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AUTHOR N.SOMASUNDARAM AERONAUTICAL DEPARTMENT, MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KILAKARAI

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TYPES OF PISTON ENGINE


Rotary- Type Radial Engines One type of engine that found very extensive use was the air-cooled rotary type radial engine. In this engine the crankshaft is held stationary, and the cylinders rotate about the crankshaft. Among the best-known rotary engines were the LeRhone, shown in Fig. 1-2, the Gnome-Monosoupape, shown in Fig. 1-3., And the Bentley, which has a similar appearance. In these engines, the crankshaft is secured to the aircraft engine mount, and the propeller is attached to the engine Case. Even though the rotary engines powered many World War I airplanes, they had two serious disadvantages: (1) The torque and gyro effects of the' large rotating mass of the engines made the airplanes difficult to control; (2) The engines used castor 'oil as a lubricant and since the castor oil was mixed with the fuel of the engine in the crankcase, the exhaust of the engines contained castor-oil fumes which were often nauseating to the pilots.

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In-Line Engines. A number of in-line engines were also developed during World War I. Among these was the Hispano Suiza engine. The cylinders of an in-line engine are arranged in a single row parallel to the crankshaft. The cylinders are either upright above the crankshaft or inverted, that is, below the crankshaft. The inverted configuration is generally employed. A typical inverted in-line engine is shown in Fig. 1-5. The engine shown is a Menasco Pirate, model C-4. The number of cylinders in an in-line engine is usually limited to six, to facilitate cooling and to avoid excessive weight per horsepower. There are generally an even number of cylinders in order to provide a proper balance of firing impulses. The in-line engine utilizes one crankshaft. The crankshaft is located above the cylinders in an inverted engine. The engine may be either air-cooled or liquid cooled; however, liquid-cooled types are seldom utilized at present. Use of the in-line-type engine is largely confined to low and medium horsepower applications for small aircraft. The engine presents a small frontal area and is therefore adapted to streamlining and a resultant low-drag nacelle configuration. When the cylinders are mounted in the inverted position, greater pilot visibility and a shorter landing gear are possible. However, the in-line engine has greater weight-to-horsepower ratio than those of most other types. When the size of an aircraft engine is increased, it becomes increasingly difficult to cool it if it is the air-cooled in-line type; therefore, this engine is not suitable for a high-horsepower output. V-Type Engines. World War I saw the development of several V-type engines, including the Rolls-Royce V-12 engine, the U.S.-made Liberty V-12 engine, shown in Fig. 1-6, and several German engines. The V-type engine has the cylinders arranged on the crankcase in two rows (or bank3), forming the letter V, with an angle between the banks of 90, 60, or 45. There is always an even number of cylinders in each row. Since the two banks of cylinders are opposite each other, two sets of connecting rods can operate on the Sam crankpin, thus reducing the weight per horsepower as compared with the in-line engine. The frontal area is only slightly greater than that of the in-line type; therefore, the engine cowling can be streamlined to reduce drag. If the cylinders are above the crankshaft, the engine is known as the upright- Vtype engine, but if the cylinders are below the crankshaft, it is known as an inverted- V-type engine. Better pilot visibility end a short landing gear is possible
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if the engine is inverted.

Post-World War I Engines After World War I, many different engine designs were developed. Some of those with rather unusual configurations are shown in Fig. 1-7. A popular U.S. engine was the Curtiss OX-5 engine manufactured during and after World War I. This engine powered the Curtiss Jennie (IN-4) trainer plane used for training U.S. military aviators. After the war, many were sold to the public, and the majority was used in the early barn storming days for air shows and passenger flights. An OX-5 engine is shown in Fig. 1-8. Other engines developed in the United States between World War I and World War 11 were the Wright Hisso Ca U.S.-built HispanoSuiza), the Packard V-12, the Curtiss Den-g1i2nes work ors of military" and

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commercial aircraft ever since the 1920s~\and dtiri.ng World. War I radial engines were used in all V.S. bombetscanej Transport aircraft and in most of the other categories of aircraft. They were developed to a peak of efficiency. And dependability; and even today, in the jet age, many are still in operation throughout ti1e world in all types of duty. A single-row radial engine has an odd number of cylinders extending radically from the centerline of the crankshaft. The number of cylinders usually ranges from five to nine. The cylinders are arranged evenly in the same circular plane, and all the pistons are connected to a single-throw 3600 crankshaft, thus reducing both the number of working parts and the weight. A double-row radial engine resembles two single row radial engines combined on a single crankshaft, as shown in Fig. 1-9. The cylinders are arranged radially in two rows and each row has an odd number of cylinders. The usual number of cylinders used is either 14 or 18, which means that the same effect is produced as having either two seven cylinder engines or two nine-cylinder engines joined on one crankshaft. A two-throw 180 crankshaft is used to permit the cylinders in each row to be alternately staggered on then common crankcase. That is, the cylinders of the rear row are located directly behind the spaces between the cylinders in the front row. This allows the cylinders in both rows to receive ram air for the necessary cooling. The radial engine has the lowest weight-to-horsepower ratio of all the different types of piston engines. It has the disadvantage of greater drag because of the area presented to the air, and it also has some problems in cooling. Nevertheless, the dependability and efficiency of the engine have made it the most

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widely used type for large aircraft equipped with reciprocating engines.

Multiple-Row Radial Engine The 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engine was used extensively at the end of World War 11 and afterward for both bombers and transport aircraft. This was the largest and most powerful piston-type engine built and used successfully in the United States. A photograph of this engine is shown in Fig. 1-10. Because of the development of the gas-turbine engine, the very large piston engine has been and most powerful piston-type engine built and used successfully in the United States. A photograph of this engine is shown in Fig. 1-10. Because of the development of the gas-turbine engine, the very large piston engine has been because of its flat shape it is very well adapted to streamlining and to horizontal

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installation in the nacelle. Another advantage is that it is reasonably free from vibration. Figure 1-11 illustrates a modern opposed engine for general aircraft nose.

ENGINE DESIGN AND CLASSIFICATION Conventional piston engines are classified according to a variety of characteristics, including cylinder arrangement, cooling method, and number of strokes per cycle. The most satisfactory classification, however, is by cylinder arrangement. This is the method usually employed because it is more completely descriptive than the other classifications. Gas-turbine engines are classified according to construction and function; these classification idols are discussed in Chap. I I.

Cylinder Arrangement Although some engine designs have become obsolete, we mention the types most commonly constructed throughout the history of power plants. Aircraft engines may be classified according to cylinder arrangement with respect to the crankshaft as follows: (l) in-line, upright; (2) in-line, inverted;

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(3) V type, upright; (4) V type, inverted; (5) double- V or fan type; (6) X type; (7) Opposed or flat type; (8) Radial type, single-row (9) Radial type, double-row; (10) Radial type, multiple-row or "corncob." The simple drawings in Fig. 1-12 illustrate some of these arrangements. The double- V- or fan-type engine has not been in use for many years, and the only piston engines in extensive us for aircraft in the United States at present are the oppose and radial types. A few V-type and in-line engines may still be in operation, but these engines are no longer manufactured nin the United States for general aircraft use. Early Designations Most of the early aircraft engines, with the exception of the . rotary types, were water-cooled and were of either in-line or V-type design. These engines were often classified as 1. Liquid-cooled in-line engines, 2. water-cooled in-line engines, 3. liquid-cooled V-type engines, 4. Water-cooled V-type engines. 5. air-cooled engines Were developed, they were classified in a similar manner (air-cooled-in-line, aircooled V-type, etc.).

Classification or Designation by Cylinder Arrangement and Displacement

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Current designations for reciprocating engines generally employ letters to indicate the type and characteristics of the engine, followed by a numerical indication of displacement. The following letters usually indicate the type or characteristic shown: L Left-hand rotation for counter rotating propeller with turbine-operated device V Vertical, for helicopter installation with the crankshaft in a vertical

position H Horizontal, for helicopter installation with the crankshaft horizontal A Aerobatic; fuel and oil systems designed for sustained inverted flight I Fuel injected; continuous fuel injection system installed G Geared nose section for reduction of propeller revolutions per minute (rpm) S Supercharged; engine structurally capable of operating with high manifold pressure and equipped with either a turbine-driven supercharger or an engine driven Supercharger o opposed cylinders R Radial engine; cylinders arranged radically around the crankshaft However, note that many engines are not designated by the foregoing standardized system. For example, the Continental W-670 engine is a radial type, whereas the A65, C-90, and E-225 are all opposed-type engines. V type engines and inverted in-line engines have such designations as V and 1. In every case, the technician working on an engine must interpret the designation correctly and utilize the proper information for service and maintenance. The twoor three-digit numbers in the second part of t:le engine designation indicate displacement to the near fast 5 in3. An engine with a displacement of 471 in3 [7.72 litt1rs (L)] is shown as 470 Continental 0-470 opposed engine. In some cases, the displacement number will end with a figure other than zero. In such a case, this is a special indication to reveal a characteristic such as an integral accessory drive. Radial engines generally employ only the letter R lowed by the displacement. For example, the R-985 is a single-row radial engine having a displacement of approximately 985 in3 [16.14 L].m an example of the standard designation for an engine is as follows.

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A system of suffix designations has also been established to provide additional information about engines. The first suffix letter indicates the type of power

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section and tile rating of the engine. This letter is followed by a number from I to 9, which gives the design type of the nose section. Following the nose-section number is a letter indicating the type of accessory section and after this letter is a number which tells what type of counterweight application misused with the crankshaft. This number indicates the mode of vibration, such as 4, 5, or 6. The mode number is found on the counterweights or dynamic balances on the crankshaft. The final character in the designation suffix may be a indicating the type of magneto utilized with the engine. The letter D indicates a dual magneto.

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PISTON ENGINE OPERATION


TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to internal combustion engines and more particularly to a method for operating a free piston-type internal combustion engines in such a manner as to provide for low NOx production. BACKGROUND ART Free piston engines are utilized to convert chemical energy to hydro-mechanical energy. This type of engine, for example, when designed to operate on hydrocarbon fuels such as diesel grade fuel oils, include a piston adapted to shiningly linearly reciprocate within a combustion cylinder provided with an intake air aperture, an exhaust air aperture, and a fuel injection device. The piston is connected to a piston shaft extending from the piston through the combustion cylinder wall along the axis of movement of the piston. The piston shaft is typically connected to a return piston operating coaxially with the combustion cylinder piston in a compression chamber. The return piston slidably linearly reciprocates in the compression chamber under the influence of a compression device, so as to ensure the action of the combustion cylinder piston. A frequency control device, either of a hydraulic or electronic nature, is typically provided to control the action of the return piston and thereby control the speed of operation of the free piston engine. The piston shaft is further typically connected to linearly operate a plunger reciprocally in a power chamber. Such a plunger is, for example, suitable for use as a fluid pump for the compression of hydraulic fluid, as an air compressor, or another similar device. In operation, the piston moves within the combustion cylinder between a top dead centre position which is the position which provides the minimum volume of the combustion chamber defined by the piston and combustion cylinder, and the bottom dead centre position at which the combustion chamber is at its maximum volume. During a typical two-cycle operation, the compression device is actuated to provide pressure on the compression piston and act upon the combustion cylinder piston through the piston connecting rod to drive the combustion cylinder piston toward the top dead

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center position. As the piston approaches the top dead centre position, the fuel injector is actuated to spray a quantity of fuel into the combustion chamber. Because of the relatively high compression caused by the piston within the combustion chamber, the fuel-air mixture then auto-ignites, causing the combustion cylinder piston to subsequently reverse its direction and move toward the bottom dead center position. However, the majority of the energy thus released is transmitted through the piston connecting rod to the plunger and thus to the fluid upon which the plunger acts. As the piston continues to move toward bottom dead center, the piston moves to open the exhaust aperture and the intake air apertures to permit the flow of exhaust gases from the combustion chamber and to permit a new inflow of intake air to be used in the succeeding engine cycle. One primary disadvantage of the two-cycle free piston type engine, according to the prior art, has been the undesirable production of exhaust gas by-products such as NOx. Another undesirable feature of the two-cycle internal combustion engine has typically been the emission of undesirable quantities of unburned hydrocarbons. Many legal jurisdictions now regulate the various emissions and have established laws and regulations which provide legal sanction for the operation of engines with emissions in excess of the allowable standards. Also, some jurisdictions disallow the operation of such engines until modifications or repairs have been completed thereon. Therefore, it is desirable to improve the performance of internal combustion engines in this respect. It is well known, that the production of NOx increases as a function of the local flame temperature of the air-fuel mixture during combustion thereof. Excessively high local flame temperature is typically a function of a failure to provide an adequate mixture of the air and fuel prior to combustion. However, injection of atomized fuel into the combustion chamber requires a finite time period for the delivery of the desired fuel volume, just as the entry of intake air and expunging of exhaust by-products requires a finite time period. The operating method according to the prior art typically provides only a short space of time for fuel-air mixing. When the air-fuel mixture is inadequately mixed, the proportion of unburned hydrocarbon likewise tends to increase due to the irregularity of the flame temperature through the combustion chamber. It is therefore desirable to reduce the production of undesirable emission

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by-products in a free piston-type internal combustion engine with out adversely affecting the performance of the engine in which it is employed. It is also desirable to reduce the production of undesirable emission by-products by providing a lower and more uniform local flame temperature in the combustion chamber of the engine in which it is employed. It is also desirable to reduce the production of undesirable emission by-products without adding components or making modifications to the free piston engine. The present invention is directed to overcoming one or more of the problems set forth above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect of the present invention, a method for operating a free-piston engine apparatus having a combustion chamber body, a compression section, and a piston element. The piston element having a piston head in said combustion chamber body. An exhaust passage is disposed in the combustion body, and a compression chamber piston is disposed in the compression section. The piston element is reciprocally movable in the engine. The method includes providing a control valve in flow communication with the compression section, providing a fuel injection device which selectively injects atomized fuel into the combustion chamber body to in the engine, providing a controller in communication with the control valve and the fuel injection device, said controller actuating the control valve and the fuel injection device, and actuating the control valve prior to actuating fuel injection device with the controller. In another aspect of the present invention a method of providing a homogeneous fuel-air mixture in a free-piston engine apparatus having a combustion chamber body and a compression section, a piston element for reciprocal operation in the engine including a piston head in said combustion chamber body and a compression chamber piston in said compression section, a control valve in flow communication with the compression section, a fuel injection device being selectively actuatable to inject atomized fuel into the combustion chamber body, and a controller in communication with the control valve and the fuel injection device. The

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controller being adapted for actuating the control valve and the fuel injection device. The method comprising the steps of actuating the control valve to reciprocate said piston element from a bottom dead center BDC position to a top dead centre TDC position through a stroke "S", and actuating the fuel injection device, during the stroke "S", at a location of the piston element between the top dead center TDC position and the bottom dead center BDC at which the piston element closes the exhaust aperture. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view of a typical free piston engine apparatus including the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1, the sole FIGURE, shows a representative single-cylinder free piston engine apparatus in a cross-sectional view. The free piston engine apparatus is to be understood by those skilled in the art as representative and exemplary of free piston engines generally in which the subject invention may be applied, and therefore is not to be taken as limiting the use of the present invention to any specific free piston engine apparatus. The subject invention may be applied as well to each of the cylinders in a dual-cylinder engine apparatus, for example. The engine apparatus has an engine block which includes three co-axial sections defining work spaces therein, including a first engine section , a second compression section , and a third power section . The first engine section includes a relatively larger diameter tubular combustion chamber body , a combustion chamber base plate on the proximate end of the combustion chamber body , and a combustion chamber head on the distal end of the combustion chamber body . The combustion chamber body also includes and defines an intake aperture connected to a check valve for permitting intake air to flow only into the combustion chamber adjacent the combustion chamber base plate , and an exhaust aperture disposed between the base plate and head for permitting exhaust by-products to escape from the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber body also includes an intake bypass passageway 30 for permitting intake air to flow from adjacent the biteplate toward

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the head . A fuel injection device is disposed in the combustion chamber head for providing controlled fuel injection into the combustion chamber. The second compression section includes a tubular compression chamber body extending from the combustion chamber baseplate to a partition plate . The compression chamber body is in flow connection with a first control line in which is disposed a selectively operable control valve which selectively permits and alternatively prevents a flow of fluid through the first control line and into the compression chamber body . The first control line is flowably connected to a control accumulator 50 for receiving a flow of pressurized fluid there from. The control accumulator 50 is in further flow connection with a second control line 52 and a third control line 54 for receiving flow from the compression chamber body 40. As with the first control line 46, the second control line 52 is in flow connection with the work space in the compression chamber body 40, and includes a control check valve 56 therein for permitting a flow through the second control line 52 to the accumulator 50 from the first aperture 44, while preventing a flow from the accumulator 50 to the compression chamber body 40. The third control line 54 is flowably connected to the compression chamber body 40 for permitting a flow to and from the control accumulator 50. The third power section 18 includes a tubular power section body 60 with an endplate 62 for providing an enclosed power chamber. A power takeoff device 70 is in fluid flow connection with the power section body 60. The power takeoff device 70 includes an inlet check valve 72 disposed in a return line 74 and an outlet check valve 76 disposed in a power line 78. The power line 78 is flowably connected to a hydraulic load 80 which in turn is connected to the return line 74. The power takeoff device 70 will be understood by those skilled in the art as exemplary, and not to be taken as limiting, as there is a large variety of different types of applications and load which may be powered by the engine apparatus 10. A piston element 90 is disposed co-axially within the engine block 12. The piston element 90 includes a cylindrical piston head 92 operably disposed within the combustion chamber body 20 so as to permit linear sliding motion between the compression chamber base plate 22 and the compression chamber head 24. A relatively small diameter cylindrical piston rod 94 is co-axially connected to the piston head 92, extending through a piston rod

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aperture 96 in the combustion chamber baseplate 22. Piston rod 94 is operably connected to a compression chamber piston 98 slidably disposed for linear operation in the compression chamber body 40. A vent aperture 99 is provided in the compression chamber body to facilitate expelling entrapped fluid there from during a compression stroke of the piston head 92. Finally, a power displacement piston 100 extends from the compression chamber piston 98 opposite to and co-axially with the piston rod 94 into the power section body 60 through a partition plate aperture 102. A controller 110 is provided for controlling the operation of the free piston engine 10. The controller 110 is in communication with the control valve 48 and with the fuel injection device 32, and can selectively actuate the control valve 48 and the fuel injection device 32. This enables the controllers 110 to control the timing of the injection of fuel into the combustion chamber by controlling both the actuation of the fuel injection device 32 and the control valve 48. A piston element position sensor 112 is connected in signal communication with the controller 110 and mounted on the second compression section 16. The sensor 112 senses the position of the piston element 90 and delivers a responsive position signal to the controller 110. Exhaust aperture 28 closure is directly related to piston element 90 position. The controller 110 utilizes this position information during the controlling of the fuel injection device 32, and the control valve 48. Fuel injector device 32 actuation is controlled to occur after closure of the exhaust aperture based on the position signal. Industrial Applicability With reference to FIG. 1, and in operation, the combustion chamber is that space defined within the combustion chamber body 20 between the piston head 92 and the compression chamber head 24. The piston element 90 operates through a stroke S of a length determined by the length of the compression chamber body 40 less the axial length of the compression chamber piston 98. The compression chamber piston 98 is near the partition plate 42, the piston head 92 is farthest removed from the combustion chamber head 24, which is the maximum combustion chamber volume and also the bottom dead center BDC position. When the compression chamber piston 98 is near the combustion chamber baseplate 22, the piston head 92 is in the top dead center TDC and the combustion chamber volume is at its

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minimum. To initiate the operation of the engine apparatus 10, the control valve 48 is actuated to the flow position by the controller 110 to permit flow from the control accumulator 50 through the first control line 46 into the compression chamber body 40 so that the fluid acts on the compression chamber piston 98. This in turn drives the piston element 90 from the BDC position toward the TDC position, opening the third control line 54 to further discharge the accumulator 50 while simultaneously accelerating the piston, closing the exhaust aperture 28 and intake bypass passageway 30 so as to close the combustion chamber and cause compression of the gases therein. At or near the TDC position, the air fuel mixture compressed within the combustion chamber ignites, forcing the piston head 92 toward the BDC position. This action drives fluid from the compression chamber body 40 through the second control line 52 and the third control line 54 back into the accumulator 50 to complete recharging thereof, and also causes the power displacement piston 100 to displace fluid from the power section body 60 into the power line 78 to actuate the power takeoff device 70. Furthermore, as the piston element 90 travels toward the TDC position, air is drawn through the check valve 27 into the void between the piston head 92 and the combustion chamber baseplate 22 to be pre-compressed prior to passing through the intake bypass passageway 30 to enter the combustion chamber. As the piston element 90 reaches the BDC position, and after a delay time at BDC, the controller 110 actuates the control valve 48 to initiate another stroke "S" to the TDC position. The control valve 48 is actuated prior to actuation of the fuel injection device with the controller 110. Subsequently, the fuel injection device 32 is actuated by the controller 110 to initiate a spray of atomized fuel particles into the combustion chamber. Preferably, the fuel injection device 32 is actuated by the controller 110 during the duration of the stroke from the time the exhaust aperture closes. This actuation begins when piston 90 closes the exhaust aperture 28. Closure of the exhaust aperture 28 is determined by the controller 110 based on a signal received from the piston element position sensor 112. This relatively long duration of fuel-air mixing time, as the piston moves between exhaust aperture 28 closure and top dead center TDC, creates a highly homogeneous fuel-air mixture. As the piston head 92 approaches the TDC position, the fuel-air mixture auto-ignites resulting in a relatively low local combustion flame temperature with relatively few

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areas of undesirably high local flame temperature, which results in a relatively low production of NOx. This method is then repeated for each two-stroke cycle of the engine apparatus 10. Advantages of the operation of the engine apparatus 10 are readily apparent. The improved homogeneity of the fuel-air mixture reduces the likelihood of unmixed, unburned fuel particles being released in the exhaust by-products, providing greater operating efficiency in terms of specific power generation and consequently in reduced fuel consumption. Furthermore, the improved homogeneity of the fuel-air mixture results in a lower and more uniform local combustion flame temperature, which inhibits and reduces the production of undesirable pollutants such as NOx. Also, the operating life of the engine apparatus 10 is extended by the reduction of the local combustion flame temperatures, as there is a reduced likelihood of the development of hot spots which can damage the engine apparatus 10 and increase the maintenance requirements of the engine apparatus 10. The improved operating method according to the present invention is also readily and easily applied to and implemented in the typical free piston engine, with no requirement for additional components or other undesirable initial or operating costs imposed. These and other advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, it can be seen that the present invention presents substantial improvements over the prior art.

