This is stress. EXTERNAL STRESSORS Physical Environment Noise

Bright Lights Heat Confined Spaces Social Interaction Rudeness Bossiness Aggressiveness by others Bullying Organizational Rules Regulations Red - Tape Deadlines Major Life Events Birth Death Lost job Promotion Marital status change Daily Hassles Commuting Misplaced keys Mechanical breakdowns

INTERNAL STRESSORS Internal stressors are the stressors inside us. These are stressor that have bee n in our minds and bodies for many years of our lives. These stressors exist in the form of our genetic loading. They are also restrictions that have been impos ed on us by our parents, our teachers and various authority figures that have ta ught us what to do and more importantly, what not to do. Such internal stressors remain in our bodies, unknown to us, in the form of emotions. According to rece nt researches done in the United States, such emotions exist in our bodies in th e form of neurochemicals called neuropeptides. Neuropeptides are laid out in our cell systems in such a manner that the patterns are hard to delete. Such patter ns, when laid out with our emotional experiences, persist for our lifetime. In t his form, stress is stored in our bodies. These stressed or negative emotions or neuropeptides are organized in such a way as to affect our perception, our thin king and our behaviour. These stresses become chronic. INTERNAL STRESSORS Lifestyle choices Caffeine Lack of sleep Overloaded schedule Negative self talk Pessimistic thinking Self criticism Over analysing Mind traps Unrealistic expectations Taking things personally All or nothing thinking Exaggeration Rigid thinking Personality traits

Perfectionists Workaholics

TYPES OF STRESS Most people respond to the word stress in negative ways. They see it as a destr uctive, debilitating force. However, not all stress is negative. The term Eustress has been coined to descri be positive stress. It is the type of stress you are likely to inherit when you receive a substantial amount of money or receive an unexpected promotion or rewa rd. Eustress is the stress of winning and achieving. Negative stress is distress. It is the stress of losing, overworking, losing you r cool or abandoning an important goal. Distress has the capacity to impact upo n people in negative ways. We all experience negative stress from time to time b ecause it is an unavoidable part of living. Negative stress It is a contributory factor in minor conditions, such as headaches, digestive pr oblems, skin complaints, insomnia and ulcers. Excessive, prolonged and unrelieved stress can have a harmful effect on mental, physical and spiritual health. Positive stress Stress can also have a positive effect, spurring motivation and awareness, provi ding the stimulation to cope with challenging situations. Stress also provides the sense of urgency and alertness needed for survival when confronting threatening situations. THE INDIVIDUAL Everyone is different, with unique perceptions of, and reactions to, events. The re is no single level of stress that is optimal for all people. Some are more se nsitive owing to experiences in childhood, the influence of teachers, parents an d religion etc. Most of the stress we experience is self-generated. How we perceive life - wheth er an event makes us feel threatened or stimulated, encouraged or discouraged, h appy or sad - depends to a large extent on how we perceive ourselves. Self-generated stress is something of a paradox, because so many people think of external causes when they are upset. Recognizing that we create most of our own upsets is an important first step tow ards coping with them. Symptoms of Stress Physical this occurs when the body as a whole starts to suffer as a result of a stressful situation. Symptoms can manifest in a variety of ways and vary in thei r seriousness. The most common physical symptom is headaches because stress causes people to un consciously tense their neck, forehead and shoulder muscles. However long-term s tress can lead to digestive problems including ulcers, insomnia, fatigue, high b lood pressure, nervousness and excessive sweating, heart disease, strokes and ev en hair loss. Emotional these responses are due to stress affecting the mind and include anxie ty, anger, depression, irritability, frustration, over-reaction to everyday prob lems, memory loss and a lack of concentration for any task. Anxiety is normally shown as a response to loss, failure, danger or a fear of th e unknown. Anger is a common response to frustration or social stress and can be come a danger to other individuals if not kept in check. Depression is frequentl y seen as an emotional response to upsetting situations such as the death of a l oved one, illness and failure. Psychological long-term stress can cause psychological problems in some individu

als. Symptoms include withdrawal from society, phobias, compulsive behaviors, ea ting disorders and night terrors. The following table lists some of the common warning signs and symptoms of stres s. The more signs and symptoms you notice in yourself, the closer you may be to stress overload. Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms: Physical symptoms Behavioural symptoms Appetite changes - too much or too little disorders - anorexia, bulimia Increased intake of alcohol & other drugs Increased smoking Restlessness Fidgeting Nail biting Hypochondria Mental symptoms Lack of concentration Memory lapses Difficulty in making decisions

Sleep pattern changes Fatigue Eating Digestion changes Loss of sexual drive Headaches Aches and pains Infections Indigestion Dizziness Fainting Sweating & trembling Tingling hands & feet Breathlessness Palpitations Missed heartbeats Confusion Disorientation Panic attacks

Emotional symptoms Bouts of depression Impatience Fits of rage Tearfulness Deterioration of personal hygiene and appearance

STRESS Stress

RELATED ILLNESSES is not the same as ill-health, but has been related to such illnesses as; Cardiovascular disease Immune system disease Asthma Diabetes Digestive disorders Ulcers Skin complaints - psoriasis Headaches and migraines Pre-menstrual syndrome Depression

Part 2 - Stress at Work Why do we work ? Factors influencing work stress Work Patterns Situations WHY DO WE WORK ?

Work provides an income and fulfils a variety of other needs; - mental and physi cal exercise, social contact, a feeling of self-worth and competence. FACTORS INFLUENCING WORK STRESS The drive for success Changing work patterns Working conditions Overwork Under-work Uncertainty Conflict Responsibility Relationships at work Change at work

THE DRIVE FOR SUCCESS Our society is driven by work, personal adequacy equates with professional success , we crave status and abhor failure. Our culture demands monetary success / professional status. CHANGING WORK PATTERNS Many people feel lucky to have a job. Unemployment, redundancy, shorter working weeks, new technology affect emotional and physical security. No more jobs for life, more short - term contracts. Financial and emotional burnout is increasing among all levels. WORKING CONDITIONS Physical and mental health is adversely affected by unpleasant working condition s, such as high noise levels, lighting, temperature and unsocial or excessive ho urs. OVERWORK Stress may occur through an inability to cope with the technical or intellectual demands of a particular task. Circumstances such as long hours, unrealistic deadlines and frequent interruptio ns will compound this. UNDERWORK This may arise from boredom because there is not enough to do, or because a job is dull and repetitive. UNCERTAINTY About the individuals work role - objectives, responsibilities, and expectations , and a lack of communication and feedback can result in confusion, helplessness , and stress. CONFLICT Stress can arise from work the individual does not want to do or that conflicts with their personal, social and family values. RESPONSIBILITY The greater the level of responsibility the greater the potential level of stres s. RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK Good relationships with colleagues are crucial. Open discussion is essential to encourage positive relationships. CHANGES AT WORK Changes that alter psychological, physiological and behavioural routines such as promotion, retirement and redundancy are particularly stressful. Part 3 - Self - help Causes of Stress Identification and admission

 Coping strategies Causes of Stress External Stresses Internal Stresses Stressful depends on various factors, including your personality problem-solving abilities, and social support system. Stress conditions can be real or just per ceived by you. Our brain reacts to both causes of stress by releasing stress hor mones equal to the degree of stress felt. The brain cannot differentiate between real and imagined stress. In challenging situations the brain prepares the body for some defensive actionsthe fight or flight response by releasing hormones, na mely, cortisone and adrenaline. These hormones raise the blood pressure and prep are the body to react according to the situation. It could happen while watching a movie or when one is apprehensive of some imminent danger. Listing the potential causes of stress is tricky and highly individual. Stress f actors react differently from person to person as Extreme stress situations for an individual may prove to be mild for another. Stress symptoms depend partly on the nature of the stressor itself and partly on your own personal and external resources. Some External causes of stress. An unsafe neighborhood, pollution, noise, and uncomfortable living conditions ca n produce a stress situation (flight response) the hormones and chemicals remain unreleased in the blood stream for a long period of time. It results in stress related physical symptoms such as tense muscles, unfocused anxiety, dizziness an d increased rate of pulse. For people living in war-torn regions, the stress may be unrelenting. Relationship demands mental health. Problems with friends and family members are valid causes of stress. Marital disagreements, dysfunctional relationships, reb ellious teens, or caring for a chronically-ill family member or a child with spe cial needs compels the mind and body to be in an almost constant alarm-state in preparation to fight or flee. This also can increase the risk of both acute and chronic psychosomatic illnesses and weaken the immune system of the human body. Pressure at workplaces In our career-driven society work can be a source of stre ss. Work stress is caused by things such as job dissatisfaction, insufficient pa y, office politics, meeting deadline, and conflicts with co-workers. These facto rs can trigger stress conditions. Social situations can cause stress. Poverty, financial pressures, racial and sex ual discrimination or harassment, isolation, and a lack of social support all in duced adverse feelings and anxieties. Internal Causes of Stress External Stresses Organizational Company take over Reductions / layoffs Major reorganisation Company sale / relocation Employee benefit cuts Mandatory overtime required Little input into decisions Mistake consequences severe Workloads vary Sexual Fast paced work Change React to changes Advancement difficult Red tape delays jobs Insufficient resources External Stresses - Major Life Events Death of a loved one Divorce / separation Imprisonment Injury/illness ( self / family ) Marriage/ engagement Loss of job Retirement Pregnancy Problems in financial status Change of job / work Mortgage or loan Foreclosure of mortgage/loan Change in responsibilities

Pay below going rate Technology changes Employee benefits poor Workplace conditions Consistent poor performance

Moving house Holidays Christmas Minor violations of the law

Stress can also be self-generated. Internal causes of stress includePessimistic a ttitude, low self-esteem, excessive or unexpressed anger, lack of assertiveness, unrealistic expectations from others and Self-criticism.