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FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF PISTON ENGINE


A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types. The main types are the internal combustion engine used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine which was the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution and the niche application Stirling engine History The earliest known examples of rotary to reciprocating motion were the crankdriven saqiya chain pump, and the waterwheel-powered pump which were both engineered by al-Jazari in the 12th century. In one of his piston-pump engines, the rotary motion of the waterwheel was converted into a reciprocating action to drive a pair of piston pumps that provided fountains for the kings of the Turkish Artuqid dynasty.

The reciprocating engine developed in Europe during the 18th century, first as the atmospheric engine then later as the steam engine. These were followed by the Stirling engine and internal combustion engine in the 19th century. Today the most common form of reciprocating engine is the internal combustion engine running on the combustion of petrol, diesel or natural gas and used to power motor vehicles.

One of the most advanced reciprocating engines ever made was the 28-cylinder, 3,500 hp (2610 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-4360 "Wasp Major" radial engine which powered the last generation of large piston-engined planes before the jet engine and turboprop took over from 1944 onward. It had a total engine capacity of 71.5 liters.

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The largest reciprocating engine ever built is the Wrtsil-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine built by Japans Diesel United, Ltd. It is

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used to power the largest modern container ships such as the Emma Maersk. [2] It is five stories high (13.5 m), 27 m long, and weighs over 2300 tonnes in its largest 14 cylinders version producing more than 84.42MW (114,800 bhp). Each cylinder has a capacity of 1820 liters, making a total capacity of 25,480 liters for the largest versions. Common features in all types There may be one or more pistons. Each piston is inside a cylinder, into which a gas is introduced, either already hot and under pressure (steam engine), or heated inside the cylinder either by ignition of a fuel air mixture (internal combustion engine) or by contact with a hot heat exchanger in the cylinder (stirling engine). The hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. The piston is returned to the cylinder top (Top Dead Centre) either by a flywheel or the power from other pistons connected to the same shaft. In most types the expanded or "exhausted" gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke. The exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas.

In some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder in which case it is said to be double acting.

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Steam piston engine A labeled schematic diagram of a typical single cylinder, simple expansion, double-acting high pressure steam engine. Power takeoff from the engine is by way of a belt. 1 - Piston 2 - Piston rod 3 - Crosshead bearing 4 - Connecting rod 5 - Crank 6 - Eccentric valve motion 7 - Flywheel 8 - Sliding valve 9 - Centrifugal governor.

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In all types the linear movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod and a crankshaft or by a swashplate. A flywheel is often used to ensure smooth rotation. The more cylinders a reciprocating engine has, generally, the more vibration-free (smoothly) it can operate. The power of a

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reciprocating engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons' displacement.

A seal needs to be made between the sliding piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it and reduce the efficiency of the engine. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a hard metal which are sprung into a circular grove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the cylinder wall to form a seal.

It is common for such engines to be classified by the number and alignment of cylinders and the total volume of displacement of gas by the pistons moving in the cylinders usually measured in cubic centimeters (cm or cc) or liters (l) or (L) (US: liter). For example for internal combustion engines, single and two-cylinder designs are common in smaller vehicles such as motorcycles, while automobiles typically have between four and eight, and locomotives, and ships may have a dozen cylinders or more. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimeters in ships' engines.

The compression ratio is a measure of the performance in an internal-combustion engine or a Stirling Engine. It is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder, when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke.

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Cylinders may be aligned in line, in a V configuration, horizontally opposite each other, or radially around the crankshaft. Opposed piston engines put 2 pistons working at opposite ends of the same cylinder and this has been extended into triangular arrangements such as the Napier Deltaic. Some designs have set the cylinders in motion around the shaft, see the Rotary engine.

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Stirling piston engine Rhombic Drive Beta Stirling Engine Design showing the second displacer piston (green) within the cylinder which shunts the working gas between the hot and cold ends , but produces no power itself. Pink - Hot cylinder wall, Dark grey - Cold cylinder wall, Green - Displacer piston, Dark blue - Power piston, Light blue - Flywheels

In steam engines and internal combustion engines valves are required to allow the entry and exit of gasses at the correct time in the piston's cycle. These are worked by cams or cranks driven by the shaft of the engine. Early designs used the D slide valve but this has been largely superseded by Piston valve or Poppet valve designs.

Internal combustion engines operate through a sequence of strokes which admit and remove gases to and from the cylinder. These operations are repeated cyclically and an engine is said to be 2-stroke, 4-stroke or 6-stroke depending on the number of strokes it takes to complete a cycle.

In some steam engines the cylinders may be of varying size with the smallest bore cylinder working the highest pressure steam. This is then fed through one or more, increasingly larger bore cylinders successively, to extract power from the steam at increasingly lower pressures. These engines are called Compound engines. Other modern non internal combustion types
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Reciprocating engines that are powered by compressed air, steam or other hot gases are still used in some applications such as to drive many modern torpedoes or as pollution free motive power. The Spanish designed Air car uses compressed air stored in a cylinder to drive a reciprocating engine in a pollution free urban vehicle. In torpedoes the gas, like that produced by high test peroxide or Otto fuel II, is pressurized without the need of combustion and therefore oxygen. This allows propulsion under water for considerable periods of time and over significant distances. e.g. see Mark 46 torpedo.

In most applications of steam power today, the piston engine has been replaced by the more efficient steam turbine.

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CONNECTING ROD & CRANK SHAFT AND ACCESSORIES


A connecting rod A connecting rod is an engine component that transfers motion from the piston to the crankshaft and functions as a lever arm. Connecting rods are commonly made from cast aluminum alloy and are designed to withstand dynamic stresses from combustion and piston movement. The small end of the connecting rod connects to the piston with a piston pin. The piston pin, or wrist pin, provides a pivot point between the piston and connecting rod. Spring clips, or piston pin locks, are used to hold the piston pin in place.

The big end of the connecting rod connects to the crankpin journal to provide a pivot point on the crankshaft. Connecting rods are produces as one piece or twopiece components. A rod cap is the removable section of a two-piece connecting rod that provides a bearing surface for the crankpin journal. The rod cap is attached

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to the connecting rod with two cap screws for installation and removal from the crankshaft. Crankshaft The crankshaft is an engine component that converts the linear (reciprocating) motion of the piston into rotary motion. The crankshaft is the main rotating component of an engine and is commonly made of ductile iron. Features of a crankshaft include the crankpin journal, throw, bearing journals, counterweights, crank gear, and a power take-off (PTO). A crankpin journal is a precision ground surface that provides a rotating pivot point to attach the connecting rod to the crankshaft. The throw is the measurement from the center of the crankshaft to the center of the crankpin journal, which is used to determine the stroke of an engine. The throw is equal to one-half the stroke. The longer the throw, the greater the stroke, or distance, a piston travels.

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A bearing journal is a precision ground surface within which the crankshaft rotates. Bearing journals mate with bearing surfaces in the cylinder block. Most bearing surfaces are machined integrally in the cylinder block. Some engines feature a lowfriction bushing or a ball or tapered roller bearing. A counterweight is a protruding mass integrally cast into the crankshaft that partially balances the forces of the reciprocating piston and reduces the load on crankshaft bearing journals

Cylinder Head A cylinder head is a cast aluminum alloy or cast iron engine component fastened to the end of the cylinder block farthest from the crankshaft. A head gasket is the filler material placed between the cylinder block and cylinder head to seal the combustion chamber. Head gaskets are made from soft metals and graphite layered together. Head gaskets allow for even heat distribution between the cylinder block and cylinder head for efficient heat dissipation.

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Engine Block The engine block is the main structural component of an engine. It supports and helps maintain alignment of internal and external components. The engine block consists of a cylinder block and a crankcase. An engine block can be produced as a one-piece or two-piece unit. The cylinder block is the engine component that consists of the cylinder bore, cooling fins on air-cooled engines, and valve train components, depending on the engine design. The cylinder bore is a hole in an engine block that aligns and directs the piston during movement. The bore of an engine is the diameter of the cylinder bore. The stroke of an engine is the linear distance that a piston travels in the cylinder bore from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC). Top Dead Center (TDC) is the point at which the piston is closest to the cylinder head. Bottom Dead Center (BDC) is the point at which the piston is farthest from the cylinder head. Displacement (swept volume) is the volume that a piston displaces in an engine when it travels from TDC to BDC during the same piston stroke. Generally, the larger the displacement of the engine, the more power it can produce. An air-cooled cylinder block has cooling fins on the exterior. A cooling fin is an integral thin cast strip designed to provide efficient air circulation and dissipation of heat away from the engine cylinder block into the air stream. Fins or vanes increase the surface area of the cylinder block contacting ambient air for cooling efficiency. Cooling fins cast into or bolted onto the flywheel act as fan blades to provide air circulation around the cylinder block and head. Air circulation dissipates heat generated during combustion to maintain optimum engine temperatures. A crankcase is an engine component that houses and supports the crankshaft. In a four-stroke cycle engine, the crankcase also acts as an oil reservoir for lubrication of engine components. The crankcase may be a part of the engine block or a separate component.

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Flywheel The flywheel is a cast iron, aluminum, or zinc disk that is mounted at one end of the crankshaft to provide inertia for the engine. Inertia is the property of matter by which any physical body persists in its state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an external force. Inertia is not a force, it is a property of matter. During the operation of a reciprocating engine, combustion occurs at distinct intervals. The flywheel supplies the inertia required to prevent loss of engine speed and possible stoppage of crankshaft rotation between combustion intervals.

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During each stroke of an internal combustion engine, the flywheel, crankshaft, and other engine components are affected by fluctuations in speed and force. During the power event in a four-stroke cycle engine, the crankshaft is accelerated rapidly by the sudden motion of the piston and connecting rod assembly. The flywheel smoothes out some of the rpm and force deviation by its resistance to acceleration.

The inertia of the flywheel provides a dampening effect on the engine as a whole to even out radial acceleration forces and rpm deviations produced in the engine. Piston and Piston Rings A piston is a cylindrical engine component that slides back and forth in the cylinder bore by forces produced during the combustion process. The piston acts as a movable end of the combustion chamber. The stationary end of the combustion chamber is the cylinder head. Pistons are commonly made of a cast aluminum alloy for excellent and lightweight thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct and transfer heat. Aluminum expands when heated, and proper clearance must be provided to maintain free piston movement in the cylinder bore. Insufficient clearance can cause the piston to seize in the cylinder. Excessive clearance can cause a loss of compression and an increase in piston noise. Piston features include the piston head, piston pin bore, piston pin, skirt, ring grooves, ring lands, and piston rings. The piston head is the top surface (closest to the cylinder head) of the piston which is subjected to tremendous forces and heat during normal engine operation. A piston pin bore is a through hole in the side of the piston perpendicular to piston travel that receives the piston pin. A piston pin is a hollow shaft that connects the small end of the connecting rod to the piston. The skirt of a piston is the portion of the piston closest to the crankshaft that helps align the piston as it moves in the cylinder bore. Some skirts have profiles cut into them to reduce piston mass and to provide clearance for the rotating crankshaft counterweights. A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring groove which function as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the piston an the cylinder wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains the integrity of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder wall, and return oil to the crankcase. Piston ring size and configuration vary depending on engine design and cylinder material.

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Piston rings commonly used on small engines include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston head. The compression ring seals the combustion chamber from any leakage during the combustion process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from combustion gases is applied to the piston head, forcing the piston toward the crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel through the gap between the cylinder wall and the piston and into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas pressure forces the piston ring against the cylinder wall to form a seal. Pressure applied to the piston ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas pressure. A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove between the compression ring and the oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil. Combustion gases that pass by the compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring. An oil ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is used to wipe excess oil from the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is returned through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block. Two-stroke cycle engines do not require oil rings because lubrication is supplied by mixing oil in the gasoline, and an oil reservoir is not required. Piston Design Pistons are designed with features which perform specific functions during engine operation. The piston head or crown receives the majority of the initial pressure and force caused by the combustion process. The piston pin area is exposed to a significant amount of force due to rapid directional changes. It is also subjected to thermal expansion caused by the transfer of heat from the head to the body of the piston. The piston pin area is subject to more thermal expansion than other areas of the piston. This occurs from the thermal expansion properties of cast aluminum alloy and the mass in the piston pin area.

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Some pistons are cast and machined at the factory into a cam ground (elliptical shape). An elliptical shape is an oval shape in which one-half is a mirror image of the other half. These piston shapes provide an advantage in conforming to the everchanging dimensions of the cylinder bore. The piston is designed to be an elliptical shape when cold. As the engine reaches operating temperature, the piston pin bore area expands more than other thinner areas of the piston. At operating temperature, the piston shape becomes a circular shape, which matches the cylinder bore for improved sealing and combustion efficiency.

Some pistons are designed with a taper, with the smallest diameter of the taper at the piston head. The taper shape compensates for thermal expansion and thermal growth. Thermal growth is the increase in size of a material when heated, with little or no change back to original dimensions. The taper design allows the piston to move freely in the cylinder bore regardless of the heat applied to the piston head. Some Briggs & Stratton engines use a barrel-shaped piston skirt. The barrel shape provides a smoother transition during directional changes of the piston. The piston rolls into the cylinder wall when changing direction at the end of a stroke. This reduces noise, spreads the force of the directional change across a greater surface, and reduces side loading on the piston skirt.

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Some piston designs have the piston pin offset from centre in the piston. The proper orientation of the piston pin offset is marked by a notch or an arrow on the piston head. The mark on all Briggs & Stratton pistons should be facing or closest to the flywheel on all one- and two-cylinder engines. The offset piston pin design offers a quieter running engine by reducing piston wobble and related noise. This results in truer linear movement of the piston in the cylinder bore. Piston Dynamics The piston head is exposed to over 500 psi when the engine is operating under load. The force differentials caused by the expanding combustion gases and the flame front crossing the piston head can reach two to three times this force. The piston is also exposed to relatively high temperature fluctuations during operation. The temperature of the initial flame front during combustion exceeds 3000F. Although the piston is subjected to this temperature for a very short amount of time, the thermal stress and expansion of the piston head are significant. In addition to the forces and the thermal fluctuations incurred by the piston, the piston changes direction in the cylinder bore 120 times per second at 3600 revolutions per minute (RPM). The changing of direction, with its inherent acceleration of mass from a static state, causes variable forces at the piston pin connection. The design, material selection, and manufacturing of the piston considers these operating conditions. The piston is cooled by the contact of crankcase oil to the underside of the piston head and by contact with the piston rings and cylinder wall. The underside of the piston head is designed to remain open, allowing crankcase oil to contact the piston to remove combustion heat. Piston ring contact with the cylinder wall also transfers heat from the piston. The heat is then dissipated from the engine through cooling fins on the outside of the engine block

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Bearings

A bearing is a component used to reduce friction and to maintain clearance between stationary and rotating components of the engine. Bearings, or bearing surfaces, are located on the crankshaft, connecting rod, and camshaft, and also in the cylinder block. Bearings can be subjected to radial, axial (thrust), or a combination of radial and axial loads. A radial load is a load applied perpendicular to the shaft. An axial load is a load applied parallel to the shaft. Bearings are classified as plain journal or antifriction bearings.

A friction bearing consists of a fixed, non-moving bearing surface, such as machined metal or pressed-in bushing that provides a low-friction support surface for rotating or sliding surfaces. Friction bearings commonly use lubricating oil to separate the moving component from the mated non-moving bearing surface. Friction bearing surfaces commonly consist of a material that is softer than the supported component.

Friction bearings, because of their soft consistency, have the ability to embed foreign matter to prevent spreading in the engine. Friction bearings also have the ability to conform to slightly irregular mating surfaces. Friction bearings can be integrally machines, one-piece sleeve, or split-sleeve for easy installation and removal.

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An antifriction bearing is a bearing that contains moving elements to provide a low friction support surface for rotating or sliding surfaces. Antifriction bearings are commonly made with hardened rolling elements (balls and rollers) and races. A race is the bearing surface in an antifriction bearing that supports rolling elements during rotation. A separator is an antifriction bearing component used to maintain the position and alignment of rolling elements. Antifriction bearings reduce lubrication requirements and decrease starting and operating friction. Reduced friction results in less power required to rotate engine components and increases overall engine output.

The crankshaft is supported by main bearings. A main bearing is a bearing that supports and provides a low-friction bearing surface for the crankshaft. Small engines commonly have two main bearings, one at each end of the crankshaft. Small engines with three or more cylinders may require more than two main bearings to provide additional support to the crankshaft. Main bearings are mounted in the crankcase and can be either friction or antifriction bearings. Antifriction bearings used for main bearings increase the radial and axial load capacity of the engine but also contributes to engine noise and are more costly than journal bearings..

A rod bearing is a bearing that provides a low-friction pivot point between the connecting rod and the crankshaft and the connecting rod and piston. The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankpin journal. The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston pin. Rod bearings are usually journal bearings (integrally machined, sleeve, or split-sleeve) or antifriction bearings. Most connecting rods for small engines use integrally machined friction bearings.

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Antifriction bearings used on connecting rods are precision ground from hardened steel and are commonly used on two-stroke cycle engines. Friction rod bearings are commonly made from nonferrous metals such as bronze, aluminum, and Babbitt. A nonferrous metal is a metal that does not contain iron. Bronze is a nonferrous metal

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alloy that consists of brass and zinc. Aluminum is a nonferrous metal commonly alloyed with zinc or copper. Babbitt is a nonferrous metal alloy consisting of copper, lead, and tin or lead and tin. Babbitt is commonly used on split-sleeve bearings consisting of a steel backing coated with multiple thin layers of Babbitt on the load bearing surface. Split-sleeve connecting rod bearing position in the large end of the connecting rod is maintained with an alignment tab. The alignment tab also prevents rotation of the bearing during engine operation. Valve Train

The valve train of an internal combustion engine includes components required to control the flow of gases into and out of the combustion chamber. This includes valves and related components required to allow the air-fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber, seal the combustion chamber during compression and combustion, and evacuate exhaust gases when combustion is complete. The type of valve train used for a reciprocating engine depends on the engine design and whether the engine is a four-stroke cycle or two-stroke cycle unit. Valves allow the flow of air-fuel mixture into the cylinder, and the flow of exhaust gases from the cylinder. Most exhaust valves used in Briggs & Stratton engines are made from austenitic steel. Austenitic steel is a heat-resistive metal alloy containing of cobalt, tungsten, and chromium. and has properties similar to stainless steel. Stainless steel is a ferrous alloy alloyed with consisting of chromium or nickel. Austenitic steel used for valves offers similar heat and corrosion resistance at a lower cost than stainless steel. Valves are exposed to various chemical, mechanical and thermal stresses during operation. They must maintain their basic shape and dimensions throughout the expected life of the engine. In addition, the integrity of the sealing surface of the valve and mating valve seat is critical to durability and performance. Engineers determine the valve material, shape, specifications, and surface coatings to match the specific engine family, expected operating environment, and projected length of service. Valves commonly used in small engines are classified as one-piece, projection-tip welded, or two-piece-stem welded-stem valves.

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Valve Dynamics Each valve design utilizes components in the compression system to maintain proper valve and valve spring position in the cylinder block. A valve spring retainer maintains spring contact with the valve stem and helps to align the valve spring. Although valve spring retainers come in different styles, all provide the essential requirements of maintaining valve spring contact and spring alignment. The primary difference in valve spring retainer styles is most evident when considering valve rotation. Most valves in an operating small engine rotate about the valve stem axis at varying rates. Valve rotation has an overall positive effect on valve life. Rotation provides improved temperature distribution in the valve head and a mild scraping action that cleans the valve interface of any crushed combustion deposits. Valve systems equipped with the keyhole valve spring retainer produce minimal rotation. The motion of the valve is inhibited by the constant contact between the retainer and the valve spring. Each time the valve is lifted from the seat by the tappet, the retainer and valve spring apply pressure to the valve stem retainer groove. The valve spring it influences some rotation of the valve with a keyhole valve spring retainer. The wound spiral wire of the valve spring initiates a small torque through the retainer into the valve stem, which causes some rotation.

Valve Seats The valve seat mates with the valve face to seal the combustion chamber. In addition to the sealing function, the valve seat also removes a significant amount of the heat away from the valves. Two common types of valve seats are the integrally machine valve seat and the valve seat insert.

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LUBRICATION SYSTEM OF PISTON ENGINE


Two-stroke engines often have a simple lubrication system in which a special twostroke oil is mixed with the fuel, (then known in the UK as 'petroil' from "petrol" + "oil") and therefore reaches all moving parts of the engine. Handheld devices using this method of lubrication have the advantage of operating in any orientation since there is no oil reservoir which would be dependent upon gravity for proper function (Honda has worked around this difficulty in their mini four-stroke engines Template:Http://www.mayberrys.com/honda/engines/gxseries/mini4/html/4stroke. htm). Depending on the design of the engine system, the oil can be mixed with the fuel manually each time fuel is added, or an oil pump can automatically mix fuel and oil from separate tanks.

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The engine uses cylinder port valves which are incompatible with piston ring seals. This causes lubricant from the crank to work its way into the combustion chamber where it burns. Research has been conducted on designs that attempt to reduce the combustion of lubricant. This research could potentially produce an engine having very valuable properties of both high specific-power and low pollution.

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Cars and other vehicles fitted with two-stroke engines often need to have a freewheel mechanism fitted in the transmission to disconnect the engine from the rest of the drive train when the vehicle is on the over-run (i.e., descending a hill in a low gear with a closed throttle, or simply slowing down with the throttle released). In these situations without the freewheel the engine is turning at high RPM, but due to the closed throttle only a very small amount of fuel/oil mixture is flowing through the engine's crankcase and cylinders. If this situation continues, the engine may eventually overheat and seize. The freewheel allows the engine to return to its set idle speed, preventing seizure.

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CARBURETOR
Basic operation of a float type carburetor
The diagram below shows a schematic of a typical float type carburetor with the engine running at high speed. The choke plate is fully open and the throttle plate is opened the proper amount be feedback from the governor to maintain the speed set by the user throttle control.

Air is sucked through the venturi by the intact stroke of the piston. The lower pressure created by the faster moving air draws gasoline up through the main nozzle and into the air stream. This aerosol of gasoline vaporized almost instantly. The air bleed allows the pressure inside the float chamber to equalize as fuel it drawn off The float maintains a more or less constant level of liquid gasoline in the float chamber by opening the inlet needle valve when the level drops. The fuel supply is either above the level of the carburetor or there is a separate fuel pump (usually operated by crankcase pressure pulsations or a direct mechanical linkage). The main nozzle either has precisely machined orifices to set the ratio of air to gasoline in the mixture or has an adjustable needle valve for this purpose (not shown). Closing the choke forces more gasoline into the mixture and makes it richer. The throttle plate is used to vary the amount of the air-fuel mixture to the engine but maintains nearly the same ratio of air to fuel over a wide range of engine speeds. The user throttle (speed) control adjusts the spring force against which the governor must act to close the throttle plate. Increasing the spring force increases the engine speed. Operation at idle speed depends on a separate system of an idle nozzle and idle speed adjustment (not shown) and does not depend on governor feedback to control the throttle - which is kept open just a small amount.

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Air filter (Air: -->, Air+fuel: ==>) _____________ / \ Choke plate Throttle plate | ||||||||| | (Fully open) Venturi (Partially open) | ||||||||| |______________ v _______________________________ | ||||||||| \______/ | ||||||||| -> -> -> -> -> ==> ==> / ==> Intake | ||||||||| -> ----O---- ---> ===> ==> ==> O ==> pipe to | -> -> -> -> -> __||__ ==> ==> / | ==> cylinder \____________________ ___/ || \_____________|__________________ || || | Fuel __________ Air bleed ->|| ||<- Main nozzle o---------+ Inlet ______ |____________||______||__ |--> Pull | |_ _| || \ Speed <--/\/\/--+ from Needle ->| __A_______________ || | control Spring governor Valve | |o__/ \ || | closes |-----| Float |-----||---| throttle |..| | Gas || . |<- Float bowl plate | . . .\_____________/. . . || . | \______________________________/

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PISTON ENGINE FUEL AND FUEL SYSTEM


Aircraft fuel systems are divided into two basic sections; an airframe section and a power plant section. The airframe section consists of all fuel system components from the fuel tanks to the engine-driven fuel pump. The engine section, on the other hand, consists of an engine-driven fuel pump, if installed, a fuel metering device, and any other fuel delivery components on the engine. Although several components in an aircraft fuel system are airframe components, the purpose of the entire fuel system is to provide fuel to the engines. Therefore, the following section primarily discusses the components included in the airframe section to the extent that you must know to maintain and operate the aircraft engine. The engine section components, on the other hand, are discussed in the next section on fuel Metering. RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUELS The dynamics of the internal combustion cycle Demand certain properties from gasolines. Aircraft engines compound these demands because of the wide range of atmospheric conditions in which they must operate. One of the most critical characteristics of aviation gasoline is its volatility, which is a measure of a fuel's ability to change from a liquid into a vapor. Volatility is usually expressed in terms of Reid vapor pressure which represents the air pressure above a liquid required to prevent vapors from escaping from the liquid at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of 100LL aviation gasoline is approximately seven pounds per square inch at 100 degrees F. For obvious reasons, a fuel's volatility is critical to its performance in an aircraft engine. For example, in a piston engine, the fuel must vaporize readily in the carburetor to burn evenly in the cylinder. Fuel that is only partially atomized leads to hard starting and rough running. On the other hand, fuel which vaporizes too readily can evaporate in the fuel lines and lead to vapor lock. Furthermore, in an aircraft carburetor, an excessively volatile fuel causes extreme cooling within the carburetor body when the fuel evaporates. This increases the chances for the formation of carburetor ice. Therefore, the ideal aviation fuel has a high volatility that is not excessive to the point of causing vapor lock or carburetor ice.
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Aviation gasoline is formulated to burn smoothly without detonating or knocking, and fuels are numerically graded according to their ability to resist detonation. The

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higher the number, the more resistant a fuel is to knocking. The most common grading system used for this purpose is the octane rating system. The octane number assigned to a fuel compares the anti-knock properties of that fuel to a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptanes. For example, grade 80 fuel has the same anti-knock properties as a mixture of 80 percent iso-octane and 20 percent heptanes. Some fuels have two performance numbers, such as 100/130. The first number is the lean mixture rating while the second number represents the fuel's rich mixture rating. To avoid confusion and to minimize errors in handling different grades of aviation gasolines, it has become common practice to designate different grades of fuel by their lean mixture performance number only. Therefore, aviation gasolines are identified as Avgas 80, 100, and 100LL. Although 100LL performs the same as grade 100 fuel, the "LL" indicates it has a lower lead content than the original 100/130 fuel. One method petroleum companies use to help prevent engine detonation is to mix tetraethyl lead into aviation fuels. However, it has the drawback of forming corrosive components in the combustion chamber. For this reason, additional additives such as ethylene bromides are added to the fuel. These bromides actively combine with lead oxides produced by the tetraethyl lead allowing the oxides to be discharged from a cylinder during engine operation. To aid in identifying the different grades of aviation fuel, each fuel grade is colorcoded with dye for easy visual identification. The color code for the aviation gasolines currently available IS as follows: o 80 - Red o 100 - Green o 100LL Blue In addition to coloring fuels, a marking and coding system has been adopted to identify various airport fuel handling facilities and equipment, according to the kind and grade of fuel they contain. For example, all aviation gasolines are identified by name using white letters on a red background. In addition, valves, loading and unloading connections, switches, and other control equipment are color coded according to the grade, or type of fuel they dispense. The fuel in piping is identified by name and by colored bands painted or decaled around the pipe at intervals along its length.
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Fuel trucks and hydrant carts are marked with large fuel identification decals on each side of the tank, or body, and have a small decal on the dashboard in the cab. These decals utilize the same color code. In addition, the fixed ring around fueller dome covers and hydrant box lids are also painted in accordance with the color code. In short, all parts of the fueling facility and equipment are identified and keyed into the same marking and color code.

FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS All aircraft fuel systems must be designed to meet the specific operating requirements outlined in Part 23 of the Federal Aviation Regulations. Some of the requirements listed in the FARs include: 1. Each fuel system must be constructed and arranged to ensure fuel flow at a rate and pressure established for proper engine and auxiliary power unit functioning under all likely operating conditions. (FAR 23.951) 2. Each fuel system must be arranged so that no pump can draw fuel from more than one tank at a time, or provisions must be made to prevent air from being drawn into the fuel supply line. (FAR 23.951) 3. Turbine-powered aircraft must be capable of sustained operation when there is at least 0.75 cubic centimeters of free water per gallon of fuel at 80F. In addition, an

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engine must be capable of sustained operation when the fuel is cooled to its most critical condition for icing. (FAR 23.951) 4. Each fuel system of a multi-engine aircraft must be arranged so that the failure of anyone component (except a fuel tank) will not result in the loss of power of more than one engine or require immediate action by the pilot to prevent the loss of power. (FAR 23.953) 5. If a single tank or assembly of interconnected tanks is used on a multi-engine airplane, each engine must have an independent tank outlet with a fuel shutoff valve at the tank. (FAR23.953) 6. A means of rapidly shutting off fuel in flight to each engine of a normal category aircraft must be provided to appropriate flight crewmembers. The engine fuel shutoff valve cannot be located on the engine side of any firewall. (FAR 23.995) 7. On multi-engine aircraft, the closing of an individual fuel shutoff valve for any engine shall not affect the fuel supply to the other engines. (FAR 23.1189) 8. Tanks used in multi-engine fuel systems must have two vents arranged so that they are not likely to both become plugged at the same time. (FAR 23.953) 9. All filler caps must be designed so that they are not likely to be installed incorrectly or lost in flight. (FAR 23.953) 10. The fuel systems must be designed to prevent the ignition of fuel vapors by lightning. (FAR 23.954) 11. The fuel flow rate of a gravity-feed system must be 150 percent of the takeoff fuel flow when the tank contains the minimum fuel allowable. The same requirement exists when the airplane is positioned in the attitude that is most critical for fuel flow. (FAR 23.955) 12. The fuel flow rate of a pump feed fuel system for each reciprocating engine must be 125 percent of the takeoff fuel flow required. (FAR 23.955) 13. If an aircraft is equipped with a selector valve that allows the engine to operate from more than one fuel tank, the system must not cause a loss of power for more than ten seconds for a single engine or twenty seconds for a multi-engine airplane, between the time one tank is allowed to run dry and the time at which the required power is supplied by the other tank. (FAR 23.955)

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14. Turbine-powered aircraft must have a fuel system that will supply 100 percent of the fuel required for operation in all flight attitudes, and the flow must not be interrupted as the fuel system automatically cycles through all of the tanks or fuel cells in the system. (FAR 23.955) 15. If a gravity feed system has interconnected tank outlets, it should not be possible for fuel feeding from one tank to flow into another tank and cause it to overflow. (FAR 23.957) 16. The amount of unusable fuel in an aircraft must be determined and this must be made known to the pilot. Unusable fuel is the amount of fuel in a tank when the first evidence of malfunction occurs. The aircraft must be in the attitude that is most adverse for fuel flow. (FAR 23.959) 17. The fuel system must be designed so that it is free from vapor lock when the fuel is at its critical temperature, with respect to vapor formation, under the most critical operating conditions. (FAR 23.961) 18. Each fuel tank compartment must be adequately vented and drained so no explosive vapors or liquid can accumulate. (FAR 23.967) 19. No fuel tank can be on the engine side of the firewall, and it must be at least one-half inch away from the firewall. (FAR 23.967) 20. Each fuel tank must have at least a 2 percent expansion space that cannot be filled "vith fuel. However, if the tank vent discharges clear of the airplane, no expansion space is required. (FAR 23.969) 21. Each fuel tank must have a drainable sump where water and contaminants will normally accumulate when the aircraft is in its normal ground attitude. In addition, each reciprocating engine fuel system must have a sediment bowl that is accessible for drainage and has a capacity of one ounce for every 20 gallons of fuel. (FAR 23.971) 22. Provisions must be made to prevent fuel that is spilled during refueling from entering the aircraft structure. (FAR 23.973) 23. The filler opening of an aircraft fuel tank must be marked at or near the filler opening with the word "Avgas" and, for aircraft with reciprocating engines, with the minimum grade of fuel. For turbine-powered aircraft, the tank must be marked

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with the permissible fuel designation. If the filler opening is for pressure fueling, the maximum permissible fueling and defueling pressure must be specified. (FAR 23.1557) 24. Each fuel tank must be vented from the top part of its expansion space. In addition, if more than one fuel tank has interconnected outlets, the airspace above the fuel must also be interconnected. (FAR 23.975) 25. If a carburetor or fuel injection system has a vapor elimination system that returns fuel vapors to one of the tanks, the returned vapors must go to the tank that is required to be used first. (FAR 23.975) 26. All fuel tanks are required to have a strainer at the fuel tank outlet or at the booster pump. For a reciprocating engine, the strainer should have an element of 8 to 16 meshes per inch. For turbine engines, the strainer should prevent the passage of any object that could restrict the flow or damage any of the fuel system components. (FAR 23.977) 27. For engines requiring fuel pumps, there must be one engine-driven fuel pump for each engine. (FAR 23.991) 28. There must be at least one drain that will allow safe drainage of the entire fuel system when the airplane is in its normal ground attitude. (FAR 23.999 29.If the design landing weight of the aircraft is less than that permitted for takeoff, there must be provisions in the fuel system for jettisoning fuel to bring the maximum weight down to the design landing weight. (FAR 23.1001) RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS Reciprocating engine fuel system must supply the proper amount of fuel to an engine at the right pressure and during all ground and flight operations. To do this, all fuel systems must contain some basic components including one or more fuel tanks, lines, valves, filtering devices, quantity gauges, and a primer. In addition, many fuel systems also include at least one fuel pump as well as fuel flow, pressure, and temperature gauges. Two examples of light aircraft reciprocating engine fuel systems are the gravity- feed system and the pressurefeed system.

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GRAVITY-FEED SYSTEMS The simplest form of aircraft fuel systems is the gravity-feed system used on many high wings, single- engine aircraft. A typical gravity-feed system normally has two fuel tanks, a fuel selector valve, a fuel strainer, a primer, and a carburetor.

PRESSURE-FEED SYSTEMS On low-wing aircraft, the fuel metering device is above the fuel tanks. Therefore, a fuel pump must be used to pressure-feed fuel to the fuel metering device. High wing aircraft equipped with fuel-injection or pressure carburetors also require a fuel pump. In addition, a backup, or auxiliary pump is installed in case the engine-driven pump should fail.

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IGNITION SYSTEM
An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. It is best known in the field of internal combustion engines but also has other applications, e.g. in oilfired and gas-fired boilers. The earliest internal combustion engines used a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition but these were quickly replaced by systems using an electric spark. Magneto systems The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a coil, and also operates a contact breaker, interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity they are often found on piston aircraft engines and small engines such as those found in mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where there is no battery Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit or miss" engine which was used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors before battery starting and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines. Magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained nature was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and generator or alternator. Aircraft engines usually have multiple magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of a failure. Some older automobiles had both a magneto system and a battery actuated system (see below) running simultaneously to ensure proper ignition under all conditions with the limited performance each system provided at the time. Switchable systems The output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be problematic. Some magnetos include an impulse system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper moment, making easier starting at slow cranking speeds. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, (like large flashlight batteries, not what are usually thought of as automobile batteries today) to start the engine or for

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running at low speed; then the operator would manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation. In order to provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, however, a "tickler" was used, which was essentially a larger version of the once widespread electric buzzer. With this apparatus, the direct current passes through an electromagnetic coil which pulls open a pair of contact points, interrupting the current; the magnetic field collapses, the spring-loaded points close again, the circuit is reestablished, and the cycle repeats rapidly. The rapidly collapsing magnetic field, however, induces a high voltage across the coil which can only relieve itself by arcing across the contact points; while in the case of the buzzer this is a problem as it causes the points to oxidize and/or weld together, in the case of the ignition system this becomes the source of the high voltage to operate the spark plugs. In this mode of operation, the coil would "buzz" continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the Model T spark coil (in contrast to the modern ignition coil which is only the actual coil component of the system), and long after the demise of the Model T as transportation they remained a popular self-contained source of high voltage for electrical home experimenters, appearing in articles in magazines such as Popular Mechanics and projects for school science fairs as late as the early 1960s. In the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting. The Model T (built into the flywheel) differed from modern implementations by not providing high voltage directly at the output; the maximum voltage produced was about 30 volts, and therefore also had to be run through the spark coil to provide high enough voltage for ignition, as described above, although the coil would not "buzz" continuously in this case, only going through one cycle per spark. In either case, the high voltage was switched to the appropriate spark plug by the timer mounted on the front of the engine, the equivalent of the modern distributor. The timing of the spark was adjustable by rotating this mechanism through a lever mounted on the steering column. Battery-operated ignition With the universal adaptation of electrical starting for automobiles, and the concomitant availability of a large battery to provide a constant source of electricity, magneto systems were abandoned for systems which interrupted current

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at battery voltage, used an ignition coil (a type of autotransformer) to step the voltage up to the needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the correct spark plug at the correct time. The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co. (Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed by Charles Kettering and was a wonder in its day. It consisted of a single coil, points (the switch), a capacitor and a distributor set up to allocate the spark from the ignition coil timed to the correct cylinder. The coil was basically an autotransformer set up to step up the low (6 or 12V) voltage supply to the high ignition voltage required to jump a spark plug gap. The points allow the coil to charge magnetically and then, when they are opened by a cam arrangement, the magnetic field collapses and a large (20KV or greater) voltage is produced. The capacitor is used to absorb the back EMF from the magnetic field in the coil to minimize point contact burning and maximize point life. The Kettering system became the primary ignition system for many years in the automotive industry due to its lower cost, higher reliability and relative simplicity. Modern ignition system Mechanically timed ignition

Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the system is the distributor. The distributor contains a

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Distributor cap

rotating cam running off the engine's drive, a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark plugs, and wires linking the spark plugs and ignition coil to the distributor. The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil). The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings sharing a common magnetic core -- the primary and secondary windings. An alternating current in the primary induces alternating magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the ignition coil's secondary has far more windings than the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer which induces a much higher voltage across the secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end of windings of both the primary and secondary are connected together. This common point is connected to the battery (usually through a currentlimiting resistor). The other end of the primary is connected to the points within the distributor. The other end of the secondary is connected, via the distributor cap and rotor, to the spark plugs. The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady charge flows from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the coil primary, across the closed breaker points and finally back to the battery. This steady current produces a magnetic field within the coil's core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark. As the engine turns, so does the cam inside the distributor. The points ride on the cam so that as the engine turns and reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, a high point in the cam causes the breaker points to open. This breaks the primary winding's circuit and abruptly stops the current through the breaker points. Without the steady current through the points, the magnetic field generated in the coil immediately begins to quickly collapse. This rapid decay of the magnetic field induces a high voltage in the coil's secondary windings. At the same time, current exits the coil's primary winding and begins to charge up the capacitor ("condenser") that lies across the now-open breaker points. This capacitor and the coils primary windings form an oscillating LC circuit. This LC circuit produces a damped, oscillating current which bounces energy between the capacitors electric field and the ignition coils magnetic field. The oscillating current in the coils primary, which produces an oscillating magnetic field in the coil, extends the high voltage pulse at the output of the secondary windings. This

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high voltage thus continues beyond the time of the initial field collapse pulse. The oscillation continues until the circuits energy is consumed. The ignition coil's secondary windings are connected to the distributor cap. A turning rotor, located on top of the breaker cam within the distributor cap, sequentially connects the coil's secondary windings to one of the several wires leading to each cylinder's spark plug. The extremely high voltage from the coil's secondary - often higher than 1000 volts -- causes a spark to form across the gap of the spark plug. This, in turn, ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the energy that was originally stored in the ignition coils magnetic field. High performance engines with eight or more cylinders that operate at high r.p.m. as in motor racing that demand higher rate and energy of sparks than the simple ignition circuit can provide may use either of these adaptations:

Two complete sets of coils, breakers and condensers can be provided one set for each half of the engine, which is typically arranged in V-8 or V12 configuration. Although the two ignition system halves are electrically independent, they typically share a single distributor which in this case contains two breakers driven by the rotating cam, and a rotor with two isolated conducting planes for the two high voltage inputs. A single breaker driven by a cam and a return spring is limited in spark rate by the onset of contact bounce or float at high rpm. This limit can be overcome by substituting for the breaker a pair of breakers that are connected electrically in series but spaced on opposite sides of the cam so they are driven out of phase. Each breaker then switches at half the rate of a single breaker and the "dwell" time for current buildup in the coil is maximized since it is shared between the breakers.

The Lamborghini V-12 engine has both these adaptations and therefore uses two ignition coils and a single distributor that contains 4 contact breakers. Except that more separate elements are involved, a distributor-based system is not greatly different from a magneto system. There are also advantages to this arrangement. For example, the position of the contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a small amount dynamically, allowing the ignition timing to be automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per minute (RPM) and/or increased manifold vacuum, giving better efficiency and performance.