RECOGNIZE THE PROBLEM The most important point is to recognise the source of the negative stress. This is not an admission of weakness or inability to cope! It is a way to identi fy the problem and plan measures to overcome it. STRESS CONTROL A B C STRATEGY A = AWARENESS What causes you stress? How do you react? B = BALANCE There is a fine line between positive / negative stress How much can you cope with before it becomes negative ? C = CONTROL What can you do to help yourself combat the negative effects of stress ? Stress Management Techniques Change your thinking Re-framing Re-framing is a technique to change the way you look at things in order to feel better about them. There are many ways to interpret the same situation so pick t he one you like. Re-framing does not change the external reality, but helps you view things in a different light and less stressfully. Positive thinking Forget powerlessness, dejection, despair, failure Stress leaves us vulnerable to negative suggestion so focus on positives; Focus on your strengths Learn from the stress you are under Look for opportunities Seek out the positive - make a change. Change your behaviour Be assertive Assertiveness helps to manage stressful situations, and will , in time, help to reduce their frequency. Lack of assertiveness often shows low self - esteem a nd low self - confidence. The key to assertiveness is verbal and non - verbal co mmunication. Extending our range of communication skills will improve our assert iveness. Equality and Basic Rights 1) The right to express my feelings 2) The right to express opinions / beliefs 3) The right to say Yes/No for yourself 4) Right to change your mind 5) Right to say I dont understand

6) Right to be yourself, not acting for the benefit of others 7) The right to decline responsibility for other peoples problems 8) The right to make reasonable requests of others 9) The right to set my own priorities 10) The right to be listened to, and taken seriously Being assertive involves standing up for your personal rights and expressing you r thoughts, feelings and beliefs directly, honestly and spontaneously in ways th at dont infringe the rights of others. Assertive People Assertive Skills Respect themselves and others Establish good eye contact / dont st are Take responsibility for actions and choices Stand or sit comfor tably - dont fidget Ask openly for what they want Talk in a firm, steady voice Disappointed if want denied Use body language Self - confidence remains intact I think / I feel Not reliant on the approval of others What do you think? How do you feel ? Concise and to the point Benefits Higher self-esteem Less self-conscious Less anxious Manage stress more successfully Appreciate yourself and others more easily Feeling of self-control Get organized Poor organisation is one of the most common causes of stress. Structured approac hes offer security against out of the blue problems. Prioritising objectives, duti es and activities makes them manageable and achievable. Dont overload your mind. Organisation will help avoid personal and professional chaos.

Time Management Make a list What MUST be done What SHOULD be done What would you LIKE to do Cut out time wasting Learn to drop unimportant activities Say no or delegate Plan your day Set achievable goals Dont waste time making excuses for not doing something

Ventilation A problem shared is a problem halved Develop a support network through friends or colleagues to talk with. Its not always events that are stressful but how we perceive them. Writing a diary or notes may help release feelings but do not re-read what ha s been written. Humour Good stress - reducer

Applies at home and work Relieves muscular tension Improves breathing Pumps endorphins into the bloodstream - the

Diversion and distraction Take time out Get away from things that bother you Doesnt solve the problem Reduce stress level Calm down Think logically Change your lifestyle Diet Healthy eating habits Caffeine (Stimulant) Salt Smoking & Alcohol Moderate your consumption

Exercise Benefits of Exercise Uses up excess energy released by the Fight or Flight reaction. Improves blood circulation Lowers blood pressure Clears the mind of worrying thoughts Improves self image Makes you feel better about yourself Increases social contact Sleep Good stress reducer Difficult to cope when tired Wake refreshed after nights sleep Plenty of daytime energy

Leisure Interest Gives you a break from stresses Provides outlet for relief Provides social contact

Relaxation Benefits of Relaxation Lowers blood pressure Combats fatigue Promotes sleep Reduces pain Eases muscle tension Decreases mental worries Increases concentration Increases productivity Increases clear thinking Alternatives

Conventional Medicine Counselling & psychotherapy Relaxation Meditation Massage Yoga Acupuncture Aromatherapy Floatation Herbalism Biofeedback Homeopathy Hypnotherapy Osteopathy Pet Therapy Reflexology

CAREER MANAGEMENT Career development is important for companies to create and sustain a continuous learning. The biggest challenge companys face is how to balance advancing curre nt employees careers with simultaneously attracting and acquiring new skills. Objectives Identify the reasons why companies should help employees manage their ca reers Discuss the PROTEAN CAREER and how it differs from TRADITIONAL CAREER Explain the development tasks and activities in the career development p rocess Design the role of the WEB in career management Effectively perform the managers role in career management What is Career Management? Is a process through which employees: (a) become aware of their own interests, values, strengths, and weaknesses, (b) obtain information about the job opport unities within the company, (c)identify career goals, (d) establish action plans to achieve career goals. Why is Career Management Important? Career Management is important from both the employees perspective and the compan ys perspective. From the companys perspective, failure to motivate employees to p lan their careers can result in a shortage of employees to fill open positions, it lowers employee commitment, and in inappropriate use of money allocated for t raining and development programs. From the employees perspective lack of career m anagement result in frustration, feeling of not being valued and being unable to find suitable employment should a job change be necessary due to mergers, acqui sitions, restructuring or downsizing. Career Managements Influence on Career Motivation Companies need to help employees manage their careers to maximize their career m otivation. What is Career Motivation? Refers to employees energy to invest in their careers, their awareness of the dir ection they want their careers to take, and their ability to maintain energy and direction despite barriers they may encounter.

(3) Aspects of Career Motivation Career resilience is the extent to which employees are able to cope with problems that affect their work. Career insight involves (a) how much employees know about their interest s and their skills strengths and weakness (b) the awareness of how these percept ions relate to their career goals. Career identity is the degree to which employees define their personal values according to their work. Value of Career Motivation Career motivation can create value for both the company and employees as shown i n the illustration below. Components of Career Motivation COMPANY VALUE Innovation Employee adaptation Unexpected changes Commitment to company Pride in work EMPLOYEE VALUE Be aware of skill strengths and weakness Participate in learning Activities Cope with less than ideal working conditions Avoid skill obsolescence Employees who have high career resilience are able to respond to obstacles in th e work environment and adapt to unexpected events, dedicated to continuous learn ing, and are willing to develop new ways to use their skills, they take responsi bility for career management, and are committed to the companys success. Employees with high career insight set career goals and participate in developme nt activities that help them reach their goals, take actions that keep their ski lls from becoming obsolete. Employees with high career identity are committed to the company, willing to do whatever it takes to complete projects and meet customer demands, take pride in working in the company and are active in professional and trade organizations. Career motivation is positively influenced by the extent to which companies prov ide opportunities for achievement, encouragement from development, and informati on about career opportunities. What is Career? Halls definition career refers to the individual sequence of attitudes and behavi or associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the persons life. What is Protean Career? Protean career is based on self direction with the goal of Psychological Success in ones work. Protean employees take major responsibility for managing their car eer. Traditional Career vs. Protean Career DIMENSION TRADITIONAL CAREER PROTEAN CAREER Goal Promotions Salary increase Psychological success Psychological Contract Security for commitment Employability for flexibility Mobility Vertical Lateral

Responsibility for Management Company Employee Pattern Linear and expert Spiral and transitory Expertise Know how Learn how Development Heavy reliance o formal training tionships and job experience

Greater reliance on rela

The above illustration compares the traditional organizational career to the pro tean career on several dimensions. Changes in the psychological contract betwee n employees and company have influenced the career concept. A psychological contract is the expectation that employers and employees have ab out each other. It emphasized that company would provide continued employment a nd advancement opportunities if the employee remained with the company and maint ained a high level of performance. While psychological success is the feeling of pride and accomplishment that come s from achieving life goals that are not limited to work. SUGGESTED CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT GENERATIONS OF EMPLOYEES The illustration below shows the different generations of employee that have dif ferent career needs and interests. Understanding generational differences is im portant if a company wants to provide the work conditions that will contribute t o employees satisfaction and retention of good employees.

GENERATION AGE TRAITS Millennium O to early 20s Are independent spenders Are globally concerned Are health conscious Accept non-traditional families Accept constant change Understand need for training to remain employable Are cyber-savvy Have high expectations Want challenging work Generation X Mid 0s to early 40s Are experienced and confident using new technologies Are diverse Are independent Are entrepreneurial Are flexible Are team players Expect more feedback than older workers do Have a hard time accepting authority Dont want to hold people accountable Consider work-life balance to be critical Baby Boomers Mid 40s to mid 50s Are competitive Question authority Are members of the me generation Want flexible retirement Want meaningful work Are idealistic

Traditionalists Late 50s to early 80s Are loyal Are fiscally conservative Have faith in institutions Want their experience to be valued Respect previous generations, business leaders

Are patriotic

WHAT IS CAREER DEVELOPMENT? Career development is the process by which employees progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a different set of developmental tasks, activitie s, and relationship. THREE TYPES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT MODELS Life-cycle model suggest that employees face certain developmental tasks over the course of their careers and that they moved through distinct life or c areer stages. Organizational-based model also suggest that careers proceeds through a series of stages, but these model propose that career development involves emplo yees learning to perform certain activities. Directional pattern model describes the form or shape of careers. A MODEL OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT CAREER STAGE Exploration Establishment Disengagement Maintenance