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However it is necessary to check periodically the maximum opening gap of the breaker(s), using a feeler gauge, since this mechanical adjustment affects the "dwell" time during which the coil charges, and breakers should be re-dressed or replaced when they have become pitted by electric arcing. This system was used almost universally until the late 1970s, when electronic ignition systems started to appear. Electronic ignition The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low voltage high current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations. In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed. Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used but they only handled a low current which was used to control the high primary current through a solid state switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by an angular sensor of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on a suitable shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thruster, which switches a large current through the coil. The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals. For older cars, it is usually possible to retrofit an EI system in place of the mechanical one. In some cases, a modern distributor will fit into the older engine with no other modifications. Other innovations are currently available on various cars. In some models, rather than one central coil, there are individual coils on each spark plug, sometimes known as COP or coil on plug. This allows the coil a longer time to accumulate a

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charge between sparks, and therefore a higher energy spark. A variation on this has each coil handle two plugs, on cylinders which are 360 degrees out of phase (and therefore reach TDC at the same time); in the four-cycle engine this means that one plug will be sparking during the end of the exhaust stroke while the other fires at the usual time, a so-called "wasted spark" arrangement which has no drawbacks apart from faster spark plug erosion; the paired cylinders are 1/4 and 2/3. Other systems do away with the distributor as a timing apparatus and use a magnetic crank angle sensor mounted on the crankshaft to trigger the ignition at the proper time. During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other improvements such as fuel injection systems. After a while it became logical to combine the functions of fuel control and ignition into one electronic system known as an engine control unit. Digital Electronic Ignitions At the turn of the century digital electronic ignition modules became available for small engines on such applications as chainsaws, string-trimmers, leaf blowers, and lawn mowers. This was made possible by low cost, high speed, and small footprint microcontrollers. Digital electronic ignition modules can be designed as either capacitive discharge (CDI) or inductive discharge ignitions (IDI). Capacitive discharge digital ignitions store charged energy for the spark in a capacitor within the module that can be released to the spark plug at virtually any time throughout the engine cycle via a control signal from the microprocessor. This allows for greater timing flexibility, and engine performance; especially when designed handin-hand with the engine carburetor. Engine management In an Engine Management System (EMS), electronics control fuel delivery, ignition timing and firing order. Primary sensors on the system are engine angle (crank or Top Dead Center (TDC) position), airflow into the engine and throttle demand position. The circuitry determines which cylinder needs fuel and how much, opens the requisite injector to deliver it, then causes a spark at the right moment to burn it. Early EMS systems used analogue computer circuit designs to accomplish this, but as embedded systems became fast enough to keep up with the changing inputs at high revolutions, digital systems started to appear.

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Some designs using EMS retain the original coil, distributor and spark plugs found on cars throughout history. Other systems dispense with the distributor and coil and use special spark plugs which each contain their own coil (Direct Ignition). This means high voltages are not routed all over the engine, but are instead created at the point at which they are needed. Such designs offer potentially much greater reliability than conventional arrangements. Modern EMS systems usually monitor other engine parameters such as temperature and the amount of uncombined oxygen in the exhaust. This allows them to control the engine to minimize sunburn or partially burnt fuel and other noxious gases, leading to much cleaner and more efficient engines.

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IGNITION BOOSTERS
When attempting to start an engine, often the engine starter will not rotate the crankshaft fast enough to produce the required coming-in speed of the magneto. In these instances, a source of external high-tension current is required for ignition purposes. The various devices used for this purpose are called ignition boosters or auxiliary ignition units. An ignition booster may be in the form of a booster magneto, a high-tension coil to which primary current is supplied from a battery, or a vibrator which supplies intermittent direct current from a battery directly to the primary of the magneto. Another device used for increasing the high-tension voltage of the magneto for start-up is called an impulse coupling.

Impulse Coupling When an aircraft engine is started, the engine turns over too slowly to permit the magneto to operate. The impulse coupling installed on the drive shaft of a magneto is designed to give the magneto a momentary high rotational speed and to provide a retarded spark for starting the engine. This coupling is a spring like mechanical

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linkage between the engine and magneto shaft which "winds up" and "lets go" at the proper moment for spinning the magneto shaft, thus supplying the high voltage necessary for ignition. The coupling consists of a shell, spring, and hub. The hub provided with flyweights which enable the assembly to accomplish its purpose. These are illustrated in Fig. In some manuals, the shell is referred to as the body, and the hub is called the earn. When the impulse coupling is installed on drive shaft of the magneto, the shell of the coupling may the engine drive for a substantial portion of 1 r while rotating magnet remains stationary, as shown While this is taking place, the spring in the coupling being wound up. At the point where the magneto must fire, the flyweights are released by the action of the body contacting the trigger ramp. This action causes the flyweights to rotate on the pivot point and disengage from the stop pin as shown . This allows the spring to unwind, giving the rotating magnet a rapid rotation in the normal direction. This, of course, causes the magneto strong spark at the spark plug.

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Booster Coil A booster coil is a small induction coil. Its provide a shower of sparks to the spark plug until the magneto fires properly. The booster coil is usually connected to the starter switch. When the engine has started, the starter is no longer required; therefore, they can be turned off together. When voltage from a battery is applied to the booster coil. Magnetism is developed in the core until the magnetic force on

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the soft-iron armature mounted on the vibrator overcomes the spring tension and attracts the armature toward the core. When the armature moves toward the core, the contact points and the primary circuit are opened. This demagnetizes the core and permits the spring to again close the contact points and complete the circuit. The armature vibrates back and forth rapidly, making and breaking the primary circuit as long as the voltage from the battery is applied to the booster coil. The use of booster coils as described here is limited to a few older aircraft which are still operating. Most modern aircraft employ the induction vibrator or an impulse coupling.

Induction vibrator The function of the induction vibrator is to supply interrupted low voltage (pulsating direct current) for the magneto primary coil, which induces a sufficiently high voltage in the secondary for starting. A schematic diagram of the circuit for an induction vibrator designed for use with light aircraft engine magnetos is shown. Observe that when the starter switch is closed, battery voltage is applied to the vibrator coil through the vibrator contact points and through the retard contact points in the left magneto. As the coil is energized, the breaker points open and interrupt the current flow, thus reenergizing the coil, Vc. Through spring action the contacts points close and again energize the coil, causing the points to open. Thus the contact points of the vibrator continue to make and break contact many times per second, sending an interrupted current through both the main and retard contact points of the magneto. The vibrator sends an interrupted

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battery current through the primary winding of the regular magneto coil. The magneto coil then acts as a battery ignition coil and produces high-tension impulses, which are distributed through the distributor rotor, distributor block, and cables to the spark plugs. These high-tension impulses are produced during the entire time that both sets of magneto contact points are open. When the contact points are closed, sparks cannot be generated. Although the vibrator continues to send interrupted current impulses through the magneto contact points, the interrupted current will flow through the contact points to ground. This is the path of least resistance for the current. A circuit for an induction vibrator as used with a Continental Shower of Sparks high-tension magneto ignition is shown. This circuit applies to one engine only, but a similar circuit would be used with each engine of a multiengine airplane. The induction vibrator is energized from the same circuit which energizes the starting solenoid. It is thus energized only during the time that the engines are being started. When the ignition switch is in the ON position. Engine starter is engaged, the current from the battery is sent through the coil of a relay which is normally open. The battery current causes the relay points to close, thus complete the circuit to the vibrator coil and causing the vibrator to produce a rapidly interrupted current.

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SPARK PLUG OPERATION, SELECTION, AND MAINTENANCE


Changes in engine design and fuel operating conditions place increased demands on spark plugs and the electrical system. The performance of the spark plug may determine the engine efficiency of the modern engine. Fuel costs have increased six-fold over the past three years. Actual consumer cost of a spark plug is almost the same as it was 15 years ago. Being knowledgeable about spark plug operation, selection, and maintenance, serviceability, and engine malfunctions will increase engine performance. The spark plug provides an electrode gap for the spark that is necessary to ignite the compressed fuel-air mixture of vapor under compression in each cylinder. It must also provide a gas-tight conducting path from the high tension lead wire to the electrode gap. This energy must provide approximately 20,000 volts without leakage to the ground at about 40 times per second at high engine speeds. The electrode and insulator tip is exposed to extreme temperature change of cool fresh air to approximately 4,000oF and under pressure that could reach 800 lb. per square inch. Basically, a spark plug consists of three parts: the insulator, electrode, and a threaded metal shell. These parts are assembled together with cement or dry powder to form an operational leak-proof unit. The insulator tip will determine the heat range of the plug (hot or cold). This part may be cracked, broken, or damaged through abuse in removal or replacement. Normally a hotter plug is used in a cold engine where you have a lot of stop and start driving. A colder range plug is used in a hot engine where you have continuous driving in hot climates or a problem with oil fouling. Spark plug fouling is due to combustion products which collect on the plug's insulator. These products may cause misfiring at high speeds, thus it is aggravated by rich idle mixtures and excessive oil consumption that may bypass the rings or valve guides. If plugs run too hot the insulator may be damaged and electrodes will burn away rapidly. In extreme conditions, hot plugs may cause premature burning (preignition) of the air fuel mixture. This reduces power, wastes fuel, and may damage the engine under heavy load. This will often cause excessive burning of the ground. The optimum heat range of a plug is selected on the basis of engine design and the operating conditions. In general, the plug must be hot enough during operation to prevent fouling and cool enough to avoid pre-ignition and rapid erosion of the electrodes. A spark plug can be a valuable indicator as to the condition of your engine because the plug extends into the combustion chamber.

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When removing the plug, inspect it carefully to determine the cause and use mechanical judgment in correcting a malfunction. Spark Plug Conditions 1. Normal operation will show a light tan or gray color. The gap clearance will be slight with very little deposits on the insulator tip. 2. A plug that indicates replacement will show electrode and ground eroded away. If this condition is general on all plugs in the engine, check for sticking valves, faulty ignition leads, breaker points or weak coil or condenser. These conditions usually mean that the next hotter plug should be used. 3. Oil fouling is indicated by oily, black, sludgy deposit on the plug. A hotter plug would be recommended but will not replace a needed overhaul. 4. Splashed fouling is applied to plugs that have splotchy deposits on the insulator. These deposits have accumulated through misfiring or inefficient operation. Replacement and tuneup would be recommended for proper performance. 5. Core bridging or gap bridging is caused by materials of combustion lodging between electrode and the ground, causing the plug to short out. Excessive deposits are most common when oil control is poor or when stop and start operation is prevalent. 6. overheating of a plug is characterized by a white or yellow glaze, a burned or blistered insulator nose and badly eroded electrodes. This may be caused by faulty thermostat, correcting engine timing, plug heat range too hot or carburetor set too rich. Service Work on Spark 1. When removing a spark plug use compressed air to blow out all foreign material around the base. 2. Do not pull on the wire itself but remove from the terminal boot. 3. Use some system to identify the wire with a certain plug. A beginner may want to use a numbered clothespin to clip on the wire. 4. Use a deep well socket with preferably a rubber or magnetic retainer inside. 5. Identify the plug with the correct cylinder. 6. Inspect the plug for cylinder malfunction as explained. 7. Clean the plug in a solvent and dry with compressed air. Be sure to clean the insulator of paint, carbon, and oxide that forms from fuel additives. 8. If the electrode is rounded off it needs to be filed flat. 9. Remove rust and carbon from the threads with a steel brush.

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10. Adjust the gap between the ground and the electrode to proper specifications. This may vary from .022 inch to .040. The gap width should be checked with a round wiretype gauge. Installing Spark Plugs 1. Be sure cylinder head threads and plug threads are clean and free of dirt. 2. Check gap setting even on new plugs. 3. Always install new gaskets (except on plugs that are tapered and do not require gaskets). 4. Tighten plugs down by hand as tight as possible then retorque with a torque wrench to manufacturer's recommendation. this will vary from 10 ft. lbs. to 35 ft. lbs. on aluminum heads or cast iron heads. 5. Be sure the spark plug cable fits the plug terminal snugly. 6. Most manufacturers recommend checking plugs every 10,000 miles.

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SUPERCHARGER &TURBOCHARGER
Supercharger
A supercharger is an air compressor used for forced induction of an internal combustion engine. The greater mass flow-rate provides more oxygen to support combustion than would be available in a naturally-aspirated engine, which allows more fuel to be provided and more work to be done per cycle, increasing the power output of the engine. A supercharger can be powered mechanically by a belt, gear, shaft, or chain connected to the engine's crankshaft. It can also be powered by an exhaust gas turbine A turbine-driven supercharger is known as a turbo supercharger or turbocharger. History The first functional supercharger can be attributed to German engineer Gottlieb Daimler who received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902. An early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 and reportedly reached a speed of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h). Types of supercharger There are two main types of supercharger defined according to the method of compression: positive displacement and dynamic compressors. The former deliver a fairly constant level of boost regardless of engine speed (RPM), whereas the latter deliver increasing boost with increasing engine speed.

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] Positive displacement

An Eaton MP62 Roots-type supercharger is visible at the front of this Ecotec LSJ engine in a 2006 Saturn Ion Red Line.

Lysholm screw rotors. Note the complex shape of each rotor which must run at high speed and with close tolerances. This makes this type of supercharger quite expensive. (This unit has been blued to show close contact areas.) Positive displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds (minus leakage which is nearly constant at all speeds for a given pressure and so its importance decreases at higher speeds). The device divides the air mechanically into parcels for delivery to the engine, mechanically moving the air into the engine bit by bit.

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Major types of positive displacement pumps include:


Roots Lysholm screw Sliding vane Scroll-type supercharger, also known as the G-lader Piston as in Bourke engine Wankel engine

Positive displacement pumps are further divided into internal compression and external compression types. Roots superchargers are typically external compression only (although high helix roots blowers attempt to emulate the internal compression of the Lysholm screw).

External compression refers to pumps which transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine. If the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a back flow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium. It is the back flow which actually compresses the incoming gas. This is a highly inefficient process and the main factor in the lack of efficiency of roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss and roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, which is what they were first invented for (hence the original term "blower").

All the other types have some degree of internal compression.

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Internal compression refers to the air being compressed within the supercharger itself and this compressed air, already at or close to boost level, can be delivered smoothly to the engine with little or no backflow. This is more efficient than backflow compression and allows higher efficiency to be achieved. Internal compression devices usually use a fixed internal compression ratio. When the boost pressure is equal to the compression pressure of the supercharger, the backflow is zero. If the boost pressure exceeds that compression pressure, backflow can still occur as in a roots blower. Internal compression blowers must be matched to the expected boost pressure in order to achieve the higher efficiency they are capable of, otherwise they will suffer the same problems and low efficiency of the roots blowers.

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Positive displacement superchargers are usually rated by their capacity per revolution. In the case of the roots blower, the GMC rating pattern is typical. The GMC types are rated according to how many two stroke cylinders, and the size of those cylinders, it is designed to scavenge. GMC has made 2-71, 3-71, 4-71, and the famed 6-71 blowers. For example a 6-71 blower is designed to scavenge six cylinders of 71 cubic inches each and would be used on a two-stroke diesel of 426 cubic inches which is designated a 6-71 and the blower takes this same designation. However because 6-71 is actually the engines designation, the actual displacement is less than the simple multiplication would suggest. A 6-71 actually pumps 339 cubic inches per revolution. Aftermarket derivatives continue the trend with 8-71 to current 14-71 blowers. From this you can see that a 6-71 is roughly twice the size of a 3-71. GMC also made -53 cubic inch series in 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8-53 sizes as well as a V71 series for use on engines using a V configuration.

Roots Supercharger Efficiency Map. This generalized roots blower efficiency map shows how a roots blower's efficiency varies with speed and boost.

For any given roots blower running under given conditions, a single point will fall on the map. This point will rise with increasing boost and will move to the right

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Roots Efficiency map

with increasing blower speed. It can be seen that at moderate speed and low boost the efficiency can be over 90%. This is the area in which roots blowers were originally intended to operate and they are very good at it. Boost is given in terms of pressure ratio which is the ratio of absolute air pressure before the blower to the absolute air pressure after compression by the blower. If no boost is present the pressure ratio will be 1.0 (meaning 1:1) as the outlet pressure equals the inlet pressure. 15 psi boost is marked for reference (slightly above a pressure ratio of 2.0 compared to atmospheric pressure). At 15 psi boost Roots blowers hover between 50% to 58%. Replacing a smaller blower with a larger blower moves the point to the left. In most cases, as the map shows, this will moves it into higher efficiency areas on the left as the smaller blower likely will have been running fast on the right of the chart. Usually, using a larger blower and running it slower to achieve the same boost will give an increase in compressor efficiency. The volumetric efficiency of the roots type blower is very good, usually staying above 90% at all but the lowest blower speeds. Because of this, even a blower running at low efficiency will still mechanically deliver the intended volume of air to the engine but that air will be hotter. In drag racing applications where large volumes of fuel are injected with that hot air, vaporizing the fuel absorbs the heat. This functions as a kind of liquid after cooler system and goes a long way to negating the inefficiency of the roots design in that application. Dynamic Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then exchanging that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it down. Major types of dynamic compressor are:

Centrifugal Multi stage axial flow Pressure wave supercharger

Supercharger drive types

Mechanical:

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Superchargers are further defined according to their method of drive (mechanicalor turbine).

Belt (V belt, Toothed belt, Flat belt) Direct drive Gear drive Chain drive

Exhaust gas turbines:


Axial turbine Radial turbine

Other:

Electric motor

All types of compressor may be mated to and driven by either gas turbine or mechanical linkage. Dynamic compressors are most often matched with gas turbine drives due to their similar high-speed characteristics, while positive displacement pumps usually use one of the mechanical drives. However, all of the possible combinations have been tried with various levels of success. Aircraft Altitude effects

A Rolls Royce Merlin engine Superchargers are a natural addition to aircraft engines for operation at high altitude. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitude, the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. For example, at 5,486 m (18,000 ft) the air is at half the pressure of sea level. As a result, the engine produces half as much power, but the airframe only experiences half the aerodynamic drag.

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A supercharger compresses the air back to sea-level pressures, or even much higher, in order to make the engine produce just as much power at cruise altitude as it does at sea level. With the reduced aerodynamic drag at high altitude and the engine still producing rated power, a supercharged airplane can fly much faster at altitude than a naturally aspirated one. The pilot controls the output of the supercharger with the throttle and indirectly via the propeller governor control. Since the size of the supercharger is chosen to produce a given amount of pressure at high altitude, the supercharger is over-sized for low altitude. The pilot must be careful with the throttle and watch the manifold pressure gauge to avoid overboosting at low altitude. As the aircraft climbs and the air density drops, the pilot must continually open the throttle in small increments to maintain full power. The altitude at which the throttle reaches full open and the engine is still producing full rated power is known as the critical altitude. Effects of temperature The downside of supercharging is that compressing the air increases its temperature. When a supercharger is used on an aircraft, manifold air temperature becomes a major limiting factor in engine performance. Extreme temperatures will cause pre-ignition and/or detonation of the fuel-air mixture and damage to the engine. This caused a problem at low altitudes, where the air is both denser and warmer than at high altitudes. Pilots were taught to watch their manifold pressure gauge and not push it past redline, yet the manifold pressure gauge ignores the effect of temperature on engine performance and life. Several solutions to this problem were developed: intercoolers and after coolers, anti-detonant injection, two-speed superchargers and two-stage superchargers.

Two-stage and two-speed superchargers In the 1930s two-speed drives were developed for superchargers. These provided more flexibility for the operation of the aircraft although they also entailed more complexity of manufacturing and maintenance. The gears connected the supercharger to the engine using a system of hydraulic clutches which were manually engaged or disengaged by the pilot with a control in the cockpit. At low altitudes the low-speed gear would be used in order to keep the manifold temperatures low. At around 12,000 feet, when the throttle was full forward and the manifold pressure started to drop off, the pilot would retard the throttle and

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switch to the higher gear, then readjust the throttle to the desired manifold pressure. Another way to accomplish the same level of control was the use of two compressors in series. After the air was compressed in the low pressure stage the air flowed through an intercooler radiator where it was cooled before being compressed again by the high pressure stage and then aftercooled in another heat exchanger. In these systems damper doors could be opened or closed by the pilot to bypass one stage as needed. Some systems had a cockpit control to open or close a damper to the intercooler/aftercooler, providing another way to control temperature. The most complex systems used a two-speed, two-stage system with both an intercooler and an aftercooler, but these were found to be prohibitively costly and complicated. Ultimately it was found that for most engines a singlestage two-speed setup was most suitable. Comparison to turbocharging It is interesting to compare all of this complexity to the same system implemented with a turbocharger. A supercharger inevitably requires some energy to be bled from the engine to drive the supercharger. On the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls Royce Merlin engine for instance, the supercharger uses up about 150 horsepower (110 kW). Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for that 150 hp (110 kW), the engine is delivering 1,000 hp (750 kW) when it would otherwise deliver 750 hp (560 kW), a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principle disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent: The engine has to burn extra fuel to provide power to turn the supercharger. The increased charge density increases the engine's specific power and power to weight ratio, but also increases the engine's specific fuel consumption. This increases the cost of running the aircraft and reduces its overall range. On the other hand, a turbocharger is driven using the exhaust gases. The amount of power in the gas is proportional to the difference between the exhaust pressure and air pressure, and this difference increases with altitude, allowing a turbocharger to compensate for changing altitude without using up any extra power. Yet the vast majority of WWII engines used superchargers, because they maintained three significant manufacturing advantages over turbochargers, which were larger, involved extra piping, and required exotic high-temperature materials in the turbine and pre-turbine section of the exhaust system. The size of the piping alone is a serious issue; consider that the Vought F4U

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and Republic P-47 used the same engine but the huge barrel-like fuselage of the latter was, in part, needed to hold the piping to and from the turbocharger in the rear of the plane. Turbocharged piston engines are also subject to many of the same operating restrictions as gas turbine engines. Turbocharged engines also require frequent inspections of the turbocharger and exhaust systems for damage due to the increased heat, increasing maintenance costs. Today, most general aviation aircraft are naturally aspirated. The small number of modern aviation piston engines designed to run at high altitudes generally use a turbocharger or turbo-normalize system rather than a supercharger. The change in thinking is largely due to economics. Aviation gasoline was once plentiful and cheap, favoring the simple but fuel-hungry supercharger. As the cost of fuel has increased, the supercharger has fallen out of favor. Effects of fuel octane rating Prior to the opening of WWII, all automobile and aviation fuel was generally rated at 87 octanes. This was the rating that was achieved by the simple distillation of "light crude" oil, and was therefore the cheapest possible fuel. Engines from around the world were designed to work with this grade of fuel, which set a limit to the amount of boosting that could be provided by the supercharger. Research into "octane boosting" via additives was an ongoing line of research at the time. Using these techniques, less valuable crude could still supply large amounts of useful gasoline, which made it a valuable economic process. But the additives did not have to simply make poor quality oil into 87 octane gasoline; the same additives could also be used to boost the resulting gasoline to much higher octane ratings. Higher octane fuel burns slower at the same temperature than low octane fuel, reducing the risk of detonation. As a result, the amount of boost supplied by the superchargers could be increased. In 1940 a batch of 100 octane fuel was delivered from the USA to the RAF. This allowed the boost on Merlin engines to be increased to 48 inHg (160 kPa) and the power to rise by more than 10% (from 1030 to 1160 hp, or 770 to 870 kW). By mid-1940 another increased boost yielded 1310 hp (980 kW). Supercharging by itself could not have achieved these improvements; however, when married with fuel improvements, the engine could respond to both. By the end of the war fuel was being delivered at a nominal 150 octane rating, on which the Merlin could reach about 1,700 hp and, with additional water injection, as high as 2000 hp.

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In comparison the German oil industry had ready access to light crude from Romania and other European sources, and spent very little effort on octane boosting techniques. As a result their engines were all rated to use "B4" fuel at 87 octane, or the slightly higher 96 octane "C3". This limited the amount of boost they could use with their supercharger, which initially were of a higher level of development than their English counterparts. By 1941 the altitude advantage they had at the beginning of the war was erased, and as the war progressed their engines fell further and further behind. Their only solution was to build much larger engines, thereby constantly disrupting their assembly lines in order to introduce new models, leading to a chronic shortage of engines throughout the war. The result was that late in WWII, British aircraft engines generally had higher critical altitudes than their German counterparts, which meant that British airplanes were generally able to outperform German ones in most situations. Turbocharger A turbocharger, or turbo, is an air compressor used for forced-induction of an internal combustion engine. Like a supercharger, the purpose of a turbocharger is to increase the mass of air entering the engine to create more power. However, a turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine driven by the engine's own exhaust gases

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Nomenclature

Early manufacturers of turbochargers referred to them as "turbo superchargers". A supercharger is an air compressor used for forced induction of an engine. Logically then, adding a turbine to turn the supercharger would yield a "turbo supercharger". However, the term was soon shortened to "turbocharger". This is now a source of confusion, as the term "turbo supercharged" is sometimes used to refer to an engine that uses both a crankshaft-driven supercharger and an exhaust-driven turbocharger. Some companies such as Teledyne Continental Motors still use the term turbo supercharger in its original sense. For the purposes of this article, the more modern terms turbocharger and turbo are used. Working principle A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor linked by a shared axle. The turbine inlet receives exhaust gases from the engine causing the turbine wheel to rotate. This rotation drives the compressor, compressing ambient air and delivering it to the air intake manifold of the engine at higher pressure, resulting in a greater amount of the air entering the cylinder. In some instances, compressed air is routed through an intercooler before introduction to the intake manifold. The objective of a turbocharger is the same as a supercharger; to improve upon the size-to-output efficiency of an engine by solving one of its cardinal limitations. A naturally aspirated automobile engine uses only the downward stroke of a piston to create an area of low pressure in order to draw air into the cylinder through the intake valves. Because the pressure in the atmosphere is no more than approximately 14.7 PSI, there ultimately will be a limit to the pressure difference across the intake valves and thus the amount of airflow entering the combustion chamber. This ability to fill the cylinder with air is its volumetric efficiency. Because the turbocharger increases the pressure at the point where air is entering the cylinder, a greater mass of air will be forced in as the inlet manifold pressure increases. The additional air makes it possible to add more fuel, increasing the power and torque output of the engine. Because the pressure in the cylinder must not go too high to avoid detonation and physical damage, the intake pressure must be controlled by controlling the rotational speed of the turbocharger. The control function is performed by a wastegate, which routes some of the exhaust flow away from the exhaust turbine. This controls shaft speed and regulates air pressure in the intake manifold.

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The application of a compressor to increase pressure at the point of cylinder air intake is often referred to as forced induction. Centrifugal superchargers compress air in the same fashion as a turbocharger. However, the energy to spin the supercharger is taken from the rotating output energy of the engine's crankshaft as opposed to normally exhausted gas from the engine. Superchargers use output energy from an engine to achieve a net gain, which must be provided from some of the engine's total output. Turbochargers, on the other hand, convert some of the piston engine's exhaust into useful work. This energy would otherwise be wasted out the exhaust. This means that a turbocharger is a more efficient use of the heat energy obtained from the fuel than a supercharger. History The turbocharger was invented by Swiss engineer Alfred Bchi. His patent for a turbo charger was applied for use in 1905. Diesel ships and locomotives with turbochargers began appearing in the 1920s. Aviation One of the first applications of a turbocharger to a non-Diesel engine came when General Electric engineer Sanford Moss attached a turbo to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. The engine was tested at Pikes Peak in Colorado at 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to demonstrate that it could eliminate the power losses usually experienced in internal combustion engines as a result of reduced air pressure and density at high altitude. Turbochargers were first used in production aircraft engines in the 1930s before World War II. The primary purpose behind most aircraft-based applications was to increase the altitude at which the airplane can fly, by compensating for the lower atmospheric pressure present at high altitude. Aircraft such as the Lockheed P-38, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Republic P-47 all used turbochargers to increase high altitude engine power. Production Automobiles The first Turbo-Diesel truck was produced by the "Schweizer Maschinenfabrik Saurer" (Swiss Machine Works Saurer) 1938 .

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The Corvair's innovative turbocharged flat-6 engine. The turbo, located at top right, feeds pressurized air into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right. The first production turbocharged automobile engines came from General Motors in 1962. The A-body Oldsmobile Cutlass Jetfire and Chevrolet Corvair Monza Spyder were both fitted with turbochargers. The world's first production turbodiesel automobile was also introduced in 1978 by Mercedes-Benz with the launch of the 300SD turbodiesel. Today, nearly all automotive diesels are turbocharged.

Design details Components

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On the left, the brass oil drain connection. On the right are the braided oil supply line and water coolant line connections.

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Compressor impeller side with the cover removed

Turbine side housing removed.

A wastegate installed next to the turbocharger. The turbocharger has four main components. The turbine (almost always a radial turbine) and impeller/compressor wheels are each contained within their own folded conical housing on opposite sides of the third component, the center housing/hub rotating assembly (CHRA). The housings fitted around the compressor impeller and turbine collect and direct the gas flow through the wheels as they spin. The size and shape can dictate some performance characteristics of the overall turbocharger. Often the same basic turbocharger assembly will be available from the manufacturer with multiple

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housing choices for the turbine and sometimes the compressor cover as well. This allows the designer of the engine system to tailor the compromises between performance, response, and efficiency to application or preference. The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust that can be flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they operate. Generally, the larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel, the larger the flow capacity. Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as curvature and number of blades on the wheels. The center hub rotating assembly houses the shaft which connects the compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to suspend the shaft, allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction. For instance, in automotive applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball bearing lubricated by a constant supply of pressurized engine oil. The CHRA may also be considered "water cooled" by having an entry and exit point for engine coolant to be cycled. Water cooled models allow engine coolant to be used to keep the lubricating oil cooler, avoiding possible oil coking from the extreme heat found in the turbine. Pressure increase In the automotive world, boost refers to the increase in pressure that is generated by the turbocharger in the intake manifold that exceeds normal atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7psi or 1.0 Bar, and anything above this level is considered to be boost. The level of boost may be shown on a pressure gauge, usually in bar, psi or possibly kPa This is representative of the extra air pressure that is achieved over what would be achieved without the forced induction. Manifold pressure should not be confused with the volume of air that a turbo can flow. In contrast, the instruments on aircraft engines measure absolute pressure in inches of mercury. Absolute pressure is the amount of pressure above a total vacuum. The ICAO standard atmospheric pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury at sea level. Most modern aviation turbochargers are not designed to increase manifold pressures above this level, as aircraft engines are commonly air-cooled and excessive pressures increase the risk of overheating, pre-ignition, and detonation. Instead, the turbo is only designed to hold a pressure in the intake manifold equal to sea-level pressure as the altitude increases and air pressure drops. This is called turbonormalizing.

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Boost pressure is limited to keep the entire engine system, including the turbo, inside its thermal and mechanical design operating range. The speed and thus the output pressure of the turbo is controlled by the wastegate which shunts the exhaust gases away from the exhaust side turbine. The maximum possible boost depends on the fuel's octane rating and the inherent tendency of any particular engine towards detonation. Premium gasoline or racing gasoline can be used to prevent detonation within reasonable limits. Ethanol, methanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and diesel fuels allow higher boost than gasoline, because of these fuels' combustion characteristics. To obtain high boost levels, all elements have to be upgraded such as larger fuel pump, bigger injectors, lower compression, right air/fuel ratio, and head-gasket. Wastegate By spinning at a relatively high speed the compressor turbine draws in a large volume of air and forces it into the engine. As the turbocharger's output flow volume exceeds the engine's volumetric flow, air pressure in the intake system begins to build. The speed at which the assembly spins is proportional to the pressure of the compressed air and total mass of air flow being moved. Since a turbo can spin to RPMs far beyond what is needed, or of what it is safely capable of, the speed must be controlled. A wastegate is the most common mechanical speed control system, and is often further augmented by an electronic or manual boost controller. The main function of a wastegate is to allow some of the exhaust to bypass the turbine when the set intake pressure is achieved. Passenger cars have wastegates that are integral to the turbocharger. Anti-Surge/Dump/Blow Off Valves Turbo charged engines operating at wide open throttle and high rpm require a large volume of air to flow between the turbo and the inlet of the engine. When the throttle is closed compressed air will flow to the throttle valve without an exit (i.e. the air has nowhere to go). This causes a surge which can raise the pressure of the air to a level which can be destructive to the engine (e.g. damage may occur to the throttle plate, induction pipes may burst.) The surge will also decompress back across the turbo as this is the only path that the air can take. This sudden flow of air will often cause turbulence and a subsequent whistling noise as the air moves past the compressor wheel.

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The reverse flow back across the turbo acts on the compressor wheel and causes the turbine shaft to reduce in speed quicker than it would naturally. When the throttle is opened again, the turbo will have to make up for lost momentum and will take longer to achieve the required speed, as turbo speed is proportional to boost/volume flow. (This is known as Turbo Lag) In order to prevent this from happening, a valve is fitted between the turbo and inlet which vents off the excess air pressure. These are known as an anti-surge, bypass, blow-off (BOV) or dump valve. They are normally operated by engine vacuum. The primary use of this valve is to maintain the turbo spinning at a high speed. The air is usually recycled back into the turbo inlet but can also be vented to the atmosphere. Recycling back into the turbo causes the venting sound to be reduced and is required on an engine that uses a mass-airflow fuel injection system (as opposed to a speed-density system). The reason for this is that the airflow sensor is normally located before the turbo and the ECU will inject enough fuel for the amount of air that flows through it. If some of the air that has gone through the sensor is dumped into the atmosphere, the engine will be over fueled until the BOV closes again. The benefits of venting to the atmosphere are simply the ease of installation (because there is no need to run an extra hose to plumb the charge back into the system) and that it makes a sound considered desirable by some. A dump valve will shorten the time needed to respool the turbo after sudden engine deceleration. Since a turbocharger increases the specific horsepower output of an engine, the engine will also produce increased amounts of heat this can sometimes be a problem when fitting a turbocharger to a motor that was not designed to cope with high heat loads. It is another form of cooling that has the largest impact on fuel efficiency: charge cooling. Even with the benefits of intercooling, the total compression in the combustion chamber is greater than that in a naturally-aspirated engine. To avoid knock while still extracting maximum power from the engine, it is common practice to introduce extra fuel into the charge for the sole purpose of cooling. While this seems counterintuitive, this fuel is not burned. Instead, it absorbs and carries away heat when it changes phase from liquid mist to gas vapor. Also, because it is more dense than the other inert substance in the combustion chamber, nitrogen, it has a higher specific heat and more heat capacitance. It "holds" this heat until it is released in the exhaust stream, preventing destructive knock. This thermodynamic property allows manufacturers to achieve good power output with common pump fuel at the expense of fuel economy and emissions. The

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stoichiometric Air-to-Fuel ratio (A/F) for combustion of gasoline is 14.7:1. A common A/F in a turbocharged engine while under full design boost is approximately 12:1. Richer mixtures are sometimes run when the design of the system has flaws in it such as a catalytic converter which has limited endurance of high exhaust temperatures or the engine has a compression ratio that is too high for efficient operation with the fuel given. An engine that requires an overly rich fuel mixture is an indication of a poorly engineered turbo system. Turbochargers also provide more direct fuel savings when compared to a supercharger. The volume, speed and pressure of exhaust gases flowing out of the engine are not only related to engine speed, but also to engine load. An engine under a heavy load has higher internal pressures and temperatures than an engine running under a light load at the same speed. This effect is found on all internal combustion engines, but is especially true for diesel engines. Because the turbocharger is connected to the engine's fuel system, which regulates the supply of fuel in relation to the boost being generated, extra fuel is only delivered when the engine is under load and boost pressures are high. A vehicle with a turbocharged engine travelling at a constant speed on a flat road is placing a relatively small load on its engine- exhaust pressure, boost and fuel delivery is therefore low, and fuel consumption will be close to that of a naturally-aspirated vehicle. The same vehicle maintaining the same speed up a hill will place the engine under a greater load, generating a greater exhaust pressure, raising turbocharger speed, increasing boost pressure and thus causing more fuel to be delivered and more power to be produced. Because boost is related to engine load, the turbocharger only runs at full capacity when the engine is under load. A supercharger, directly geared to the engine, has boost relating solely to engine speed, resulting in higher fuel consumption. Lastly, the efficiency of the turbocharger itself can have an impact on fuel efficiency. Using a small turbocharger will give quick response and low lag at low to mid RPMs, but can choke the engine on the exhaust side and generate huge amounts of pumping-related heat on the intake side as RPMs rise. A large turbocharger will be very efficient at high RPMs, but is not a realistic application for a street driven automobile. Variable vane and ball bearing technologies can make a turbo more efficient across a wider operating range, however, other problems have prevented this technology from appearing in more road cars (see Variable geometry turbocharger). Currently, the Porsche 911 (997) Turbo is the only gasoline car in production with this kind of turbocharger, although in Europe turbos of this type are rapidly becoming standard-fitment on turbodiesel cars, vans and other commercial vehicles, because they can greatly enhance the diesel engine

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s characteristic low-speed torque. One way to take advantage of the different operating regimes of the two types of supercharger is sequential turbocharging, which uses 2 smaller turbochargers, with one operating at low RPM while the other is added in at higher RPM. This allows the engine to have excellent response while still having top end power. Vehicles such as the 1993-1998 Toyota Supra Twin Turbo and the 1993-1995 RX-7 Twin Turbo use this system. The engine management systems of most modern vehicles can control boost and fuel delivery according to charge temperature, fuel quality, and altitude, among other factors. Some systems are more sophisticated and aim to deliver fuel even more precisely based on combustion quality. For example, the Trionic-7 system from Saab Automobile provides immediate feedback on the combustion while it is occurring by using the spark plug to measure the cylinder pressure via the ionization voltage over the spark plug gap. The new 2.0L TFSI turbo engine from Volkswagen/Audi incorporates lean burn and direct injection technology to conserve fuel under low load conditions. It is a very complex system that involves many moving parts and sensors in order to manage airflow characteristics inside the chamber itself, allowing it to use a stratified charge with excellent atomization. The direct injection also has a tremendous charge cooling effect enabling engines to use higher compression ratios and boost pressures than a typical port-injection turbo engine. Properties and applications Reliability Turbochargers can be damaged by dirty or ineffective oil, and most manufacturers recommend more frequent oil changes for turbocharged engines. Many owners and some companies recommend using synthetic oils, which tend to flow more readily when cold and do not break down as quickly as conventional oils. Because the turbocharger will heat when running, many recommend letting the engine idle for one to three minutes before shutting off the engine if the turbocharger was used shortly before stopping (most manufacturers specify a 10-second period of idling before switching off to ensure the turbocharger is running at its idle speed to prevent damage to the bearings when the oil supply is cut off). This lets the turbo rotating assembly cool from the lower exhaust gas temperatures, and ensures that oil is supplied to the turbocharger while the turbine housing and exhaust manifold are still very hot; otherwise coking of the lubricating oil trapped in the unit may occur when the heat soaks into the bearings, causing rapid bearing wear and failure

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when the car is restarted. Even small particles of burnt oil will accumulate and lead to choking the oil supply and failure. This problem is less pronounced in diesel engines, due to the lower exhaust temperatures and generally slower engine speeds. A turbo timer can keep an engine running for a pre-specified period of time, to automatically provide this cool-down period. Oil coking is also eliminated by foil bearings. A more complex and problematic protective barrier against oil coking is the use of watercooled bearing cartridges. The water boils in the cartridge when the engine is shut off and forms a natural recirculation to drain away the heat. Nevertheless, it is not a good idea to shut the engine off while the turbo and manifold are still glowing. In custom applications utilizing tubular headers rather than cast iron manifolds, the need for a cooldown period is reduced because the lighter headers store much less heat than heavy cast iron manifolds. Lag

A pair of turbochargers mounted to an Inline 6 engine (2JZ-GTE from a MkIV Toyota Supra) in a dragster. A lag is sometimes felt by the driver of a turbocharged vehicle as a delay between pushing on the accelerator pedal and feeling the turbo kick-in. This is symptomatic of the time taken for the exhaust system driving the turbine to come to high pressure and for the turbine rotor to overcome its rotational inertia and reach the speed necessary to supply boost pressure. The directly-driven compressor in a supercharger does not suffer this problem. (Centrifugal superchargers do not build boost at low RPMs like a positive displacement supercharger will). Conversely on light loads or at low RPM a turbocharger supplies less boost and the engine is less efficient than a supercharged engine.

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Lag can be reduced by lowering the rotational inertia of the turbine, for example by using lighter parts to allow the spool-up to happen more quickly. Ceramic turbines are a big help in this direction. Unfortunately, their relative fragility limits the maximum boost they can supply. Another way to reduce lag is to change the aspect ratio of the turbine by reducing the diameter and increasing the gas-flow pathlength. Increasing the upper-deck air pressure and improving the wastegate response helps but there are cost increases and reliability disadvantages that car manufacturers are not happy about. Lag is also reduced by using a foil bearing rather than a conventional oil bearing. This reduces friction and contributes to faster acceleration of the turbo's rotating assembly. Variable-nozzle turbochargers (discussed above) eliminate lag. Lag can be reduced with the use of multiple turbochargers. Another common method of equalizing turbo lag is to have the turbine wheel "clipped", or to reduce the surface area of the turbine wheel's rotating blades. By clipping a minute portion off the tip of each blade of the turbine wheel, less restriction is imposed upon the escaping exhaust gases. This imparts less impedance onto the flow of exhaust gases at low RPM, allowing the vehicle to retain more of its low-end torque, but also pushes the effective boost RPM to a slightly higher level. The amount of turbine wheel clipping is highly application-specific. Turbine clipping is measured and specified in degrees. Lag is not to be confused with the boost threshold; however, many publications still make this basic mistake. The boost threshold of a turbo system describes the minimum engine RPM during full-throttle operation at which there is sufficient exhaust flow to the turbo to allow it to generate significant amounts of boost. Newer turbocharger and engine developments have caused boost thresholds to steadily decline to where day-to-day use feels perfectly natural. Putting your foot down at 1200 engine RPM and having no boost until 2000 engine RPM is an example of boost threshold and not lag. If lag was experienced in this situation, the RPM would either not start to rise for a short period of time after the throttle was increased, or increase slowly for a few seconds and then suddenly build up at a greater rate as the turbo become effective. However, the term lag is used erroneously for boost threshold by many manufacturers themselves. Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development; it uses a high speed electrical motor to drive the turbocharger to speed before exhaust gases are available, e.g. from a stop-light. The electric motor is about an inch long.