Developmental Task Identify interest, skills, fit between self ad work Advancement, growth, security, develop lifestyle Hold on accomplishments, update skills Retirement planning, change balance between work and non-work Activities Helping, learning, following directions Making independent contributions Training, sponsoring, policy making Phasing out of work Relationship to other Employees Apprentice Colleague Mentor Sponsor Typical Age Less than 30 30-45 45-60 61+ Years on Job Less than 2 years 2-10 years More than 10 years More than 10 years Each four career stages: Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, Disengagement

is characterized by developmental tasks, activities, relationship to other emplo yees, age and years on job. The figure shows employee retention, motivation, an d performances which are affected by how well the company addresses the developm ent tasks at each career stage. Research suggests that employees current career stage influences their needs, att itudes, and job behaviors. In the exploration stage, individual attempt to identify the type of work that i nterests them. Once they indentify the type of work that interests them, indivi duals can begin pursuing the needed education or training. Typically, exploratio n occurs in the mid-teens to early-to-late 20s. In many jobs, the new employee i s considered an apprentice. An apprentice is an employee who works under the su pervision of a more experiences colleague or manager. From the companys perspecti ve, orientation and socialization activities are necessary to help new employees get comfortable with their new jobs and co-workers so they can begin to contrib ute to the companys goals. In the establishment stage, individuals find their place in the company make an independent contribution, achieve more responsibility and financial success, and establish a desirable lifestyle. Employees who have reached the establishment stage are considered to be colleagues. Colleagues are employees who can work in dependently and produce a result. Employees in this stage need to become more a ctively involve in career-planning activities. In the maintenance stage, individual is concerned with keeping kills up to date and being perceived by others as someone who still contributing to the company. Individuals in the maintenance stage have many years of job experience, much jo b knowledge, and an in-depth understanding of how the company expects business t o be conducted. Employees in this stage can be valuable trainers or mentors for new employees. A mentor is an experienced employee who teaches or helps less e xperienced employees. In the Disengagement stage, individuals prepare for a change in the balance betw een work and non work activities. They make take on the role of sponsor. A spo nsor provides direction to other employees, represents the company to customers, initiates actions, and make decisions. Disengagement typically refers to older employee selecting to retire and concentrate entirely on non work activities. Employees who have leaved the company often recycle back to the exploration stag e. Recycling involves changing ones major work activity after having been establ ished in a specific field. It is accompanied by a re-exploration of values, ski lls, interests, and potential employment opportunities. From the companys perspe ctive, the major career management activities in this stage are retirement plann ing and outplacement. CAREER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Self Assessment Reality Check Goal Setting Action Planning

In Self Assessment it refers to the use of information by employees to determine their career interest, values, aptitudes, and behavioral tendencies. In Reality Check it refers to the information employees receive about how the co mpany evaluates their skills and knowledge and where they fit into the companys p lan In Goal Setting employees develop short and long term career objectives. In Action Planning employees determine how they will achieve their short and lon g term career goals. DESIGN FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE CAREER MANAGEMENT System is positioned as a response to a business need or supports a busi ness strategy Employees and managers participate in development of the system Employees are encouraged to take active roles in career management Evaluation is on-going and used to improve the system

Business units can customize the system for their own purposes Employees need access to career information sources Senior management supports the career system Career management is linked to other human resource practices such as pe rformance management, training, and recruiting systems System creates a large, diverse talent pool Information about career plans and talent evaluation is accessible to al l managers It shows several important design factors that should be considered in the proce ss of developing a career management system. Tying development of the system to business needs and strategy, obtaining the support of top management, and havin g managers and employees participate in building the system are important factor s in overcoming resistance to the system. CAREER MANAGEMENT WEBSITE Many companies are developing career management websites that provide employees with self-assessment tools, salary information, career management advice, and tr aining resources. Below presents the elements of career management websites. On the left side sho ws, users of employee need access to self-assessment tools, training, resources, job data, salary, information, and career management advice. On the right side shows the features the company needs to include in the website design. Both the users and the company gain valuable information from these systems-info rmation that is useful for ensuring that employees abilities, skills, and interes ts match their jobs. ELEMENTS OF CAREER MANAGEMENT WEBSITE USER ACCESS WEBSITE FEATURES Self-assessment Job database Training Resources Employee profile database Job data Matching engine Salary information Tools and services such as asses sment, online Career management advice Training programs, development resources ROLES OF EMPLOYEES, MANAGERS, HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGERS, AND COMPANY IN CAREERMANA GEMENT Shows the shared roles/responsibility of the following for career management: EMPLOYEES Self-assessment Self-development Action Plan Create visibility through Good Performance and Relationship Seek challenge Companies with effective career management system expect employees to take respo nsibility for their own career management wherein some companys are provided with personal development planning guidebook that leads them through assessment, goa l setting, development planning, and action planning. Employees may volunteer or approach their managers to initiate career-related di scussion as part of the personal development planning process MANAGER Coaching Counseling Communicating Request information from other company resources Managers are often the primary source of information about openings, training co urses, and other developmental opportunities.

To help employees deal with career issues, managers need to be effective in four roles: Role Responsibilities Coach Probe problems, interests, values, needs; Listen; Clarify concerns; Defi ne concerns Appraiser Give feedback; Clarify company standards; Clarify job responsibi lities; Clarify company needs Advisor Generate options, experiences, relationships; Assist in goal setting; Pr ovide recommendations Referral Agent Link to career management resources; Follow up on career managem ent plans COMPANY Develop systems to support Career Management Develop culture that supports Career Management Companies are responsible for providing employee with resources needed to be suc cessful in career planning. It needs to monitor the career planning system to ( a) ensure that managers and employees are using the system as intended and (b) e valuate whether the system is helping the company to meet its objectives. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER Information and advise Specialized services While the Human resource Manager provide information or advise about trainings a nd development opportunities. It may also provide specialized services such as testing to determine employees values, interests, and skills; preparing employees for job searches; and offering counseling on career-related problems EVALUATING CAREER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Career management systems need to be evaluated to ensure that they are meeting t he needs of employees and the business. Several types can be used to evaluate c areer management system and these are: reactions of your customers, employees, managers who use career manageme nt system more objective information related to results of the career management s ystem Evaluation of a career management system should be based on its objectives. If improving employee morale is the systems goal, then attitudes should be measured. If the systems are more concrete and measurable, then appropriate data should be collected. SPECIAL CHALLENGES IN CAREER MANAGEMENT Many companies believes that helping employees balance work and life benefits bo th the business and employees personal lives. Work-life balance means trying to m anage work obligations as well as family and life responsibilities. A supportive work-life culture is a company culture that acknowledges and respec ts family and life responsibilities and obligations and encourages managers and employees to work together to meet personal and work needs. Objectives Design an effective socialization program for employees Discuss why dual-career path is necessary for professional and manageria l employees Provide advice on how to help a plateaued employee Develop policies to help employees and the company avoid technical obsol escence Develop policies to help employees deal with work-and-life conflict

Select and design outplacement strategies that minimize the negative eff ects on displaced employees and survivors Explain why retirees may be valuable as part-time employees ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION Is the process by which new employees are transformed into effective members of the companies. It has three (3) phases: 1. Anticipatory Socialization - Employees develop expectations about the company, job, working conditions, and interpersonal relationship. 2. Encounter Occurs when the employee begins a new job. 3. Settling In - Employees begin to feel comfortable with their job dema nds and social relationships. WHAT EMPLOYEES SHOULD LEARN AND DEVELOP THROUGH SOCIALIZATION History Companys goal, values, traditions, customs, and myths, background of peop le Company Goals Rules and principles directing the company Language Professional or technical language Politics How to gain information regarding the formal and informal work r elationships and power structures in the company People Successful and satisfying work relationships with other employees Performance proficiency What needs to b learned; effectiveness in using and acqu iring the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed for the job SOCIALIZATION AND ORIENTATIO PROGRAM Socialization is focus on providing the employee with a broad understanding of t he company. Effective socialization programs result in employees who have strong commitment and loyalty to the company, which reduces turnover Orientation involves familiarizing new employees with company rules, policies, a nd procedures Effective orientation programs include active involvement of the n ew employees as well as employees in different parts of the company, with social events that allow new employees to meet other people and develop networks, and with mentors who can help new employees develop relationships with managers and other higher-level employees. CAREER PATH Career path is a sequence of job positions involving similar types of work and s kills that employees move through in the company. TRADITIONAL CAREER PATH

DUAL CAREER PATH Enables employees to remain in a technical career path or move into a management career path. In this dual career path an individual have the opportunity to mo ve in three different career paths.

EFFECTIVE CAREER PATHS HAVE SEVERAL CHARACTERISTICS Salary, status, and incentives for technical employees compare favorably with th ose of managers; Individual contributors base salary may be lower than managers, but they are give opportunities to increase their total compensation through bonuses; The individual contributor career path is not used to satisfy poor performers wh o have managerial potential. The career path is for employees with outstanding technical skills; Individual contributors are given the opportunity to choose their career path. The company provides assessment resources. Such assessment information enables employees to see how similar their interests, works values, and skill strengths are those of employees in technical and managerial positions. PLATEAUING Plateauing means the likelihood of employee receiving future jobs assignments wi th increased responsibility is low. Compared to employees in other career stage s, mid-career employees are most likely to plateau. Employees can plateau for s

everal reasons: discrimination based on age, gender or race Lack of ability Lack of training Low need for achievement Unfair pay decisions or dissatisfaction with pay raises Confusion about job responsibilities Slow company growth resulting in reduced development opportunities There are also possible remedies for plateaued employees: Employee understand the reasons for plateauing Employee is encouraged to participate in developmental activities Employee is encouraged to seek career counseling Employee does a reality check on his/her solutions FACTORS RELATED TO UPDATING SKILLS

If we examine the above figure the company plays an important role in encouragin g employees to develop their skills. Through the implementing a climate for con tinuous learning, many companies combat skills obsolescence by encouraging emplo yees to attend courses, seminars, and programs and to consider how to do their j obs better on a daily basis. SKILLS OBSOLESCENSE Is a reduction in an employees competence resulting from a lack of knowledge of n ew work processes, techniques, and technologies that have developed since the em ployee completed his/her education.

It can be avoided by the following: Providing employees with the opportunity to exchange information and ideas Giving employees challenging job assignments early in their careers Providing job assignments that challenge employees and require them to stretch th ir skills Providing rewards for updating behaviors, suggestions, and customer service and product innovations Allowing employees to attend professional conferences, subscribe to professional journals and magazines, or enroll in university, technical school, or community center courses at low or no cost Encouraging employees to interact in person or electronically to discuss problem s and new ideas The company culture plays an important role in encouraging employees to develop their skills to combat skills obsolescence. Sabbatical is one method to help employees avoid obsolescence. It refers to a l eave of absence from the company to renew or develop skills. Employees on sabba tical often receive full payment and benefits. It allows employees to get away from their day-to-day job stresses and acquire new skills and perspective.

REASONS FOR CAREER BREAKS Employees face major problems in trying to return to work after taking s everal months/years off for family or other reasons. This type is an interrupti ng career; these are those employees that are not given advance warning of their mobilization. Peers are often asked to take over the work load which means, longer wor k hours, larger work load, more time at work on weekends and evenings. These ar e those employees that are often asked to take over the work loads of a reservist. This disruption is worse for small companies than larger companies because the loss of a few employees can have gre ater impact on the other employees. Women are more likely to leave jobs than men for family reasons BALANCING WORK AND LIFE Companies can help employee balance work and life by providing support for emplo yees who are concerned with simultaneously meeting the needs of work and family. TYPES OF WORK-LIFE CONFLICT 1. Time-based conflict - occurs when the demands of work and non-work interfere with each other 2. Strain-based conflict - results from the stress of work and non-work roles 3. Behavior-based conflict - occurs when employees behavior in work roles is not appropriate for their behavior in non-work roles COMPANY POLICIES TO ACCOMODATE WORK AND NON-WORK Companies respond to work and non-work issues by developing policies designed to reduce the potential for work-life conflict. Policy Emphasis: communication of realistic information about demands of jobs and careers Companies have to understand employees needs, solicit their input, and make worklife benefits accessible to everyone; Work-life program benefits need to be comm unicated and available to all employees; Employees need to be made aware of the time demands and the stress related to jobs within the company flexibility in where and when work is performed There are 2 ways to deal with life-work conflicts and these are the following: 1. Provide employees with more flexibility about when work is performed (work sc hedules) and where it is performed (work arrangements) 2. Reduce the pressure on employees to work long hours Below is an illustration of an alternative work schedules and work arrangement s: Where When Traditional Place of employment 5 days, 40 hrs./wk. Flextime Place of employment 40 hrs./wk. but have choice of when to s tart & end work; may require work during certain core hrs. Compressed Workweek Place of employment 4 days, 10 hr. workdays Temporary Work Place of employment On as- needed basis Job Sharing Place of employment Split 5 days, 40 hr. workweek with anoth er employee Part-time Work Place of employment Less than 8 hrs./day or 5 days/ wk. Shift Work Place of employment AM, PM, graveyard shift on a rotating ba sis Telecommuting Varies, typically home Varies, could be one or more days during normal bus. hrs. Reduced Work Hours Place of employment, home Varies, could include re duced number of meetings, no weekend work, work maximum 8 hrs./day Hotelling Shared office space in a company location designed for use on a

drop-in-basis

Varies

Employees who choose to work evenings, weekends, overnights, or rotating work sc hedules may be susceptible to health problems. With this, Job sharing might be the most challenging work option because it requires more attention, flexibility , communication than other alternative work options. Job sharing refers to Refe rs to having two (2) employees divide the hours, the responsibilities and the be nefits of a full-time job. The company gains the expertise of a two employees ra ther than one and can save substantial costs because part-time employees may not be eligible for health care and retirement benefits. For job sharing to be effective the following must be considered: The impact of job sharing must be determined Employee interested in job sharing must find another employee performing the same job who wants to reduced work hours Job sharers need to have similar work values and motivation Job sharers must be good employee who have excellent communications skil ls and are cooperative and flexible Managers must actively communicate with the job sharers and accept the f act that they might not be immediately available for consultation Meeting schedules, work assignments, and vacation schedules need to be c arefully coordinated Performance evaluations of job sharers need to include both an individua l and a team appraisal Job sharing agreement should be written clearly: performance expectation s, work schedules for each employee, and any other management concerns job redesign Reducing employees commute time which allows employee to work at home an d provide compressed workweeks Workloads was adjusted by outsourcing Focus on identifying core competencies support services Top-level managers can reduce employees anxiety by supporting work-life policies Recommendation/Assistance Programs: Use surveys and focus groups to determine need Develop a philosophy or rationale related to business objectives Solicit employees participation in designing and implementing the progra m Allocate resources for communicating the program to employees and manag ers Request feedback from users to make adjustments to the program COPING WITH JOB LOSS This is an important career development issue because of the increased use of do wnsizing to deal with excess staff resulting from corporate restructuring, merge rs, acquisitions, and takeovers. From a career management standpoint, companies and managers have two (2) major r esponsibilities (a) they are responsible for helping employees who will lose the ir jobs; (b) steps must be taken to ensure that the survivors of the layoff remain productive and committed to the organization. To prepare employees for layoffs and reduce potential negative effects, companie s need to provide outplacement services and these services should include the fo llowing: advance warning and explanation for a layoff psychological, financial, and career counseling assessment of skills and interests job campaign services such as resume-writing assistance and interview t raining Job banks where job leads are posted and where out-of-town newspapers, p hones, and books regarding different occupations and geographic areas are availa ble

electronic delivery of job openings, self-directed career management gu ides, and values and interest inventories

GUIDELINES FOR REMINATION MEETINGS WITH EMPLOYEES PLANNING Alert outplacement firm that termination will occur (if appropriate) Prepare severance and benefits packages Prepare public statement regarding terminations Prepare statement for employees affected by terminations Have telephone numbers available for medical or security emergencies TIMING Termination should not occur on Friday afternoon, very late on any day, or before a holiday Terminate employees early in the week so employees can receive counselin g and outplacement assistance PLACE The termination meeting usually occurs in the employees office A human resources representative may need to be present to explain sever ance and outplacement package In sensitive cases in which severe emotional reaction is expected, a thi rd party is needed LENGTH Meetings should be short and to the point. Termination should occur wi thin the first two (2) minutes. Remainder of time should be spent on explaining separation benefits and allowing employee to express feelings

APPROACH Provide straightforward explanation, stating reasons for termination Statement should be made that the decision to terminate was made by mana gement and is irreversible Do not discuss your feelings, needs, or problems BENEFITS A written statement of salary continuation, benefits continuation, outpl acement support, and other terms and conditions should be provided and discussed with the employee DEALING WITH OLDER EMPLOYEES The reason why many companies are likely to keep talented older employees workin g is due to shortage of skilled and experienced employees. Confident enough the y retain the services of older employees. MEETING THE NEEDS OF OLDER EMPLOYEES Companies who retained older workers in the company consider the following: Flexibility in scheduling Research suggest that the probability of receiving company-sponsored tra ining peaks at age 40 and declines as an employees age increases Older employees need resources and referral help that addresses long-ter m health care and elder care Assessment and counseling are necessary to help older employee recycle t o new jobs or careers, or transition to less secure positions whose responsibili ties are not as clearly outlined Companies need to ensure that employees do not hold inappropriate stereo types about older employees Pre-Retirement Socialization A process of helping employees prepare for exit from work. And, these programs

typically address the following topics: Psychological aspects of retirement, such as developing personal interes ts and activities Housing, including a consideration of transportation , living costs, and proximity to medical care Health during retirement, including nutrition and exercise Financial planning, insurance, and investments Health care plans Estate planning The collection of benefits from company pension plans and social securit y RETIREMENT Involves leaving a job and a work role and making a transition into life without work, a transition out of their current job and company and seeking full or pa rt-time employment elsewhere, this is called recycling. Early Retirement Program offer employees financial benefits to leave the company . A company strategy to reduce labor costs without having to lay-off employees. Benefits include a lump sum of money and a percentage of salary based on years of service. Retirement Program should contain the following features: The program is part of the employee benefit plan The company can justify age-related distinctions for eligibility for ear ly retirement Employees are allowed to voluntarily choose early retirement Understanding all the issues of career management and the challenges attributed by it prepares the company on how to handle it successfully.

Chapter IV

THE FOUNDATIONS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Learning Objectives Differentiate between formal and informal groups. Compare two models of group development. Explain how role requirements change in different situations. Describe how norms exert influence on an individuals behavior. Explain what determines status. Define social loafing and its effect on group performance. Identify the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Contrast the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, nominal, and electroni c meeting groups. Defining and Classifying Groups Group - Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have co me together to achieve a particular objectives. Formal Groups - A designated work group defined by the organizations structure. Command Group A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager Task Group - Those working together to completes a job task. Informal Groups - A group that is neither formally structured nor organizational ly determined; appears in response to the need for s ocial contract. Interest Group . common characteristics. Why do people join groups? Security. By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to t hreats when they are part of a group. Status. Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides rec ognition and status for its members. Self-esteem. Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, i n addition to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also g ive increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves. -Those working together to complete a job task.

Friendship Group - Those brought together because they share one or more

Affiliation. Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interact ion that comes with group membership. For many people, these on-the-job interac tions are their primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation Power. What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through grou p action. There is power in numbers. Goal Achievement. There are times when it takes more than one person to accompl ish a particular task there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in or der to complete a job. In such instances, management will reply on the use of a formal group.

Stages of Group Development The Five-Stage Group-Development Model The five distinct stages groups go through: forming, storming, norming, performi ng, and adjourning. Stage I: Forming The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty about th e groups purpose, structure, and leadership. Stage II: Storming The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. Stage III: Norming The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and c ohesiveness. Stage IV: Performing The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. Stage V: Adjourning The fifth stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by conc ern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. An Alternative Model: For Temporary Groups with Deadlines Punctuated-Equilibrium Model Transitions temporary groups go through between inertia and activity. Sequencing Action (Inaction) (1) Their first meeting sets the groups direction (2) This first phase of group activity is one of inertia (that is, the group ten ds to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action.) (3) A transition takes place at the end of this first phase, which occurs exactl y when the group has used up half its allocated time (4) A transition initiates major changes (5) A second phase of inertia follows the transition (6) The groups last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity Group Properties: Roles, Norms, Status, Size, and Cohesiveness Role - A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a gi ven Position in a special unit. Role Identity -Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role. Role Perception - An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.