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Race cars often utilize an Anti-Lag System to completely eliminate lag at the cost of reduced turbocharger life. On modern diesel engines, this problem is virtually eliminated by utilizing a variable geometry turbocharger. Aircraft A more natural use of the turbocharger is with aircraft engines. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitudes the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. At 5,486 m (18,000 ft) the air is at half the pressure of sea level, and the airframe only experiences half the aerodynamic drag. However, since the charge in the cylinders is being pushed in by this air pressure, it means that the engine will normally produce only half-power at full throttle at this altitude. Pilots would like to take advantage of the low drag at high altitudes in order to go faster, but a naturally aspirated engine will not produce enough power at the same altitude to do so. Altitude effects A turbocharger remedies this problem by compressing the air back to sea-level pressures; or even much higher; in order to produce rated power at high altitude. Since the size of the turbocharger is chosen to produce a given amount of pressure at high altitude, the turbocharger is over-sized for low altitude. The speed of the turbocharger is controlled by a wastegate. Early systems used a fixed wastegate, resulting in a turbocharger that functioned much like a supercharger. Later systems utilized an adjustable wastegate, controlled either manually by the pilot or by an automatic hydraulic or electric system. When the aircraft is at low altitude the wastegate is usually fully open, venting all the exhaust gasses overboard. As the aircraft climbs and the air density drops, the wastegate must continually close in small increments to maintain full power. The altitude at which the wastegate is full closed and the engine is still producing full rated power is known as the critical altitude. The downside of turbocharging is that compressing the air increases its temperature. As with diesel engines, the most common solution to this problem is to add an aftercooler.

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Comparison to supercharging A supercharger inevitably requires some energy to be bled from the engine to drive the supercharger. On the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls Royce Merlin engine for instance, the supercharger uses up about 150 horsepower (110 kW). Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for that 150 hp (110 kW), the engine is delivering 1,000 hp (750 kW) when it would otherwise deliver 750 hp (560 kW), a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principle disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent: The engine has to burn extra fuel to provide power to turn the supercharger. The increased charge density increases the engine's specific power and power to weight ratio, but also increases the engine's specific fuel consumption. This increases the cost of running the aircraft and reduces its overall range. On the other hand, a turbocharger is driven using the exhaust gases. The amount of power in the gas is proportional to the difference between the exhaust pressure and air pressure, and this difference increases with altitude, allowing a turbocharger to compensate for changing altitude without using up any extra power.Another key disadvantage of supercharged engines is that they are controlled entirely by the pilot, introducing the possibility of human error which could damage the engine and endanger the aircraft. With a supercharged aircraft engine, the pilot must continually adjust the throttle to maintain the required manifold pressure during ascent or descent. The pilot must also take great care to avoid overboosting the engine and causing damage, especially during emergencies such as go-arounds. In contrast, modern turbocharger systems use an automatic wastegate which controls the manifold pressure within parameters preset by the manufacturer. For these systems, as long as the control system is working properly and the pilot's control commands are smooth and deliberate, a turbocharger will not overboost the engine and damage it. Yet the vast majority of WWII engines used superchargers, because they maintained three significant manufacturing advantages over turbochargers, which were larger, involved extra piping, and required exotic high-temperature materials in the turbine and pre-turbine section of the exhaust system. The size of the piping alone is a serious issue; consider that the Vought F4U and Republic P-47 used the same engine but the huge barrel-like fuselage of the latter was, in part, needed to hold the piping to and from the turbocharger in the rear of the plane. Turbocharged piston engines are also subject to many of the same operating restrictions as gas turbine engines. Pilots must make smooth, slow throttle adjustments to avoid overshooting their target manifold pressure. The fuel mixture must often be adjusted far on the rich side of the peak exhaust gas temperature to avoid overheating the turbine when running at high power settings. In systems using a

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manually-operated wastegate, the pilot must be careful not to exceed the turbocharger's maximum RPM. Turbocharged engines require a cooldown period after landing to prevent thermal shock from cracking the turbo or exhaust system. Turbocharged engines require frequent inspections of the turbocharger and exhaust systems for damage due to the increased heat, increasing maintenance costs. Today, most general aviation aircraft are naturally aspirated. The small number of modern aviation piston engines designed to run at high altitudes generally use a turbocharger or turbo-normalize system rather than a supercharger. The change in thinking is largely due to economics. Aviation gasoline was once plentiful and cheap, favoring the simple but fuel-hungry supercharger. As the cost of fuel has increased, the supercharger has fallen out of favor.Turbocharged aircraft often occupy a performance range in between that of normally-aspirated piston-powered aircraft and turbine-powered aircraft. The increased maintenance costs of a turbocharged engine are considered worthwhile for this purpose, as a turbocharged piston engine is still far cheaper than any turbine engine. Relationship to Gas Turbine Engines Prior to World War II, Sir Frank Whittle started his experiments on early turbojet engines. Due to a lack of sufficient materials as well as funding, initial progress was slow. However, turbochargers were used extensively in military aircraft during World War II to enable them to fly very fast at very high altitudes. The demands of the war led to constant advances in turbocharger technology, particularly in the area of materials. This area of study eventually crossed over in to the development of early gas turbine engines. Those early turbine engines were little more than a very large turbocharger with the compressor and turbine connected by a number of combustion chambers. The cross over between the two has been shown in an episode of the TV show Scrapheap Challenge where contestants were able to build a functioning Jet Engine using an ex-automotive turbocharger as a compressor. Consider also, for example, that General Electric manufactured turbochargers for military aircraft and held several patents on their electric turbo controls during the war, then used that expertise to very quickly carve out a dominant share of the gas turbine market which they have held ever since.

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Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages


More specific power over naturally aspirated engine. This means a turbocharged engine can achieve more power from same engine volume. Better thermal efficiency over both naturally aspirated and supercharged engine when under full load (i.e. on boost). This is because the excess exhaust heat and pressure, which would normally be wasted, contributes some of the work required to compress the air. Weight/Packaging. Smaller and lighter than alternative forced induction systems and may be more easily fitted in an engine bay. Fuel Economy. Although adding a turbocharger itself does not save fuel, it will allow a vehicle to use a smaller engine while achieving power levels of a much larger engine, while attaining near normal fuel economy while off boost/cruising. This is because without boost, only the normal amount of fuel and air are combusted.

Disadvantages

Lack of responsiveness if an incorrectly sized turbocharger is used. If a turbocharger that is too large is used it reduces throttle response as it builds up boost slowly otherwise know as "lag". However, doing this may result in more peak power. Boost threshold. A turbocharger starts producing boost only above a certain rpm due to a lack of exhaust gas volume to overcome inertia of rest of the turbo propeller. This results in a rapid and nonlinear rise in torque, and will reduce the usable power band of the engine. The sudden surge of power could overwhelm the tires and result in loss of grip, which could lead to understeer/oversteer, depending on the drivetrain and suspension setup of the vehicle. Lag can be disadvantageous in racing. If throttle is applied in a turn, power may unexpectedly increase when the turbo winds up, which can induce wheelspin. Cost. Turbocharger parts are costly to add to naturally aspirated engines. Heavily modifying OEM turbocharger systems also require extensive upgrades that in most cases requires most (if not all) of the original components to be replaced. Complexity. Further to cost, turbochargers require numerous additional systems if they are not to damage an engine. Even an engine under only light

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boost requires a system for properly routing (and sometimes cooling) the lubricating oil, turbo-specific exhaust manifold, application specific downpipe, boost regulation, and proper gauges (not intrinsically necessary, but very highly recommended). In addition inter-cooled turbo engines require additional plumbing, while highly tuned turbocharged engines will require extensive upgrades to their lubrication, cooling, and breathing systems; while reinforcing internal engine and transmission parts.

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PISTON ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM


The purpose of exhaust system is to remove the spent gases of combustion and safely outer them overboard. For an engine to operate at its maximum efficiency, these systems must function properly. In addition , because a failure of this system could have disastrous results such as fires or introducing toxic gases into the cabin, it is imperative that the system be inspected and mainted according to the manufacturers recommendations Types of exhaust system The short stock or open system The collector systems The short stocks Early in-line and v-engine often used straight stacks which were simply short sections of steel tubing welded to a flange and bolted to the cylinder exhaust port It is relatively simple, and its removal and installation consist essentially of removing and installing the hold-down nuts and clamps Collector system Opposed engine exhaust manifold Radial engine exhaust collector rings Mufflers and heat exchangers Noise is a problem in aviation engines and studies have been made to find practical way of increasing the frequency and reducing the intensity of the noise. Propeller produce a large portion in the exhaust also account for an appreciable amount. Exhaust augmentors On some engines, exhaust agumentors are installed to aid cooling.
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PISTON ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM


Aircraft are designed to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. However, in doing this, only about one-third of the heat produced is converted. The remaining two-thirds of the energy are wasted and must be removed from an engine. Therefore, cooling system is designed to remove the unused heat energy produced by combustion and allow an engine to operate at its peak efficiency Types of cooling systems Air cooling Liquid cooling

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PISTON ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION

The Basics of a Piston engine: Intake Valve: Opens to allow the fuel-air mixture into the cylinder. Spark plugs: Provide the electrics park that ignites the fuel-air mixture Pistons: The controlled burning forces the piston to move within the cylinder. Crankshaft: Attaches to the connecting rods and the propeller. The motion of the pistons turns the crankshaft. Connecting Rods: Attach the pistons to the crankshaft. . Rings: Piston rings encircle the piston and seal the combustion chamber. Exhaust Valve: Opens to allow hot exhaust gasses to leave the cylinder. Cylinders: The controlled burn of the fuel-air mixture occurs in the cylinders. There are various types of gauges used in the instrumentation of piston engine. They are: 1 Oil Pressure gauge 2 Oil temperature gauge 3 Fuel Pressure gauge 4 Fuel quantity Indicator 5 CHT Gauge 6 CAT (or)OAT Gauge 7 Tachometer 8 MAP Gauge (or)Boost Pressure gauge 9 EGT Gauge They are described as follows:
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1. OIL PRESSURE GAUGE:

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An oil pressure gauge is an essential component of any engine oil system. These gauges are usually of the Bourdon-tube type and are designed to measure a wide range of pressures, from no pressure up to above the maximum pressure which may be produced in the system. The oil gauge line, which is connected to the system near the outlet of the engine pressure pump, is filled with low viscosity oil in cold weather to obtain a true indication of the oil pressure during engine warm-up. A restricting orifice is placed in the oil gauge line to retain the low-viscosity oil and to prevent damage from pressure surges. If high-viscosity oil is used in cold weather, the oil pressure reading will lag behind the actual pressure developed in the system.

2. OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE: The temperature probe for the oil temperature gauge is located in the oil inlet line or passage between the pressure pump and the engine system. On some engines, the temperature probe (sensor) is installed in the oil filter housing. Temperature instruments are usually of the electrical or electronic type. The most common type of oil temperature gauge is operated electrically and may either utilize either a Wheatstone bridge circuit or a ratio meter circuit.

3. FUEL PRESSURE GAUGE Several different types of fuel pressure gauges are in use for aircraft engines to meet the requirements of particular engine fuel systems. A fuel system may use an engine-driven pump or an electric fuel pump. Fuel pressure gauges are similar in construction to other pressure gauges used for relatively low pressures. The actuating mechanism is either a diaphragm or a pair of bellows. The advantages of the bellows are that it provides a greater range of movement than does a diaphragm. In a typical fuel gauge, the mechanism includes two bellows capsules joined end to end. One bellows capsule is connected to the fuel pressure line and other one is vented to ambient pressure in the airplane. The fuel pressure causes the fuel bellows to expand and move towards the air capsule. This movement is transmitted to the indicating needle by means of conventional linkage.

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4. FUEL QUANTITY INDICATOR: Indicates the amount of fuel remaining in the identified tank. One per fuel tank

5. CHT GAUGE: CHT or cylinder head temperature is the temperature of the cylinder head of an air-cooled reciprocating engine. CHT gauge is used in measuring of very high temperatures. For this purpose thermocouple is used. A thermocouple is the junction of two dissimilar metals which generates a small electric current that varies according to the temperature of the junction. For this reason, it does not require an external power source. For reading CHT on reciprocating engines, the thermocouple is metallically bonded to a copper spark plug washer or is designed to be secured by a screw in a special well in the head of one of the cylinders. It is usual practice to find which cylinder operates at the highest temperature and to attach the thermocouple to this cylinder.

6. CAT (or) OAT GAUGE: CAT or Carburetor Air Temperature is the temperature of the air as it enters the carburetor. The CAT gauge is important as a means of directing ice conditions and regulating engine performance, particularly when a float-type carburetor system is turbocharged.

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7. TACHOMETER: A tachometer is an instrument that measures the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per term come from , tachos, "speed", and metron, "to measure. Tachometers on automobiles, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of rotation speeds. This can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the

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driving conditions. Prolonged use at high speeds may cause excessive wear and other damage to engines. This is more applicable to manual transmissions than to automatics. On analog tachometers the maximum safe operating speed is typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining" an enginerevving the engine up to the safe limit. The red zone is superfluous on most modern cars, since their engines typically have a rev limiter which electronically limits engine speed to prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector systems have an integral governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers in vehicles and machinery fitted with such engines sometimes lack a redline. In vehicles such as tractors and trucks, the tachometer often has other markings, usually a green arc showing the speed range in which the engine produces maximum torque, which is of prime interest to operators of such vehicles. Tractors fitted with a power take off (PTO) system have tachometers showing the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardized speed required by most PTOdriven implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have a speedometer for use on a road. To save fitting a second dial, the vehicle's tachometer is often marked with a second scale in units of speed. This scale is only accurate in a certain gear, but since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use onroad, this is sufficient. Tractors with multiple 'road gears' often have tachometers with more than one speed scale. Aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engine's designed cruising speed range. In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS Voltage waves from the low tension (LT) side of the ignition coil, while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output. This is a special circuit inside the alternator to convert from rectified sine wave to square wave, and the electrical potential difference is directly proportional to engine speed. Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine (usually on the camshaft) also exist- usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic or no electrical systems.

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8. MAP GAUGE(or) BOOST PRESSURE GAUGE: A manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) is one of the sensors used in an internal combustion engine's electronic control system. Engines that use a MAP sensor are typically fuel injected. The manifold absolute pressure sensor provides instantaneous manifold pressure information to the engine's electronic control unit (ECU). This is necessary to calculate air density and determine the engine's air mass flow rate, which in turn is used to calculate the appropriate fuel flow. (See stoichiometry.) An engine control system that uses manifold absolute pressure to calculate air mass uses the speed-density method. Engine speed (RPM) and air temperature are also necessary to complete the speed-density calculation. Not all fuel-injected engines use a MAP sensor to infer mass air flow; some use a MAF (mass air flow) sensor. Several makes use the MAP sensor in OBD II applications to test the EGR valve for functionality. Most notably General Motors uses this approach.The manifold absolute pressure measurement is used to meter fuel. The amount of fuel required is directly related to the mass of air entering the engine. (See stoichiometric.) The mass of air is proportional to the air density, which is proportional to the absolute pressure and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. (See ideal gas law.) Engine speed determines the frequency, or rate, at which air mass is leaving the intake manifold and entering the cylinders. (Engine Mass Airflow Rate) RPM (Air Density) or equivalently

(Engine Mass Airflow Rate) RPM MAP / (absolute temperature) 9. EGT GAUGE: An EGT(Exhaust gas Temperature) gauge shows the exhaust gas temperature of a combustion engine in conjunction with a sensor and is a thermocouple pyrometer. This meter is most used in turbo equipped cars. If the sensor is installed after the turbo, the exhaust temperature can be monitored. If the sensor is installed at the manifold collector before the turbo, the turbine inlet temperature can be monitored. If the sensor is installed at the turbine inlet, it results in higher temperatures and it reacts faster to the engine's condition compared to a installation after the turbo. At a balanced air fuel ratio, the exhaust gas temperature is lower than

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in a lean or rich air fuel ratio. EGT gauges are sometimes used at engine tuning.

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PISTON ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURES


Starting of an aircraft engine is a relative simple procedure, certain precaution procedures should be taken in order to avoid damage to the engine Aircraft service personnel should acquire the following safety habits: Treat all propellers as though the ignition switches were on Chock airplane before working around the engine Ignition test is carried before shutting down the engine Before moving a propeller or connecting an external power source to an aircraft, be sure that the aircraft us chocked, the ignition off, throttle closed, idle cut off Check for loose items in propellers Ground engine fire: In an engine fire occurs while the engine is being started, move the fuel shutoff lever to the off position Continue cranking or motoring the engine until the fire has been expelled from the engine Do not discharge 2co directly into the engine exhaust, because it may damage the engine If the fire cannot be extinguished, secure all the switches and leave the aircraft

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Starting procedures: Engine starting procedures will vary for different fuel metering devices Specific starting procedures are set forth in the operators manual Operating requirements: The operation of any piston engine requires that certain precautions be observed and that all operations be kept within the established by manufacturer. Among the conditions which must be checked during the operation of an engine are the following Engine oil pressure Oil temperature Cylinder head temperature Engine rpm Manifold pressure Exhaust gas temperature

Oil pressure and temperature: No engine should be operated be operated at high power settings unless its oil pressure and temperature are within satisfactory limits If no oil pressure is indicated within 30s after starting, the engine must be shut down and the malfunctioned satisfactory Check of constant speed propeller pitch: The propeller is checked to ensure proper operation of which control and pitch change mechanism. The operation of a controllable pitch propeller is checked by the indications

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of the tachometer and manifold pressure gas when the propeller governor control is moved from another position 2000rpm is approx speed Operator should also make sure that the brakes are on and that the elevator is pulled back, if the airplane has convention landing gear

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METHOD OF USING LEAN FUEL-AIR MIXTURES AT ALL OPERATING REGIMES OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
FIELD OF INVENTION The invention refers to a method of using lean fuel-air mixtures at all operating regimes of a spark ignition engine, which can be used for automotive vehicles. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It is well known the fuelling method of spark ignition engines by which the classic gasoline supply is performed by sequential injection into the intake port valve at the beginning of each intake stroke. The electronic control by injection, of the fuelair ratio has a principal goal of maintaining in a range close to the unit value which allows the efficient treatment of burned gases, meaning the limiting of pollutant emissions CO, HC and NO? [1,..., 5]. This method presents the disadvantage that for maintaining the pollutant emissions within the legal admissible limits, it is also necessary to use a three way catalytic reactor and a closed loop control system fitted with a lambda sensor and with an electronic control unit. The efficient functioning of the catalytic reactor at a temperature level of the emission gases of over 3000C implies the maintaining of a very narrow window of the ratio control around the stoichiometric value, namely 1 0.01, see Fig. 1. Thus, the actual fuel consumption of the engine is determined by the air intake, the air- fuel stoichiometric ratio, and the relative coefficient of the air- fuel ratio the engine operates for all types of operating regimes. For the past decade, the attempt to identify and promote, at industrial scale, of some alternative energy sources relative to fossil fuels, as well as to cut down the combustion process related emissions, has been approached at the level of its real importance. New concepts and concerns such as emissions gas management and combined heat and power generation come to draw the attention on the necessity to intensify research on burning processes for the efficient optimization of internal combustion engines.