Role Expectations - How others believe a person should act in a given situation. Psychological Contract an unwritten agreement that sets out what managem ent Expects from the employee and vice versa. Role Conflict - A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent ro le expectations. Norms - Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members. Common Classes of Norms Performance norms (formal) Appearance norms (formal) Social arrangement norms (informal) Allocation of resources norms (formal & informal)

Conformity - Adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group. Reference Group important groups to which individuals belong or hope to Belong and with whose norms indivi duals are like to conform. Deviant Workplace Behavior (antisocial behavior or workplace incivility) Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior CATEGORY EXAMPLES CATEGORY Production Leaving early Political Intentionally working slowly Wasting resources Blaming EXAMPLES Showing favoritism Gossiping and spreading rumors coworkers

Property Sabotage Personal aggression Sexual harassment Lying about hours worked Verbal abuse Stealing from the organization Stealing from coworkers

Status - A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members b y others. What Determines Status? Status Characteristics Theory Theory stating that differences in status characteristics create status hierarch ies within groups. Derived from three sources: The power a person wields over others A persons ability to contribute to a groups goals An individuals personal characteristics Status and Norms Status has been shown to have some interesting effects on the po wer of norms and pressures to conform Status and Group Interaction

High-status people tend to be more assertive than low-status peo ple. Status Inequity When inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium, which res ults in various types of corrective behavior. Status and Culture Make sure you understand who and what holds status when interact ing With people from a culture different from your own. Size - The physical dimensions, proportions, magnitude, or extent of an object Social Loafing - the tendency for individuals to expend (spend) less effort whe n Working collectively than when working individ ually. Causes: If one thinks others are lazy, the person reestablish equity by reducing effort. Dispersion of responsibility The research on group size leads to two additional conclusions: 1. Groups with an odd number of members tend to be preferable to those with an even number. 1. Groups made up of five to seven numbers do a pretty good job of exercisi ng the best elements of both small and large groups. Cohesiveness - Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are Motivated to stay in the group. Suggestions on how to encourage group cohesiveness: 1. Make the group smaller. 2. Encourage agreement with group goals. 3. Increase the time members spend together. 4. Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaini ng membership in the group. 5. Stimulate competition with other groups. 6. Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members. 7. Physically isolate the group. Group Decision Making Groups versus the Individual Decision-making groups may be widely used in organizations, but does that imply that group decisions are preferable to those made by an individu al alone? Strengths of Group Decision Making More complete information and knowledge Increased diversity of views Increased acceptance of a solution Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Conformity pressures in groups Dominated by one or a few members Ambiguous responsibility Effectiveness and Efficiency Effectiveness In terms of accuracy, group decisions are generally more accurate than the decis

ions of the average individual in a group but less accurate than the judgments o f the most accurate group member. Decision effectiveness in terms of speed, individuals are superior. If creativity is important, groups tend to be more effective. If effectiveness means the degree of acceptance of final solution achieves, grou p is more effective. Efficiency In terms of efficiency, groups almost always stack up as a poor second to the in dividuals. Exceptions only in achieving comparable quantities of diverse input. Groupthink and Groupshift Two byproducts of group decision making. Groupthink - Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of act ion Symptoms of a Groupthink phenomenon:

Group members rationalize any resistance to the assumptions they have made. No matter how strongly the evidence may contradict their basic assumptions, members behave so as to reinforce those assumptions continually. Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express doubts about any of the groups shared views or who question the validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by the majority. Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view seek to avoid deviating from what appears to be group consensus by keeping silent about misgivings and even minimizing to themselves the importance of their doubts. There appears to be an illusion of unanimity. If someone doesnt speak, its assum d that he/she is in full accord. In other words, abstention becomes viewed as a YES vote. What managers should do to minimize groupthink? Monitor group size. Managers should encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. Appoint one group member to play the role of devils advocate. Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without t hreatening the group and intensifying identity protection. Groupshift - A change in decision risk between the groups decision and the indivi dual decision that members within the group would make; can be either toward con servatism or greater risk. Groupshift can be viewed as actually a special case of groupthink. The decision on the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develop s during the group s discussion The greater occurrence of the shift toward risk: Familiarization among the members Admiring individuals who are willing to take risks Diffuses responsibility Group Decision-Making Techniques Interacting groups Typical groups, in which members interact with each other face-to-face. Brainstorming

An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternative s, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. Nominal Group Technique A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion. Electronic Meeting A meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for anonymity of comm ents and aggregation of votes.

Evaluating Group Effectiveness TYPE OF GROUP EFFECTIVENESS CRITERIA Interacting Brainstorming Nominal Electronic Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High Social pressure High Low Moderate Low Money costs Low Low Low High Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Task orientation Low High High High Potential for interpersonal conflict High Low Moderate Low Commitment to solution High Not applicable Moderate Moderate Development of group cohesiveness High High Moderate Low

Teams and Teamwork

Team Collection of individuals organized to accomplish a common purpose. are one way for an organization to gather input from members and to pro vide organization members with a sense of involvement in the pursuit of organiza tional goals. -between 2-25 members Teamwork Where their work as a task team and seek to develop a cooperative state. A work group becomes a team when 1. Leadership becomes a shared activity. 2. Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and co llective 3. Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part of activity. 4. Effectiveness is measured by the groups collective outcomes and product. Types of Team Informal Social in nature Leaders may differ from those appointed by the organization Traditional Departments/ functional areas Supervisors/ managers appointed by the organization Problem-Solving Temporary Teams Frequently cross-functional Focused on a particular project Leadership Steering committees Advisory councils Self-Directed Small Teams Little or no status differences among team members have the authority to decide how to get the work done Virtual Teams Geographically spread out Meetings and functions rely on available technology Life Cycle of a Team Forming Members share personal information, start to get to know and accept one another, and begin turning their attention toward the groups tasks. Storming Members compete for status, jockey for positions of relative control, a nd argue about appropriate directions for the group. Norming The group begins moving together in a cooperative fashion, and a tentati ve balance among competing forces is struck. Performing The group matures and learns to handle complex challenges. Adjourning Even the most successful groups, committees, and project teams disban d sooner or later. Their break up is called adjournment, which requires dissolvi ng intense social relations and returning to permanent assignments Ingredients of Effective Team Supportive Environment involves creating members to think like a team, providing adequate time for meetings, and demonstrating faith on members capacity to achie ve. Skills and role quality team members responds voluntarily to the demands of th e job and take appropriate actions to accomplish team goals. (hospital surgical team)

 rsons. ht.

Super ordinate Goals a higher goal that integrates the efforts of two or more pe Super ordinate goals can be attained only if all parties carry their weig Team Rewards These maybe financial, or they maybe in the form of recognition. Empowered Teams- Member motivation plays a powerful role in team success.

Effective Teamwork through Cooperation, Trust and Cohesiveness Cooperation Individuals are said to be cooperating when their efforts are systematic ally integrated to achieve a collective objective. The greater the integration, the greater the degree of cooperation. Trust According to Jack Welch trust is enormously powerful in corporation. Peo ple wont do their best unless they believe theyll be treated fairly. Trust is defined as reciprocal faith in others intentions and behavior. How To Build Trust Communication Support Respect Fairness Predictability Competence Trust needs to be earned, it cannot be demanded J

Cohesiveness A process whereby a sense of we-ness emerges to transcend individual differ ences and motives. Two types of group cohesiveness 1. Socio-emotional a sense of togetherness that develops when individuals derive emotional satisfaction from group participation. 2. Instrumental a sense of togetherness that develops when group members are mutually de pendent on one another because they believe they could not achieve the groups goa l by acting separately. Teams in Action Two different team formats found in the workplace today: 1. Quality Circles are small groups of people from the same work area who v oluntarily get together to identify, analyze, and recommend solutions for proble ms related to quality, productivity and cost reduction. - ideal size of 10 to 12 members -typically meet for about 60 to 90 minutes on a regular basis. 2. Self managed Teams are defined as group of workers who are given adminis trative oversight for their task domains. -employees in these unique work groups act as their own supervisor. Distinction between Quality Circles and Self-Managed Teams Quality Circles Self- Managed Teams Type of Team Advice Production, Project or Action Type of Empowerment Consultation Delegation

Basis of membership Voluntary Assigned Relationship to organization structure Parallel Integrated Focus of Influence Lower level operations Possibly all organizational leve ls and functions, depending upon make up of team

Potential Team Problems Changing Composition too many changes and personnel transfers interfere with gro up relationships and prevent the growth of teamwork. Social loafing causes of social loafing include a perception of unfair division of labor, a belief that co-workers are lazy or a feeling of being able to hide i n a crowd and therefore not be able to be singled out for blame. Organizational Benefits of Team Improved Quality of Work Life An effective team is generally one in which members are empowered to mak e decisions about how to get work done. Lower Absenteeism and Turnover A satisfying and rewarding work environment helps to lower absenteeism a nd turnover. Membership in a work team gives an employee a sense of belonging, i nteraction with others on a regular basis, and recognition of achievements. Increased Innovation Organizational Adaptation and Flexibility Team Building -encourages team members to examine how they work together, identify the ir weaknesses and develop more effective ways of cooperating. Four purposes of Team Building 1. To set goals and/or priorities 2. To analyze or allocate the way work is performed 3. To examine the way a group is working and its processes (such as norms, decision making, and communication) 4. To examine relationships among people doing the work. Developing team members self management skills Self management leadership defined as the process of leading others to lead them selves. 6 self management leadership behaviors 1. Encourages self reinforcement (getting team members to praise each other for good work and results) 2. Encourages self observation/evaluation (teaching team members to judge h ow well they are doing) 3. Encourages self expectation (encouraging team members to expect high per formance from themselves and the team. 4. Encourages self-goal-setting (having the team set its own performance goa ls). 5. Encourages rehearsals (getting team members to think about and practice new tasks). 6. Encourages self criticism (encouraging team members to be critical of th eir own poor performance).

5 Dysfunctions of a Team ABSENCE OF TRUST FEAR OF CONFLICT LACK OF COMMITMENT AVOIDANCE OF ACCOUNTABILITY INATTENTION TO RESULTS Effective work teams are characterized by a shared commitment to a common purpos e. It has been said, There is no I in the word team. -Xerox Corporation

Organizational Structure & Design Organizing the process of creating an organizations structure Organization Structure

An abstract concept Patterns of jobs and group of jobs in an organizations. An important cause of individual and group behaviour. Organization Design Patterns of jobs and group of jobs in a specific Organization Structure

All organization have a structure of jobs. In fact, the existence of structure distinguishes organizations. Organizational Chart is the most visible evidence of structure Foundation Concepts of Organization Structure Mechanistic Organization Structure is primarily hierarchical, with an emphasis on specialization and control and ve rtical communication and a heavy reliance on rules, policies & procedures. most large organizations have some mechanistic characteristics synonymous with the term Bureaucracy MECHANISTIC High Specialization Rigid Departmentalization Clear Chain of Command Narrow Spans of Control Centralization High Formalization

Organic Organization Structure highly adaptive and flexible structure permits organization to change when the need arises employees are highly trained and empowered to handle diverse job activities minimal formal rules and little direct supervision

ORGANIC Cross-Hierarchical Teams Free flow of information Wide Spans of Control Decentralization Low Formalization

Designing an Organization Structure Formal vs. Informal Structure the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized s. Formal is an official statement of reporting relationship, rules & regulation

Informal is a set of unofficial working relationships that emerges to take care o f the events and transactions not covered by the formal structure. Degree of Centralization The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the org anization top-level managers make decisions with little input from subordinates in a centralized organization Degree of Decentralization the degree to which decisions are made by lower level employees distinct trend toward decentralized decision making The Bureaucratic form of Organization Characteristics: Rules and procedures controlling organizational activities. A high degree of differentiation among organizational functions. A high degree of job specialization. An organization of offices determined by hierarchy, with each unit reporting to a higher unit and no unit free-floating. A heavy emphasis on rules and norms to regulate behaviour. Interpersonal relations characterized by impersonality in place of favouritism. Selection and promotion based on merit. All administrative actions recorded in writing. Departmentalization the basis by which jobs are grouped together Functional - groups jobs by functions performed Product - groups jobs by product line Geographical - groups jobs on the basis of territory or geography Process - groups jobs on the basis of product or customer flow Customer - groups jobs on the basis of common customers

Functional Departmentalization

Product Departmentalization

Geographical Departmentalization

Process Departmentalization

Customer Departmentalization

Key modification of the Bureaucratic Structure Matrix Structure - Assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on projects led by project managers - Project managers have authority in areas relative to the projects goals. - functional managers retain authority over human resource s (e.g., promotions) decision

Contemporary Organizational Designs

Key modification of the bureaucratic structure Flat Organization Structure & Downsizing - Assigns specialists from different functional departments to work cts led by project managers goals. - functional managers retain authority over human resource promotions) Flat Organization Structure Less bureaucratic for two reason: 1. Few managers in this form of organization are available to review the de cisions of other people. 2. There is less concern about authority differences among people. decisions (e.g., on proje

- Project managers have authority in areas relative to the projects

Downsizing Maintaining an open dialogue with employees and providing them with opportunitie s to affirm themselves in a positive manner helps eliminate some of the negative

outcomes that accompany layoffs. The Scope of Outsourcing The main concept is to have products/ services at high speed and low cost Time Zone Advantages of Outsourcing When knowledge work needs to be performed in a sequence, with one person or gro up building on the output of the previous person or group, outsourcing offers a unique advantage. Homesourcing instead of Offshoring Homesourcing are outsourcing customer service work to people at home.

Criteria for an Effective Organization Design Specialist Culture Difficult links Redundant Hierarchy Accountability Flexibility

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CROSS-CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR CULTURAL DIVERSITY Diversity comes from two primary sources The Globalization of world trade. Greater diversity in the cultures of employees Diversity includes differences in Age, race, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, and sexual orientation Work background, income, marital status, military experience, religious beliefs, geographic location, parental status, and education CROSS-CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR cross-cultural organizational behavior is the study of cross-cultural similarit ies and differences in processes and behavior at work and the dynamics of crosscultural interfaces in multicultural domestic and international contexts. It encompasses how culture is related to : o to micro organizational phenomena (e.g., motives, cognitions, emotions) o meso organizational phenomena (e.g., teams, leadership, negotiation

o macro organizational phenomena (e.g., organizational culture, structure) o and the interrelationships among these levels. History of Cross-cultural Organizational Behavior Earliest accounts of cultural differences at workcan be found in writings by the Greek historian Herodotus, who observed differences in work behavior throughout the Persian Empire circa 400 BC (Herodotus et al. 2003). Trade between people of different cultures was also widespread along the Silk R oad, which stretched from Rome and Syria in the West to China in the East and t o Egypt and Iran in the Middle East dating from the second century BC (Elisseeff 2000). 1960s and 1970b culture was largely ignored. Most OB theories were developed an d tested only on western samples 1980 increased attention to national culture in Ob research Why are cross-cultural issues important? Growing impact of global business o New markets o Demand for global services o Low cost manufacturing o E-business has no borders o Immigrant labor force. U.S. management practices not necessarily likely to translate to different cultu res Culture is critical to global business, yet hardest to understand o Based on unspoken values and assumptions o Human behavior isnt logical o But, human behavior is very complex Three new concepts in organizational culture (Holden, 2001) 1. Participative competence o Adeptness in cross- cultural communication in multi cultural activities o Ability to contribute equitably to common tasks o Ability to share knowledge and experiences and stimulate group learning . 2. Interactive translation o A form of cross- cultural work, in which participants negotiate common meanings and common understandings and learn how to be able to work in multicult ural teams 3. Atmosphere o Pervasive feeling, based on past experience and in anticipation of futur e activity o An outcome and determinant of participative competence and interactive translation The important point about these concepts : o They identify more with organisational processes than with culture o They see culture as dynamic, not static or deterministic o They do not contradict traditional notions of intercultural communicati on, but extend them Managing Diversity in Organizations Opportunities in Managing Employee Diversity 1. Greater creativity. Employee diversity can stimulate consideration of le ss obvious alternatives. 2. Better problem solving. Homogenous groups are prone to a phenomenon cal led groupthink, in which all members quickly converge on a mistaken solution bec ause they share the same mindset and view the problem through the lens of confor mity. 3. Greater system flexibility. In todays rapidly changing business environme

nts, flexibility is an important characteristic of successful firms. Challenges in Managing Employee Diversity 1. Segmented communication networks 2. Resentment 3. Backlash 4. Retention 5. Competition for opportunities Selection and Preparation of Managers for Jobs in Other Countries Expatriates Employees who live and work in another country Must be culturally flexible and easily adapt to new situations and ways of doin g things Culture Shock An emotional and psychological reaction to the confusion, ambiguity, value confl icts and hidden clashes that occur as a result of fundamentally different ways o f perceiving the world and interacting socially between cultures. Disequilibriu m Training for Expatriates Knowledge-based Language Cultural differences Cultural sensitivity Other Support Mechanisms Mentor or buddy systems Trips home Assistance with schooling and other family needs Housing / cost of living differentials Safe housing

Interpersonal Communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION ? Communication is the process of exchanging information through a common system o f symbols, signs and behavior. An effective communicator anticipates the unlimited ways a message can be misund erstood. Communication Principles Communication Functions Control member behavior. Foster motivation for what is to be done. Provide a release for emotional expression. Provide information needed to make decisions. The Communication Process Channel The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the recei ver Types of Channels Formal Channels Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related t o the professional activities of members Informal Channels Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices. Communication Process The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and un derstanding of meaning FORMS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Para- linguistics : variations in speech qualities Kinesics : e use of gesturers (visual & vocal) Haptics : e use of touch Dress : Communicates values and expectations Chronemics : Communicating status through the use of time Conics : Use of physical objects office designs

PROXEMICS Proxemics is the study of an individuals perception about the use of physical spa ce Intimate space zone (2 ft.) - Close relationship Personal distance zone (2 ft - 4 ft) With friends in general we maintain this di stance.

Social distance Zone (4 ft - 12 ft) Most businessassociates and acquaintances in teract within this zone. Public distance zone (12 ft.). We prefer strangers to stay in this zone. WHEN TO DISCLOSE When you have an already developed relationship. When the other person is willing to disclose too. When self disclosure is about what is going on at present(Avoid reference to the past). When it is about positive things rather than negativethings. When disclosure leads to improving your relationship. When you are sensitive to the effect disclosure has on the other person. When disclosure is gradual, a little at a time. Disclose, when you trust the other person. Choice of Communication Channel Channel Richness The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode Characteristics of Rich Channels Handle multiple cues simultaneously Facilitate rapid feedback 3. Are very personal in context Information Richness of Communication Channels Barriers to Effective Communication Filtering Selective Perception Information Overload Emotions Language Apprehension Other considerations: Avoid slang. Cultural Considerations Stereotypical language and attitudes Gender Issues Improving your own command of the language your customers most use! Speaking clearly Be humble apologize when necessary Balance being friendly with assertive: 6 Principles of Effective Communication Maintain eye contact. Be aware of body position and language. Use language the customer understands Use the customers proper name. Be honest. Listen: recognize the appropriateness of empathic, discriminative and critical listening).

6 Principles of Effective Communication Maintain eye contact. Be aware of body position and language. Use language the customer understands Use the customers proper name. Be honest. Listen: recognize the appropriateness of empathic, discriminative and critical l istening). The Seven Cs of Organizational Communication Completeness Conciseness Consideration Concreteness Clarity Courtesy Correctness

Organizational Change Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about h ow people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach. That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in t erms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social syst em. Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives. Models of Organizational Behavior Autocratic - The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of a uthority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance result is minimal. Custodial - The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial orie ntation of money. The employees in turn are oriented towards security and benefi ts and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is security . The performance result is passive cooperation. Supportive - The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and part icipation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The performa nce result is awakened drives. Collegial - The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior an d self-discipline. The employee need that is met is self-actualization. The perf ormance result is moderate enthusiasm.