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There is known a method for the addition of a combustible gas, as hydrogen, to the internal combustion engines (JP Patents no. 2004076679, 2004239138). The hydrogen addition is accomplished directly in the engine cylinders, separately from the regular fuel (gasoline) with the purpose to create a burning mixture with superior qualities which has improved burning efficiency and lower pollutant emissions. The hydrogen addition extends the flammability limits and increases the burning speed of the charge mixture trapped inside the combustion chambers. The known technical solutions for the hydrogen addition inside the engine as supplementary fuel have been conceived especially to solve detonation phenomenon, this being the primary objective. These known methods have the disadvantage that they do not ensure the CO2 quantity reduction. As concerns the effort to obtaining a non-pollutant gas fuel for industrial use, there has been obtained an oxy-hydric gas produced using equipment disclosed in US Patent No. 6,689,259 Bl and in the international request published under no. WO2005/076767 A3, both in the name of Klein. This gas is obtained by a controlled dissociation, in an electromagnetic field, of alkaline water. This fuel gas, electrochemically active, obtained through the water electrolysis reaction is a mixture of 63-66% hydrogen, 30-35% oxygen and other compounds of these ones such as the hydrogen peroxide. The oxy-hydric gas obtained can be classified in the oxy-hydric gas group and commonly named as the HHO oxy-hydric gas. An example of the electrolyzer equipment used in the disclosures of US Patent No. 6,689,259 and more particularly, in publication WO2005/076767 A3, is an electrolysis chamber such that a gas reservoir region is fopned above the aqueous electrolyte solution, two principal electrodes comprising an anode electrode and a cathode electrode, the two principal electrodes being at least partially immersed in the aqueous electrolyte solution, a plurality of supplemental electrodes at least partially immersed in the aqueous electrolyte solution and interposed between the two principal electrodes wherein the two principal electrodes and the plurality of supplemental electrodes are held in a fixed spatial relationship, and wherein the supplemental electrodes are not connected electrically to a power source, and for each supplemental adjacent electrodes, one is made of high porosity foam based material made substantially of a nickel material (preferably greater than 99% nickel in a foam material where the high porosity electrode results in a composite

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lattice-like configured electrode due to the use of foam and nickel fibers or powder) and the opposing electrode is made substantially of a stainless steel material, wherein said supplemental electrodes results in a (+) and (-) electrical (ionic) current flow that causes the formation of a single combustible gas over an entire surface area of both sides of all electrodes within the electrolyzer. Other configurations of electrodes are permissible however the above configuration has been found to be very effective in producing the desired gas. In a still more preferred embodiment for the electrodes, the supplemental electrodes may be made from a high porosity foam based material made substantially of a nickel material (preferably greater than 99% nickel in a foam material where the high porosity electrode results in a composite lattice-like configured electrode due to the use of foam and nickel fibers or powder). Such material for the electrodes can be obtained as INCO Nickel Foam, C.A.S. No. 7440-02-0 from Inco Special Products in Wyckoff, New Jersey. Typically, the nickel content of this product can vary between 25% and 85% with densities ranging from 1.0 to 2.70 g/cc. Preferably, a nickel content of greater than 99% nickel in the foam plate and about 14% nickel in the stainless steel plates (see below) provides for excellent results in producing the novel oxy- hydric combustible gas. The supplemental electrodes can further be configured so that one of the adjacent supplemental electrodes is made from the foam material and the opposing supplemental electrode is made substantially of a stainless steel material, wherein said supplemental electrodes results in a (+) and () electrical (ionic) current flow that causes the formation of a single combustible gas over an entire surface area of both sides of all electrodes within the electro lyzer. Other configurations of electrodes are permissible; however, the above configuration has been found to be very effective in producing the desired oxyhydric gas.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The technical problem that the invention solves consists in leaning the fuel-air mixture further to passing from the present used quasi-stoichiometric ratio (the d e - f curve) to lean ratios (the a - b - c curve) for partial and high load operating

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regimes, however at the same time assuring the safe ignition as well as the stable and efficient combustion of the fuel-air mixture, see Fig. 2. According to the invention, the method assures the elimination of the disadvantages of the known fuelling method, namely by the fact that for the efficient burning of the lean mixture, the FIHO oxy-hydric gas injection is provided at a pressure level of at least 10 bars inside the cylinder, during the compression stroke, after the intake valve closing, so that the hydrogen volumetric fraction in the fuel mixture should be around of 15% - 25%. These conditions determine a less sensitive combustion process to the fuel-air quality modification and to the compression ratio modification than the pure hydrogen injection. This aspect is highly amplified by the presence, in the HHO oxy-hydric gas composition, of the oxygen molecule, besides hydrogen, in a ratio that is quite close to the stoichiometric one. The lowering-down of the initial combustion stage duration by approximately 15%, in case of the hydrogen injection, is amplified, and becomes approximately 25% in case of the HHO oxyhydric gas injection. Further to applying the invention, the below listed advantages can be obtained: the cut-down of the average fuel consumption of the motor by 5 - 20% the cut-down of the average level of the CO emission by 60 - 80%; the cut-down of the average level of the HC not-burned hydrocarbon emissions by 20 - 30%; the cut-down of the average level of nitrogen oxide emissions by 50 - 70%; and the cut-down of the CO2 level by 5 - 20%.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention refers to a method of using lean mixtures for all operating regimes of a spark ignition engine provided with a gasoline multipoint fuel injection system into the intake valve ports, and with a direct injection system for the HHO oxyhydric gas.

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According to the invention, the method relies in the fact that, besides the classical gasoline, the hydrogen enriched HHO oxy-hydric gas, containing oxygen, too, is also injected into the engine cylinders. The method allows the use of lean mixtures that are characterized by a relative airfuel ratio increased from the actual values, namely 0.99 - 1.01, in case of three-way catalytic reactor engines, to higher values of 1.6 - 1.8, while increasing the compression ratio from 10.0 - 10.5 to 12 - 14. The performances restoration of the engine power is possible by managing the HHO oxy-hydric gas quantity injected into the engine cylinders so that the hydrogen volumetric fractions in the fuel mixture being about 15% - 25%. The decreasing of the burning speed (in the initial stage of the flame kernel formation and development, and in the main stage of flame propagation) which inevitably occurs by mixture leaning, as well as the incomplete combustion tendency, the failed ignition, or the misfire occurrence situations, which particularly leads to the increase of the unburned hydrocarbons concentration in the exhaust gases, are compensated by injecting into the cylinder, after the intake valve closing, the HHO oxy-hydric gas that is rich in hydrogen and contains oxygen, too. The hydrogen enriched HHO oxy-hydric gas, which has a complex composition, is kept in an auxiliary tank 1 , at a maximum pressure of about 15 bars, so that its temperature should not exceed 695 K, and, therefore, the explosion risk, Fig. 3, shall be avoided. The HHO gas flow is electronically controlled so that to maintain the volumetric hydrogen/gasoline fraction in the range 15%-25%. By means of an additional fuelling system provided with an auxiliary tank 1 , a pressure regulator 2, a oneway electromagnetic valve 3 and a flame arrestor 4, the gas is directly supplied into the cylinder 5 (Fig. 4) during the compression stroke, after the intake valve closing, so that to avoid loss of fresh charge from the cylinder.

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The original cylinder head of the multipoint port fuel injection spark ignition engine containing the gasoline injector 6, placed on the intake port 7, the spark

plug 8 and the exhaust port 9, is equipped with the HHO direct in cylinder injector 10 (Fig. 5). The HHO gas injection is performed in electronically controlled quantities at the pressure of at least 10 bars; it is achieved for the engine cylinder 5 by means of the injector 6 whose nozzle gets directly into the combustion chamber. Depending on the engine geometry and operational regime, the initial moment of the HHO oxyhydric gas injection shall be placed between 100 and 60 CAD (Crank Angle Degrees) before the top dead centre at the end of compression stroke in view of avoiding the gas self-ignition and uncontrolled combustion. The stabilized burning of the lean fuel-air mixtures can be achieved due to hydrogen combustion characteristics that involve wide flammability limits, high burning laminar speed and reduced minimum ignition energy. The HHO oxyhydric gas, rich in hydrogen, contains, besides this hydrogen, the necessary oxygen for the extremely rapid combustion process, and no additional oxygen consumption, from the existing air trapped inside the engine is necessary. The injected HHO gas quantity operates like a pilot and it ignites firstly promoting the combustion inside the whole combustion chamber over a lean gasoline-air mixture. The avoidance management of the knock phenomenon, which may occur in the compression ratio increasing, shall be achieved both by combustion stage decreasing, equivalent to an early stage combustion acceleration, and also by diminishing effect of the appearance of hydroxyl radicals further to fuel decomposition during the burning process. The avoidance management of the increasing cyclic variability that occurs when using lean mixtures shall be achieved by the correct positioning, inside the cylinder-head, of the HHO oxy-hydric gas injector, and also by the adequate gas distribution inside the cylinder. Due to the hydrogen diffusivity, approximately 10 times higher than gasoline, it becomes possible to get the ignition of certain generally lean mixtures that, however, contain hydrogen and oxygen within the flammability limits.

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The carbon dioxide (CO2) emission quantity from the spark ignition engine, under the circumstances of applying the new method of using lean mixtures, can be, thus decreased by at most 45%, in other words, approximately by the average relative value of the deviation between the relative fuel-air ratios (1-1/1.7)/l=41%. The method can be associated with constructive solutions for spark ignition engines with downsized cylinder displacement volume, which are provided with supercharging equipments and with performance ignition systems of high power or energy. The method is applied in view of using lean fuel-air mixtures for partial or high load operating regimes related to a spark ignition engine, by also assuring a stable burning process of these mixtures by means of an additionally injection, directly into the cylinder, of some HHO oxy-hydric gas containing hydrogen and oxygen. The lean fuel-air mixtures have, as compared to the rich fuel mixtures, at the same temperature and pressure levels, a narrower range of the flammability limits and a more reduced burning velocity. The compensation of these effects, in order to facilitate ignition and make the combustion process more stable and more efficient, can be achieved by introducing, inside the cylinder, the HHO oxy-hydric electronically controlled gas quantities that would, thus, grant the hydrogen/gasoline volume fractions within the range of 15 - 25%. At the same time, the method makes possible the modification of the spark timing characteristics upon the occurrence of the electric discharge that must go from the usual domain of 12 - 40 RAC, which is characteristic for the stoichiometric engines with intake valve port injection, to the 15 - 50 CAD area which is necessary for the lean mixtures operated engines. All these are due to the large flammability limits and to the high burning speed that is close to that of the molecular hydrogen-oxygen stoichiometric mixture, and that is characteristic of the HHO oxy-hydric gas, which determines the initiation and the rapid development of the flame kernel even for lean fuel mixtures that are improper to the normal operation of the spark ignition engines. According to the invention, it is very important for the method, that rapid and efficient burning process is achieved without any oxygen consumption from that

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corresponding in the air trapped inside the cylinders after the intake valve closing, for the hydrogen combustion. So that, for the method being applied according to the invention, has to be noticed, that besides the knock phenomenon and cyclic variability management, a set of improvement measures on the combustion parameters is achieved, and there has also been noticed that the HHO oxy-hydric gas injection leads to the following:

The use of lean fuel-air mixtures;

The use of high compression ratios, from 10 to 10.5 which are the normal values for the spark ignition stoichiometric engines, to ratios from the diesel engine area, from 12 to 14 It should be understood that the preceding is merely a detailed description of one or more embodiments of this invention and that numerous changes to the disclosed embodiments can be made in accordance with the disclosure herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The preceding description, therefore, is not meant to limit the scope of the invention. Rather, the scope of the invention is to be determined only by the appended claims and their equivalents.

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WINTER OPERATION
Winter Operating Tips Cold weather is here, and many people will be running their Traxxas models in very cold and wet weather conditions. Cold weather can have an effect on any remote control Traxxas model, such as hinder proper nitro engine break-in, require retuning of nitro engines, as well as increased risk of damage to plastic parts, as the cold weather makes parts more brittle. Traxxas does not recommend operating certain models in the snow or rain, however, we do know that there will be many owners eager to run their high-performance Traxxas models regardless of winter's fury. This article will cover the basic precautions of cold and wet weather operation, and give tips for a successful winter outing. A word about wet weather operation: Many Traxxas vehicles can be damaged by exposure to moisture. Running non water-proof Traxxas models in the snow is not a good idea for many reasons. Snow is frozen water, water and electronics DO NOT mix. Although some Traxxas electronics are watertight and do a good job keeping out water, dirt, and debris, most is not waterproof. Traxxas manufactures special waterproof electronics made specifically for wet environments, such as the EVX-2 Electronic Speed Control, #2056 high-torque waterproof servos, and the #3924 sealed receiver box that come equipped in the new E-Maxx (model #3905). Consult your owners manual for more information regarding water resistance. Snow can build up inside your chassis, and surround your on-board electronics i.e., servos, receiver, electronic speed control, etc. As soon as the snow starts to melt, the water will find its way into these components shorting out the vulnerable circuits inside. This can lead to permanent damage. The new E-Maxx can be operated safely in cold, wet environments when properly maintained, and some nitro models can be made to withstand wet weather with certain preparation. Traxxas does not warranty waterdamaged electrical components. If you insist on running your non water-proof Traxxas model in the snow or any wet environment, use extreme caution. Cover your receiver, battery, and other radio gear with a balloon or a waterproof bag. DO NOT allow your speed control

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to get wet, the water will damage it. Do not run any Traxxas model completely submerged underwater.

There are a few things to remember when operating your model in extremely cold weather:

1: To make starting your nitro engine easier in the cold weather, warm your engine up to room temperature before taking it out to run. A very cold engine can be difficult to start.

2: Remember that plastic, and even the metal parts on your model can become brittle in extremely cold weather conditions, causing them to break easily. Use extra care when driving your vehicle in cold weather.

3: If you return from operating in a wet environment, be sure to clean the car, dry it off, and spray a light mist of a moisture inhibitor like WD-40 over the vehicle to prevent rust.

4: The AA batteries that power your nitro vehicle's on-board electronics can also be affected by the cold temperatures, causing them to be down on power, providing sluggish performance. If you've installed brand new batteries into your battery box, and are still having response problems, bring the vehicle inside to warm-up to room temperature before heading back out.

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Always remember to drive with care, and use good judgment when operating your Traxxas model in cold winter conditions.

Breaking in your Traxxas engine correctly is crucial for long engine life and proper performance. These tips will inform you of what you should know, and what you should do during this very important process. During the break-in process, the piston and sleeve wear into each other to form a precise fit. The engine needs to heat up to a certain minimum temperature (at least 200 to 215 degrees) to allow the piston and sleeve to achieve this fit properly. A precise fit between these two components is critical for proper compression, and optimum performance over a long period of time. Proper engine temperature and break-in is especially important during the colder winter months, so that when winter has past, and the engine is operated under warmer running conditions, they will continue to provide the best possible performance and wear. If the engine is too cold during break-in, the engine's piston and sleeve cannot properly expand, resulting in excessive wear and requiring premature component replacement. The engine may run fine for a short while, but the life span of the piston and sleeve can be shortened significantly. For instance, what could have been a five-gallon engine could quickly turn into a two-gallon engine due to improper break-in temperatures (of course this is just a scenario). The life of your engine solely depends on how it is treated through its entire life. This includes 'post' break-in as well, in the form of proper tuning and maintenance.

Cold-weather break-in 1: Warm the engine to approximately room temperature by keeping it indoors. The engine can become difficult to start in cold weather. Note! Do not bring the model indoors with fuel in it. Always remove fuel when storing or transporting the model.

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2: After the engine is running, it is important to keep the temperature of the engine up around 200 to 215 degrees during break-in. In weather below 45 degrees, TRX Racing Engines will not want to run over 160 to 180 degrees (when tuned at proper break-in mixture settings). This is too cool for break-in. Do not lean the engine to get a hotter temperature. This will decrease lubrication as well, and will also cause

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your piston and sleeve to wear prematurely. (Below: TRX 2.5R Racing Engine shown, procedures for TRX 3.3 are the same.)

3: You can wrap the cooling head with a paper towel, clean rag or sock to help keep the engine running around the recommended 200 to 215 break-in temp. The idea is to reduce the efficiency of the cooling fins to allow the engine temperature to rise to an acceptable level. Be careful though, if too much heat is contained, the engine can actually run too hot. Make sure that you monitor the engine's temp closely for the first couple of tanks until you get the right amount of cover for the cooling head. This will, of course, depend on your current weather conditions. Adjusting the cover up and down, exposing more or less cooling fins is a convenient way to regulate engine temps.

4: You can also run an uncut body on the vehicle to block the airflow across the engine to help keep the engine temperature where it needs to be.

5: For owners that do not have access to a temperature probe, a drop of water on the cooling head (around the glow plug area) should slowly sizzle for approximately 6 to 8 seconds around 200 to 210 degrees. If the water sizzles for only a few seconds, then it is likely that it is over 220 degrees, and needs to cool down. If the water takes a long time or does not evaporate at all, then of course, it's too cool. This is highly generalized, we recommend using a temperature probe for more precise measurement if you want to break in your engine in cold weather. 6: We do not recommend that you operate your engine below 35 degrees Fahrenheit. If you insist on running your vehicle below 35 degrees, just make sure you are aware that nitro engines may be very difficult to start and tune at those extremely cold temperatures. Also know that below freezing, nitro fuel can actually begin to gel up, and this can be harmful to the engine.

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INSPECTION SCHEDULE OF PISTON ENGINE


Inspection and maintenance of piston engines IN SITU(i.e., when engines are fitted on aircraft and being in use):

1. Periodical inspections and maintenance practices for 50 hours, 100 hours, 500 hours, 1000 hours as per FAR 43 APPENDIX D. 2. Typical manufacturers check list. 3. Procedure related to: Opening and cleaning Servicing of fuel filters Servicing of oil filters Servicing of fuel pipelines Servicing of oil pipelines Compression testing of cylinder Direct compression check Differential pressure compression check Manufacturers inspection list: S.No Nature of inspection A Propeller group 1. 2. 3. . . . 5. B Engine group 1. 2. 3. . . . 50 X X 100 X X 500 X X 1000 X X

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5. Inspection schedule: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. Opening and cleaning Servicing filters Compression testing on cylinders Magneto inspection Cleaning of spark plug Hardness testing Inspection and maintenance of induction system, air filters, ducting Inspection of fuel systems. Inspection of float type carburettors Inspection of fuel injection system Inspection of firewall seals Inspection and maintenance of engine mounts Inspection of exhaust system Inspection of engine control Inspection and maintenance of engine instruments.

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SERVICING OF OIL FILTERS:

This modification will increase engine oil capacity by approximately one quart. The extra oil improves engine cooling and dilutes the effects of oil break down and contaminates that build up during the oils service interval. Moving the oil filter off the engine block and away from the exhaust system helps cool the oil and makes it easier to access the filters during oil changes. Use a die grinder and clean up all the ports in both the by-pass adapter and the dual oil filter mount to reduce the restrictions and remove any loose flash. Be careful not to damage the threads. Also, examine the o-ring groove in the by-pass adapter for defects that could cut the o-ring and cause a leak. Clean the castings thoroughly when you are through grinding. When finished, all of the oil ports should look like the photo below. The next step is determining where to mount the oil filters. Choices are limited since the engine compartment is so crowded in 4 th generation Firebirds. Lube the oil filter gaskets with clean engine oil and install the oil filters. Tighten the filters the same as you would when installing one on the engine block. The finished assembly should look like the photo below which was taken from the right side of the car.

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SERVICING OF FUEL FILTERS:


A clean fuel filter strains the fuel before it reaches the carburetor and prevents foreign particles from clogging your engine. A dirty fuel filter can make the engine run too lean, with diminished performance and uneven operation. Other factors can cause these problems, but the fuel supply is one of the easiest to check. Some filters are located inside the tank; others are fitted into the fuel line between the tank and the fuel pump. Most use either a mesh screen or pleated paper. The size of the holes in the filter will determine the largest particles that can get through the filter, and the number of holes will affect the amount of fuel that can flow through the filter. Filters contain either a mesh screen or a pleated-paper element, and are rated by the size of the holes in the filtering material, expressed in microns. Briggs & Stratton mesh screen filters are color-coded red for 150 microns, and white for 75 microns. Pleated-paper filters, designed for use in the fuel tank, are typically contained in a clear plastic casing and rated 60 microns. They consist of multiple folds that strain out particles suspended in the fuel. Installation of an inline fuel filter is based on an arrow, which should point towards the carburetor. If no arrow is present, the direction really does not matter. However, if you would like to copy our production line, then place the larger end of the filter towards the fuel tank. Also, when installing an in line fuel filter to an engine for the first time (engine never had a fuel filter to begin with) its always best to install the filter as close to the carburetor fuel inlet as possible, to an area that is not obstructed in any way and is away from any potential source of heat.

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INSPECTING A FUEL FILTER


Wear safety eyewear whenever removing or inspecting a filter to protect our eyes from liquid fuel or fuel vapors. Have a dry cloth handy to hold the filter and catch and dripping fuel. If the filter is installed inside the tank, you will need to drain the tank before you can remove the filter for inspection or replacement.

Shut the fuel valve, if equipped. It's located at the base of the fuel tank, where the fuel line is attached. If your tank is not equipped with a fuel valve, clamp the fuel line, using a fuel line clamp. If your filter is installed in the fuel line, remove the metal clips on each side of the filter, using needle nose pliers, and slide the filter out of the fuel line Shake the filter over a clean cloth to displace any remaining fuel, then use the cloth to wipe away any residue from the outside of the filter. Keep the filter a safe distance from your face and look through one end . You should be able to see light shining through clearly from the other side. If debris is clogging the mesh screen or pleated paper or the inside of the casing, replace the filter.

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SERVICING OF OIL PIPELINES:


An oil replenishment system provides a remote reserve oil tank and the plumbing necessary to fill the main oil tank or tanks of engines, especially aircraft engines during flight. This system includes apparatus to determine the quantity of oil pumped to any one engine so that a quantity gauge is not required on the engine. A selector valve located on the reserve tank which may be remotely controlled directs replenishment oil to the selected engine tank. The system is designed to be powered from the existing on board hydraulic power system. 1. The combination with an airplane having a wing with multiple turbo-jet engines and each having an associated main oil tank mounted thereon, of a supplemental oil system to replenish oil in each main oil tank, said system comprising:

A reserve tank of oil located internally of said airplane; A pipeline connecting said reserve tank to each said main tank; A container having a measured capacity less than that of said reserve tank located in said pipeline; valuing in said pipeline operable to permit the flow of oil from said reserve tank to said container and a distribution valve to control the flow of oil from said container to a selected one of said main tanks; and A force pump to assure the flow of oil from said reserve tank to said container and to each said main tank when free to do so upon the operation of said valuing.