Social Systems, Culture, and Individualization Social system a complex set of human relationships interacting in many ways. Wit hin an organization, the social system includes all the people in it and their r elationships to each other and to the outside world. The behavior of one member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on the behavior of others. So cial system does not have boundaries...it exchanges goods, ideas, culture, etc. with the environment around it. Culture is the conventional behavior of a society that encompasses beliefs, cust oms, knowledge, and practices. It influences human behavior, even though it seld om enters into their conscious thought. People depend on culture as it gives the m stability, security, understanding, and the ability to respond to a given situ ation. This is why people fear change. They fear the system will become unstable , their security will be lost, they will not understand the new process, and the y will not know how to respond to the new situations. Individualization is when employees successfully exert influence on the social s ystem by challenging the culture. Discontinuity in the workplace is change. Organization Development Organization Development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral scienc e knowledge at various levels, such as group, inter-group, organization, etc., t o bring about planned change. Its objectives are a higher quality of work-life, productivity, adaptability, and effectiveness. It accomplishes this by changing attitudes, behaviors, values, strategies, procedures, and structures so that the organization can adapt to competitive actions, technological advances, and the fast pace of change within the environment. There are seven characteristics of OD: 1. Humanistic Values: Positive beliefs about the potential of employees (Mc Gregor s Theory Y). 2. Systems Orientation: All parts of the organization, to include structure , technology, and people, must work together. 3. Experiential Learning: The learners experiences in the training environ ment should be the kind of human problems they encounter at work. The training s hould NOT be all theory and lecture. 4. Problem Solving: Problems are identified, data is gathered, corrective a ction is taken, progress is assessed, and adjustments in the problem solving pro cess are made as needed. This process is known as Action Research. 5. Contingency Orientation: Actions are selected and adapted to fit the nee d. 6. Change Agent: Stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate change. 7. Levels of Interventions: Problems can occur at one or more level in the organization so the strategy will require one or more interventions. Quality of Work Life Quality of Work Life (QWL) is the favorableness or unfavorableness of the job en vironment. Its purpose is to develop jobs and working conditions that are excell ent for both the employees and the organization. One of the ways of accomplishin g QWL is through job design. Some of the options available for improving job des ign are: Leave the job as is but employ only people who like the rigid environment or rou tine work. Some people do enjoy the security and task support of these kinds of jobs. o Leave the job as is, but pay the employees more. o Mechanize and automate the routine jobs. o And the area that OD loves - redesign the job. When redesigning jobs there are two spectrums to follow - job enlargement and jo b enrichment. Job enlargement adds a more variety of tasks and duties to the job

so that it is not as monotonous. This takes in the breadth of the job. That is, the number of different tasks that an employee performs. This can also be accom plished by job rotation. Job enrichment adds additional motivators. It adds depth to the job - more contr ol, responsibility, and discretion to how the job is performed. This gives highe r order needs to the employee, as opposed to job enlargement which simply gives more variety. The chart below (Cunningham & Eberle, 1990) illustrates the differ ences: The benefits of enriching jobs include: 1. Growth of the individual 2. Individuals have better job satisfaction 3. Self-actualization of the individual 4. Better employee performance for the organization 5. Organization gets intrinsically motivated employees 6. Less absenteeism, turnover, and grievances for the organization 7. Full use of human resources for society 8. Society gains more effective organizations There are a variety of methods for improving job enrichment: 1. Skill Variety: Perform different tasks that require different skill. This di ffers from job enlargement which might require the employee to perform more task s, but require the same set of skills. 2. Task Identity: Create or perform a complete piece of work. This gives a sense of completion and responsibility for the product. 3. Task Significant: This is the amount of impact that the work has on othe r people as the employee perceives. 4. Autonomy: This gives employees discretion and control over job related d ecisions. 5. Feedback: Information that tells workers how well they are performing. I t can come directly from the job (task feedback) or verbally form someone else.

Chapter V

Behavioural Problems in the work place An employee who forgets to do an assignment or who flagrantly refuses to do an a ssigned task. (insubordination or refusal to accept a reasonable and proper assi gnment from an authorized supervisor) Receiving and making excessive or lengthy personal phone calls. (excessive use o f the telephone for personal reasons) Speaking to a co-worker or supervisor or anyone using undesired and/or vulgar la nguage. (use of profane/abusive language) Disappearing or leaving the work area without informing a supervisor for an inde finite or unreasonable period. (leaving work station without authorization) People being at odds with each other with no desire to fix it Saying one thing and meaning another Giving lip service to new ideas, and then undercutting them in private Defensiveness at reasonable suggestions Attraction to chaos Not following through on commitments Deflecting blame People pretending that they "never got the memo." Refusing to deal with conflict directly Gossiping and backstabbing DYSFUNCTION IN THE WORKPLACE No. 1: People being at odds with each other with no desire to fix it. Being at odds with someone isn t necessarily a dysfunction. We all encounter peo ple with whom we just don t fit. It becomes dysfunctional when the friction begi ns to affect workplace performance and/or creates a toxic atmosphere and the peo ple involved seem hell-bent on keeping the friction alive and well. Have the most direct supervisor shared by both employees meet with each individu ally (1) to determine if each acknowledges the situation, (2) to learn what it w ill take to resolve it, and (3) to secure a firm commitment to do so. Finally, bring them together for a quick meeting to affirm the idea that the hea lth of the organization trumps whatever is creating the problem between them, an d that their commitment to that idea will be one of the main issues in their nex t evaluation. Tends to get their attention.

No. 2: Saying one thing and meaning another. Clear communication is one of the non-negotiables of a healthy, functional workp lace. If you have employees with a pattern of saying, "But what I meant was" in o rder to slip sideways out of consequences, call them on it. Make it clear that i ntentions are meaningless if the communication was so unclear that it could be s o easily "misunderstood." Requiring the offender to have all communications chec ked for clarity by a supervisor for a period of time usually nips this problem i n the bud.

No. 3: Giving lip service to new ideas, and then undercutting them in private. That sound you just heard was my toes curling. Remember Eddie Haskell from Leave It to Beaver? He was the neighbor kid who always sweet-talked the parents to th eir faces, and then led the mayhem when their backs were turned. This dysfunction is harmful because it speaks of deep dishonesty. You might thin k the best way to address it is by pulling the offender aside, but it s not. You want to make a more general announcement to establish a culture-wide understand ing of this dysfunction and to enlist the help of everyone in keeping it out. Ma ke it clear that dissenting opinions are welcomed during decision making, but th at once a decision is made, undercutting will not be tolerated. Ask your entire staff to cut off under-cutters by asking, "Why didn t you bring this up during t he decision process?" No. 4: Defensiveness at reasonable suggestions. Let your people know that you consider a willingnessno, an eagerness to improve t o be one of the hallmarks of a person with a bright future in the company. Defen siveness should be viewed as what it isan unwillingness to improve oneself. No. 5: Attraction to chaos. Some people just like drama. There s nothing much to be done if they quietly enj oy it from the wings, but any active stirring of the pot must be dealt with dire ctly and forcefully. It s a violation of principles both written and unwritten a nd a threat to productivity. Counterbalance the pleasure they get from drama wit h a greater measure of negative consequences. No. 6: Not following through on commitments. Again, my toes are curling. And again, the key is establishing a culture-wide va lue. Let people know that they re expected to follow through on commitments, and when they don t, to acknowledge the error and make a commitment to clean up eve ry last bit of the resulting mess. No. 7: Deflecting blame. At this point, my toes are just getting naturally curly. Deflecting blame equals deflecting responsibility. Someone who systematically deflects blame to others is often lacking in confidence and therefore unwilling to risk absorbing the bla me herself. Make it clear that mistakes are an expected part of all human work a nd that the only acceptable behavior is acceptance of responsibility, commitment to avoid a repeat, and quick work to clean up the mess. Let it be known that ac cepting responsibility is respected and rewarded, while deflection is frowned up on. No. 8: People pretending that they "never got the memo." Make a quick review of communication procedures to see if the claim holds up. If the system was broken, fix it. If not, make it clear that the employee is respo nsible for consistently accessing internal communicationsmemos, email, and so onso that he is never again "out of the loop." No. 9: Refusing to deal with conflict directly. This is the passive-aggressive version of the addiction to chaos. Refusal to dea l with conflict becomes dysfunctional (1) when the conflict affects productivity or the workplace environment, or (2) when it is your job to deal with it. I m talking to all those managers who know very well that two of their direct re ports are busy throwing daggers at each other, but can t be bothered to tackle i t head-on. Make it clear that conflict resolution is an essential part of a mana ger s job and that performance reviews can and should count disruptive interpers onal conflicts against managers on whose watch they occur. No. 10. Gossiping and backstabbing. I saved the very worst for last. If a happy and functional workplace is your goa l, there is no better place to put your energy than the absolute and total elimi nation of gossip. A workplace full of whispered gossip is excruciating. It is de structive to the soul of your workplace and the souls of your people. They never feel safe, always wondering who is talking behind their backs. Once you establish a zero-tolerance policy for talking behind another person s b ack, give your people permission to address conflict head-on, out loud, courageo usly and honestly. And make it clear that giving or receiving gossip is not acce ptable.

The Top 10 Tips for Dealing with Employee Problem Behavior 1. Recognize that problem behavior usually has a history. It usually develops over time and seldom from a single incident. As a manager, i t is your responsibility to be alert to the early warning signs and deal with th e underlying causes before the situation reaches a crisis. 2. Ask yourself: "Am I partly or wholly responsible?" You would be surprised how frequently it is the manager who has created, or at l east contributed to problems of employee behavior. Having an abrasive style, bei ng unwilling to listen, and being inattentive to the nuances of employee behavio r are all factors that contribute to the manager s need to thoroughly examine wh at is going on. 3. Don t focus only on the overt behavior. When confronted by an angry employee, it s easy to attack the person and target thebehavior rather than examine the factors that underlie the behavior. Often, t his takes patience, careful probing, and a willingness to forgo judgment until y ou really understand the situation. 4. Be attentive to the "awkward silence" and to what is not said. When an employee is obviously reluctant to communicate, it s almost a sure sign that more lurks beneath the surface. Often, employees will hold back because the y feel unsafe. They may test the waters by airing a less severe or kindred issue in order to see what kind of a response they get. In order to get the full stor y and encourage forthrightness, it s imperative that the manager read between th e lines and offer the concern and support necessary to get the employee to open up. 5. Clarify before your confront. Chances are, when an issue first surface, you will be given only a fragmentary a nd partial picture of the problem. You may have to dig deep to surface important facts, and talk to others who may be involved. One safe assumption is that each person will tend to present the case from his or her viewpoint, which may or ma y not be the way it really is. Discretion and careful fact-finding are often req uired to get a true picture. 6. Be willing to explore the possibility that you have contributed to the proble m. This isn t easy, even if you have reason to believe it s so, because you may not be fully aware of what you have done to fuel the fire. Three helpful questions to ask yourself: "Is this problem unique, or does it have a familiar ring as hav ing happened before?", "Are others in my organization exhibiting similar behavio rs?", and finally, "Am I partially the cause of the behavior I am criticizing in others?" 7. Plan your strategy. Start by defining, for yourself, what changes you would like to see take place, then, follow this sequence: (1) Tell the person that there is a problem. State t he problem as you understand it and explain why it is important that it be resol ved; (2) Gain agreement that you ve defined the problem correctly, and that the employee understands that it must be solved; (3) Ask for solutions, using open-e nded questions such as: "What are you willing to do to correct this problem?" In some cases, you may have to make it clear what you expect; (4) Get a dedication that the employee will take the required actions; (5) Set deadlines for finishi ng the actions. In the case of a repeated problem, you may want to advise the em ployee of the consequences of failing to take corrective action; (6) Follow up o n the deadlines you ve set. 8. Treat the employee as an adult and expect adult behavior. To some extent, expectation defines the result. If you indicate, by your actions or by the content or tone of your voice, that you expect less than full adult b ehavior, that s what you re likely to get. 9. Treat interpersonal conflicts differently. If the problem behavior stems from a personality conflict between two employees, have each one answer these questions: (1) How would you describe the other pers on? (2) How does he or she make you feel? (3) Why do you feel that the other per

son behaves the way he/she does? (4) What might you be able to do to alleviate t he situation? (5) What would you like the other person to do in return? 10. Seek agreement regarding steps to be taken and results expected. Nothing is really "fixed" unless it stays fixed. All parties to a dispute must a gree that the steps taken (or proposed) will substantially alleviate the problem . Further, they must agree on what they will do IF the results attained are not as anticipated. This can be achieved by doing a simple role play, i.e., having e ach side (including your own) articulate the steps to be taken and the outcomes anticipated. That way, even if subsequent events are significantly different tha n expected, the lines of communication for adjusting the situation are opened. Conflict Management Traditionally, many people view conflict as something that is harmful and must b e avoided. It affects our relationship with others not just in our organization but also in our home. Conflict is when two or more persons have differences in ideas/views and are not ready to understand or accept each others ideas/views. Conflicts rises when theres Incompatibility of Goals, sometimes in our organizati on, every individual have their own goals which is different from the other whic h causes conflicts. Differences in Values and beliefs, Personality, Wants and ne eds, Degrees of knowledge and information, Expectations and Cultures also causes conflicts. This also includes, Task Interdependence, Scarce Resources, Ambiguou s Rules, and Communication Problems. That is why it is very important that we kn ew how to adjust in an organization rather than the organization will adjust to us. Needless to say, conflict has also its positive side which if it is solved, woul d raises and addresses problems, energizes work, helps people be real, helps to recognize and benefit from their differences. While if it is not solved, it may hampers productivity, lowers morale, causes more and continued conflicts and wou ld causes inappropriate behaviors. Conflict can be inter-organizational, inter-group, interpersonal (between person s), and intrapersonal (within oneself). People experiencing conflict can handle it by first, as a victim, act as powerle ss and complain with others, second, avoid it by just letting it go and pretend that theres no conflict at all. Third, accept it and change outright when he noti ced it and fourth, by an assertive confrontation. There are five dimensions of handling conflicts namely: competing, avoiding, com promising, accommodating and collaborating (as shown in table 1.1) Competing is when a desire to satisfy ones interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict. It can be best used under the following circum stances: When quick, decisive action is vital (in emergencies); on important issues. Where unpopular actions need implementing (in cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline). On issues vital to the organizations welfare. When you know youre right. Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior. Collaborating is a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to s atisfy fully the concerns of all parties. It can be best used under the followin g circumstances: To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised. When your objective is to learn. To merge insights from people with different perspectives. To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus.

To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.

Avoiding is when the desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing. When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns. When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution. To let people cool down and regain perspective. When gathering information supersedes immediate decision. When others can resolve the conflict effectively. When issues seem contrary or indicative of other issues. Accommodating is when the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the op ponents interests above his or her own. It can be best used under the following c ircumstances: When you find youre wrong and to allow a better position to be heard. To learn, and to show your reasonableness. When issues are more important to others than to yourself and to satisfy others and maintain cooperation. To build social credits for later issues. To minimize loss when outmatched and losing. When harmony and stability are especially important. To allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes. Compromising is when a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. It can be best used under the following circumstances: When goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of mor e assertive approaches. When opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals. To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues. To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure. As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful. There are also different kinds of resolution techniques, if not to eradicate at least can help minimize conflict such as: Emphasizing Superordinate Goal, which is the ultimate goal of the company or the organization and making it sure that each member of the organization is aware of the mission and vision of the compan y as a whole. Reducing Differentiation and Improving Communication and Understanding by having a team building activities that would break the individual differences or make each individual easily adjusts to the group. Reduce Task Interdependence. Increa se Resources, and Clarify Rules and Procedures by making it simple, understandab le and in language readable by all. In conflict management, it is also important to know the process of negotiation. Negotiation is the process of bargaining between two or more parties to reach a solution that mutually accepted. Integrative bargaining is a negotiation that s eeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution. In bargaining or negotiation, it important that there should be a proper process to consider which includes Preparation & Planning Definition & Ground Rules Clarification & Justification Bargaining & Problem Solving Closure & Implementation In negotiation process the role of Mood & Personality traits and Gender Differen ces in should be consider. If necessary, to reduced biases in making a solution, a mediator or a neutral third party can be used to facilitate a negotiated solu

tion by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.

Individual Differences, Mental Ability and Personality Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence Ability An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities. Multiple Intelligences Intelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural. Dimensions of Intellectual Ability Number aptitude Verbal comprehension Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Spatial visualization Memory Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar cha racteristics. Nine Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility

Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina Biographical Characteristics Personal characteristicssuch as age, gender, race and tenurethat are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. What is Personality?

Personality The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others; m easurable traits a person exhibits. Personality Traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior. Personality Determinants Heredity Environment Situation The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 o f 16 personality types. Personality Types Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ)

A Meyers-Briggs score Can be a valuable too for self-awareness and career guidance BUT Should not be used as a selection tool because it has not been related to job pe rformance!!! The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions Extroversion Sociable, gregarious, and assertive Agreeableness Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized. Emotional Stability Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus nervous, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative). Openness to Experience Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive Measuring Personality

Personality is Measured By: Self-report surveys Observer-rating surveys Projective measures Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB Machiavellianism Narcissism Self-monitoring Risk taking Type A vs. Type B personality Core Self-evaluation Self-esteem Locus of Control Proactive Personality Core Self-Evaluation: Two Main Components Self Esteem Individuals degree of liking or disliking themselves. Locus of Control The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. Internals (Internal locus of control) Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. Externals (External locus of control) Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside force s such as luck or chance. Machiavellianism (Mach) Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and be lieves that ends can justify means. Conditions Favoring High Machs Direct interaction with others Minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract for others Narcissism A Narcissistic Person Has grandiose sense of self-importance Requires excessive admiration Has a sense of entitlement Is arrogant Tends to be rated as less effective Self-Monitoring A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her beh avior to external, situational factors. High Self-Monitors Receive better performance ratings Likely to emerge as leaders Show less commitment to their organizations Risk-Taking High Risk-taking Managers

 Make quicker decisions Use less information to make decisions Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations Low Risk-taking Managers Are slower to make decisions Require more information before making decisions Exist in larger organizations with stable environments Risk Propensity Aligning managers risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations Personality Types Type As 1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly; 2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place; 3. strive to think or do two or more things at once; 4. cannot cope with leisure time; 5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire Type Bs 1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatien ce; 2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accompli shments; 3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; 4. can relax without guilt. Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until m eaningful change occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of const raints or obstacles.

Nature and scope of the Organizational Behavior Fundamental Concepts Every field of social science (or even physical science) has a philosophical fou ndation of basic concepts that guide its development. In accounting for example, a fundamental concept is that for every debit there is a credit. The Nature of people With regard to people, there are four basic concepts: Individual differences, a whole person, motivated behavior, and value of the person (Human Dignity). Individual Differences People have much in common (they become excited, or they have grieved by the los s of a love one), But each person in the world is also individually different. The idea of individual differences comes originally from psychology. From the da y of birth, each person is unique, and individual experiences after birth tend t o make people more different. Individual Differences Individual differences require that a managers approach to employees should be in dividual, not statistical. This belief that each person is different from all ot hers is typically called the Law of Individual difference. A whole person Although some organizations may wish they could employ only a persons brain, the y actually employ a whole person, rather that certain characteristics. Different human traits may be separately studied, but in the final analysis they are all part of one system making up a whole person. A whole person Example, a supervisor wanted Chef Ernest to work overtime Wednesday night on an emergency banquet function. Chef Martin had an over exceeding ability to perform the function, Chef Ernest also needs the overtime pay. However from his point o f view, a social obligation made it impossible to work that night. It was a day to award Chef Martin the Philippine National Chef Award. This ceremony was impor tant to him, so his supervisor has to consider his needs as a whole person, not just a worker. A whole person When management practices organizational behavior, it is trying t develop a bett er employee, but also it wants to develop a better person in terms of growth and fulfillment. Jobs shape people