2. The supplemental oil system of claim 1 wherein said reserve tank has a filler opening accessible from the interior of said airplane. 3. The supplemental oil system of claim 1 including a control panel located proximate said reserve tank and connections between said panel and said valving for the operation of the latter from the former. 4. The supplemental oil system of claim 1 wherein said container is a cylinder and said force pump is a piston operable in said cylinder under the power of a reciprocating differential motor. 5. The supplemental oil system of claim 4 wherein said reciprocating differential motor is a hydraulic cylinder controlled by valve means located between it and a source of fluid pressure. 6. The supplemental oil system of claim 4 including a signal generating contact at

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opposite ends of said cylinder engageable by said piston to thereby indicate the location of said piston at each cylinder end.

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COMPERSSION CHECK
The condition of the engine cylinders is important to performance of the engine. At Little Flyers we use two types of cylinder compression checks, differential and direct. Differential Compression Check

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We use the differential compression cylinder test to check the sealing of the piston, rings, and cylinder . In our shop, we test both the top (end of the compression stroke at the top dead center position) and the bottom (just before the exhaust valve opens at the end of the power stroke) of the piston movement. We use special differential compression test gauges for this cylinder check. An adapter is installed in either the top or bottom spark plug hole (which ever is more accessible), and the compression test equipment is then attached to the adapter via a flexible hose. Regulated air pressure (normally 80 PSI indicated by gauge ported to regulator) is sent through the following: a calibrated orifice (restrictor), a shut off valve (our version), a second indicating gauge, a flexible hose, a cylinder adapter, and the cylinder. As the air enters the cylinder, air pressure is indicated on the second pressure gauge. The difference between the regulator indicator gauge and the second gauge is the differential pressure. The drop in air pressure is due to the restriction of air flow limited by the orifice. When the leak of the cylinder is greater than that of the orifice, a lower pressure (leak) is indicated on the second gauge. On a less than perfect cylinder, leaks are due to excessive air passing by the rings, valves, and piston. Engine manufactures publish leak down limits according to what they consider an acceptable leakage rate. The compression gages / orifice can be verified for accuracy by connecting the compression tester to a master test orifice which indicates the maximum allowable leakage rate (drop in

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pressure). Our differential compression tester indicates 65PSI when attached to this orifice. The specifications for the orifice size in the compression tester can be found in the FAA's publication Advisory Circular 43.13-1B paragraph 8-14b. For an engine cylinder having less than a 5.00-inch bore; 0.040-inch orifice diameter; .250 inch long; and a 60-degree approach angle. For an engine cylinder with 5.00 inch bore and over: 0.060 inch orifice diameter, .250 inch long, 60 degree approach angle. The publication specifies a reading of 60/80 with this internal orifice. Direct Compression Check

The direct compression check (like the automotive version) verifies the actual pump action of the cylinder. A pressure gauge is connected to each cylinder which incorporates a check valve at the cylinder end to retain the pumping pressure. The engine is turned with the starter (with the ignition system off) until the gauges stop increasing in pressure. The indicated pressures on the gauges are the direct compression pressures. The direct compression test indicates two things: the actual pumping pressure of the cylinder and the relationship of the pressure with respect to the other cylinders. Any spread of more than 20% on the readings is suspect. Combined results Together the cylinder checks give us a good indication of the cylinders condition. Often a cylinder problem can be detected about 100 to 150 hours in advance of when the cylinder may need repair or replacement.

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Preparations The engine is ground operated until cylinder and oil temperatures stabilize. A ground run is necessary due to the difference in co-efficient of expansion of aluminum (piston) and steel (cylinder), otherwise the compression test may be unreliable. Some cylinders are manufactured with the top bore of the cylinder slightly smaller, it is called choke. Cylinders are choked because the top of the cylinder operates at a higher temperature. When the cylinder expands at operating temperature the bore becomes the same dimension from top to bottom. The engine warm up is usually accomplished as part of the pre-inspection run-up; during this time crankcase pressures are taken. High and increasing case pressure readings will be manifested long before any decay in compression test readings are noticed. Tracking case pressures over a period of time will give a savvy technician additional clues as to cylinder / piston / ring conditions. See TCM SB 89-9 for Continental specifications. We also verify grounding of BOTH magnetos with ignition switch(es) OFF for personal safety and to prevent inadvertent engine firing. The unexpected firing could damage our direct compression test equipment. Compression checks are conducted as soon as possible after shut down to maintain cylinder / piston / ring operating temperature and clearances. Cowling, selected cooling baffles, and intercooler are removed as required; the most accessible spark plug is removed from each cylinder. We quiet the shop environment as much as possible as to detect additional fault clues by sound. Differential Compression Differential compression adapters are installed into each open spark plug hole. Using one adapter will result in progressive cooler cylinders; extra time involved in removing and replacing in other cylinders results in less reliable data. Oil filler cap is removed from filler neck to observe residual vapors and hear possible ring leakage. The differential compression tester is connected to shop air and to one of the previously installed compression adapters. An assistant turns the prop in the normal direction of rotation until he feels the resistance of compression. the piston is stopped just short of its full travel. The technician turns on the compression tester air valve while assistant holds prop in position. The technician adjusts the in gauge to indicate 80 PSI with the air regulator. The out gauge (second) on the down streamside of the calibrated orifice is read and recorded.

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Now, the assistant continues to turn the prop in normal direction of rotation always keeping some air pressure against piston and rings; the assistant stops turning just before exhaust valve opens. The out gauge is then read and recorded. The test proceeds on to the remaining cylinders. Compression readings are taken at both top and bottom of the piston stroke for more data. We are alert for following when taking differential readings: 1. Ring snap on applying air pressure that may indicate worn rings and piston ring lands. 2. 3. 4. Air noise / vapors from oil filler neck indicating leakage past piston rings. Air noise from induction system opening indicating intake valve leakage. Air noise from exhaust system opening(s) indicating exhaust valve leakage.

5. Any suspected leakage between cylinder head and barrel is checked with a soap solution (that will bubble if seal is defective). 6. Air leakage between head and barrel cooling fins, with piston toward bottom of stroke indicates cylinder barrel cracks. 7. A differential of 6 PSI or more between top and bottom usually indicates cylinder bore / ring problems.

We recheck any low cylinder, we DO NOT condemn cylinders (unless cracked) on the basis of only one test. Skill and experience are required to properly interpret excess leakage. Static leakage normally requires immediate repairs / replacement before continuing in service. If all readings are low, we check our compression tester with Burroughs Test Orifice TCM pn: 646953. The differential test equipment is then removed from the engine.

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Direct Compression We install direct compression adapters and gauges on all cylinders as single cylinder checks do not reveal as much useful data. Magnetos are grounded to prevent cylinder firing during direct compression test.Throttle is open, mixture control is selected to idle cut off The engine is cranked using auxiliary power if required) until gauges cease to rise in pressure (about 12 revolutions). Direct readings are then recorded. An engine with good compression on all cylinders will crank with consistent rhythm and sound. Evaluating Readings Readings will vary with test equipment, techniques, engine temperatures and type / grade of oil. Subsequent tests may result in varied readings. Rocking the prop can usually increase differential readings. Lycoming engines generally seal better and have higher readings than Continental. Continental engines with steel inserted piston ring lands generally exhibit more normal ring leakage. Nearly equal top and bottom differential figures reflect desirable bores. Sticking / stuck rings can cause erratic readings. Direct readings should be proportional to compression ratios. Expect high compression engines to be 140-170 PSI, 80 Octane engines 120-140 PSI and Turbo-charged engines 100-130 PSI. Engines with equal direct readings tend to run smooth. A 20% spread between low and high cylinders is considered normal. Excess spreads may be caused by a mixture of high and low compression pistons, mixture of standard and oversize bores. Excess build-up of carbon from rich mixture or excess upper cylinder oil will result in higher than normal readings. A low direct reading with good differential reading may indicate a lower compression piston, sticky valve, or severely worn cam lobe(s). A higher than normal direct compression reading (with normal differential reading) may indicate a high compression piston installed or excess head welding that was not properly profiled. Oversize bores may indicate slightly higher pressures. Cylinders having low readings with both differential and direct compression should be carefully checked out before returning to service. A direct compression test (even cold) on a cylinder replacement will alert you to possible wrong piston configuration and excess remaining head welding material.

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MAGNETO CHECK BASICS


Now for some standardization of terminology an important aspect because we are certain this is where some of the Confusion arises. Magneto checks are normally carried out only on the ground, and there are three distinct types. Dead cut check One magneto is switched off in order to see if the engine will run on the other one. If not, the result will be a dead cut. Live mag check Both magnetos are switched off momentarily in order to ensure that the engine does cease Running. If it continues to run then one of the magnetos must be continuously electrically live. Mag drop check Each magneto is switched off in turn to ascertain and compare the drop in rpm that occurs when running on each individual magneto. Dead Cut and Live Mag Checks There appears to be some confusion between the dead cut check and the live mag check. This may be because both are usually done at the same point in the aircraft checklist, and also because the live mag check should in fact produce a dead cut. Dead cut checks and live mag checks are usually done around 1000 rpm. Dead cut checks are normally carried out at some stage before the engine run up, and again just before shutdown. Live mag checks are carried out at both these times, at neither of these times, or just during the pre-shutdown check. There are different opinions on this, so consult the information supplied by the engine/aircraft manufacturer, or the owner/ operator of the aircraft you are using. Before Run up The primary purpose of the dead cut check after start up is to ensure that both magnetos are delivering sufficient electrical energy to the spark plugs an important fact to establish before carrying out the mag drop check. Why is it important?

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Imagine for a moment that one magneto is completely dead and that this was not discovered before the run up. With the engine at high power, you carry out a mag drop check and instant silence! Now this is not the way to treat an engine, but if you are a normal human being you are probably about to do something worse to it. The usual reaction to the silence is to immediately switch the magnetos back on, and this is when the engine can suffer substantial damage. A live mag check after start up can uncover more subtle dangers, and if one magneto is found to be live when switched off, then the flight must not proceed. For one thing, it will not be possible to carry out a meaningful mag drop check during the run up. The real danger, however, lies in the possible causes of the magneto being live. These may be benign, but they could also include a loose lead, which could arc and start a fire. Some manufacturers may advise against the live mag check, stating that it could cause damage to the engine. This would be the case if the switch was held too long in the OFF position or the check was done at an rpm setting that was too high. Before Shutdown The main purpose behind both dead cut and live mag checks before shutting the engine down is to enable early discovery of any fault that may have developed during the flight. Such a fault is better discovered at this stage than during the prerun up check on the next flight. In addition, there is a good safety reason for the live mag check before shutdown; if one magneto is live, then the propeller can be lethal until the fault is rectified. Even though you may treat the propeller as live at all times (and you do, dont you?) there are others Who may not? A typical key magneto switch used in many light aircraft. Practically all current piston-engine aircraft have dual ignition systems, ie, two sets of spark plugs, each set supplied with electrical power by its own associated magneto (which is normally designated left or right). The engine controls will include some form of switch system with which the magnetos can be switched on and off, individually or together. The type of switch varies from aircraft to aircraft, but is usually either a set of toggle switches (one for each magneto) or a rotary switch (which may be key operated). The rotary switch has four settings, eg, OFF, RIGHT, LEFT, and BOTH. For something as basic to piston-engine operation as magneto checks, it is surprising how much misunderstanding exists. It is essential that pilots understand aircraft magneto systems. Here is a reminder of the basics

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The Mag Drop Check The mag drop check is carried out to ascertain if either magneto is equally capable of sustaining ignition at typical in-flight power settings. The particular rpm setting at which the check is done is not very important for the purposes of the check, but other engine handling considerations will usually mean a recommendation from the engine or aircraft manufacturer for an rpm setting from the low end of the cruise power range. From the magneto checking point of view, the important aspect is that the check on any particular aircraft should be done consistently at the same rpm, so that any trend can be monitored. There is little to be gained, for example, in comparing todays 150 rpm drop at 2000 rpm with yesterdays 100 rpm drop at 1700 rpm. ... if one magneto is found to be live when switched off, then the flight Must not proceed. For horizontally opposed engines, the amount of rpm drop is not as important as the difference in the drop between the two magnetos. A drop of 175 rpm on each should be of no concern, if the drop is smooth, is similar for each magneto, is consistent with previous engine runs, and is within the range stated by the manufacturer. How much variation can you accept between the two rpm drops? The answer will vary and you should check the manufacturers handbook but 50 rpm difference, at most, would be a typical figure. Once again, trend monitoring may give a better guide to the health of the two ignition systems. Magneto Checking Techniques The dead cut and live mag checks are done at low rpm setting and should do no harm to the engine. Once the desired effect (continued running for dead cut, engine cutting for live mag) has been noted, however, proceed without undue delay to the next switch setting. (In the following discussion, when we refer to a rotary type switch, we assume it to have the layout shown in our illustration of a key-operated switch. The lever-operated switch illustrated, from a Super Cub, has R and L in the opposite sequence, and our comments would need to be transposed.) Dead Cut and Live Magneto Checks Combining both dead cut and live mag checks, the sequence for a rotary type switch should be: BOTH (normal) LEFT (no dead cut engine runs on left mag) RIGHT (no dead cut engine runs on right mag) OFF momentarily (engine stops there are no live mags)

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BOTH (back to normal) A rotary type magneto switch used in a Piper Super Cub. Toggle switches For toggle switches, it doesnt matter which mag you test first, but again do the checks without undue delay: First magneto OFF (no dead cut engine runs on second mag) and ON (back to normal) Second magneto OFF (no dead cut engine runs on first mag) and ON (back to normal) Both magnetos OFF momentarily (engine stops there are no live mags) and ON (back to normal) The live mag check may be omitted if it is against manufacturers Recommendations. In this case, remember to check for a live Magneto when doing the mag drop check. Magneto Drop Check The mag drop check must be done differently from the other checks. It is done at a higher rpm setting and at no stage are both magnetos switched off. Also, as the size of the rpm drop is being noted and remembered by the pilot for comparison, VECTOR Pointing to Safer Aviation March / April 2008 www.caa.govt.nz 15 Continued over... there will be a tendency and a need to run the engine for a longer period on each individual magneto. This is fine, indeed the time should be sufficient for the rpm to stabilize. At the other end of the scale, however, do not run on one magneto for extended periods, as the fouling of the dead set of spark plugs with fuel and oil may reach an unacceptable level. The other major difference between a mag drop check and the other two checks is in the sequence of switching. For a rotary type switch it should be: BOTH (normal) LEFT (rpm drops, after a few seconds note reading) BOTH (pause) RIGHT (rpm drops, after a few seconds note reading) BOTH (back to normal)

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For toggle switches: First magneto OFF (rpm drops, after a few seconds note reading) and ON (back to normal) Pause Second magneto OFF (rpm drops, after a few seconds note reading) and ON (back to normal) The reason for returning to BOTH with a rotary switch (and an equivalent pause with both magnetos ON for a toggle switch system) is primarily to let the engine stabilize at normal rpm. This gives each magneto a common starting point, making comparison of the two rpm drops valid. Also, the short period on BOTH lets the oil and fuel burn off the first set of spark plugs that were shut down. Finally, a caution for those who carry out mag drop checks using rotary switch systems. When moving from BOTH to RIGHT, the switch must pass through the LEFT position; it is easy to overshoot to OFF. Our advice is that you practice the switching sequence with the engine not running until you get the feel of the switch installation. If you do inadvertently overshoot to the OFF position during runup, try to overcome the natural reaction of immediately switching it back on. Having to restart the engine is not as embarrassing as having to rebuild it.

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FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM


Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary system used in automotive engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s. A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle: gasoline (petrol), Autogas (LPG, also known as propane), ethanol, methanol, methane (natural gas), hydrogen or diesel. The majority of fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted common hardware to be used with multiple different fuels. For gasoline engines, carburetors were the predominant method to meter fuel before the widespread use of fuel injection. However, a wide variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine. The primary functional difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream. Objectives The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of supplying fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular system will be optimized. There are several competing objectives such as:

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power output fuel efficiency emissions performance ability to accommodate alternative fuels reliability driveability and smooth operation initial cost maintenance cost

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diagnostic capability range of environmental operation

Certain combinations of these goals are conflicting, and it is impractical for a single engine control system to fully optimize all criteria simultaneously. In practice, automotive engineers strive to best satisfy a customer's needs competitively. The modern digital electronic fuel injection system is far more capable at optimizing these competing objectives than a carburetor.

Typical EFI components

Animated cut through diagram of a typical fuel injector.


Injectors Fuel Pump Fuel Pressure Regulator ECM - Engine Control Module; includes a digital computer and circuitry to communicate with sensors and control outputs. Wiring Harness Various Sensors (Some of the sensors required are listed here.)

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Crank/Cam Position: Hall effect sensor Airflow: MAF sensor, sometimes this is inferred with a MAP sensor Exhaust Gas Oxygen: Oxygen sensor, EGO sensor, UEGO sensor

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Throttle body injection Throttle-body injection (called TBI by General Motors and Central Fuel Injection (CFI) by Ford) or single-point injection was introduced in the mid1980s as a transition technology toward individual port injection. The TBI system injects fuel at the throttle body (the same location where a carburetor introduced fuel). The induction mixture passes through the intake runners like a carburetor system, and is thus labelled a "wet manifold system". The justification for the TBI/CFI phase was low cost. Many of the carburetor's supporting components could be reused such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Most of these components were later redesigned for the next phase of fuel injection's evolution, which is individual port injection, commonly known as MPFI or "multi-point fuel injection". TBI was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks in the 1980 to 1995 timeframe and some transition-engined European cars throughout the early and mid 1990s.

Continuous injection Bosch's K-Jetronic (K for kontinuierlich, German for "continuous") was introduced in 1974. In this system, fuel sprays constantly from the injectors, rather than being pulsed in time with the engine's intake strokes. Gasoline is pumped from the fuel tank to a large control valve called a fuel distributor, which separates the single fuel supply pipe from the tank into smaller pipes, one for each injector. The fuel distributor is mounted atop a control vane through which all intake air must pass, and the system works by varying fuel volume supplied to the injectors based on the angle of the air vane, which in turn is determined by the volume flowrate of air past the vane, and by the control pressure. The control pressure is regulated with a mechanical device called the control pressure regulator (CPR) or the warm-up regulator (WUR). Depending on the model, the CPR may be used to compensate for altitude, full load, and/or a cold engine. On cars equipped with an oxygen sensor, the fuel mixture is adjusted by a device called the frequency valve. The injectors are simple spring-loaded check valves with nozzles; once fuel system pressure becomes high enough to overcome the counterspring, the injectors begin spraying. K-Jetronic was used for many years between 1974 and the mid 1990s by BMW, Lamborghini, Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Ford, Porsche, Audi, Saab, and Volvo. There was also a variant of the system called KE-Jetronic with electronic instead of mechanical control of the control pressure.

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In piston aircraft engines, continuous-flow fuel injection is the most common type. In contrast to automotive fuel injection systems, aircraft continuous flow fuel injection is all mechanical, requiring no electricity to operate. Two common types exist: the Bendix RSA system, and the TCM system. The Bendix system is a direct descendant of the pressure carburetor. However, instead of having a discharge valve in the barrel, it uses a flow divider mounted on top of the engine, which controls the discharge rate and evenly distributes the fuel to stainless steel injection lines which go to the intake ports of each cylinder. The TCM system is even more simple. It has no venturi, no pressure chambers, no diaphragms, and no discharge valve. It simply uses a butterfly valve for the air which is linked by a mechanical linkage to a rotary valve for the fuel. Inside the control unit is another restriction which is used to control the fuel mixture. From the control unit, fuel flows to the flow divider, then through the lines to the injectors. Central port injection (CPI) General Motors implemented a system called "central port injection" (CPI) or "central port fuel injection" (CPFI). It uses tubes with poppet valves from a central injector to spray fuel at each intake port rather than the central throttle-body[citation needed] . The 2 variants were CPFI from 1992 to 1995, and CSFI from 1996 and [citation needed] . CPFI is a batch-fire system, in which fuel is injected to all ports on simultaneously. The 1996 and later CSFI system sprays fuel sequentially

Multi-point fuel injection Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold, referred to as SPFI, or single point fuel injection. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders. All modern EFI systems utilize sequential MPFI. Some Toyotas and other Japanese cars from the 1970s to the early 1990s used an application of Bosch's multipoint L-Jetronic system manufactured under license by DENSO.

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Direct injection Main article: Gasoline Direct Injection Many diesel engines feature direct injection (DI). The injection nozzle is placed inside the combustion chamber and the piston incorporates a depression (often toroidal) where initial combustion takes place. Direct injection diesel engines are generally more efficient and cleaner than indirect injection engines. See also Highpressure Direct Injection (HDi). Some recent petrol engines utilize direct injection as well: Ford, Mazda(DISI), BMW, GM(SIDI), Hyundai (GDI), Kia (GDI), Nissan, Lexus, Subaru, Saab, Saturn, Mitsubishi(GDI), Volkswagen and Audi (FSI) (for Fuel Stratified Injection). This is the next step in evolution from multi port fuel injection and offers another magnitude of emission control by eliminating the "wet" portion of the induction system.

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INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ENGINE CONTROLS, EXHAUST SYSTEM, AND INDUCTION SYSTEM & AIR FILTERS
1. An internal combustion engine comprised of a cylinder block forming at least one cylinder bore, a cylinder head affixed at one end of said cylinder block and closing one end of said cylinder bore, a crankcase chamber formed at the other end of said cylinder block and closed by a crankcase member affixed relative to said cylinder block, said crankcase member having a first surface facing a surface of said cylinder head that faces said cylinder block and an outer surface facing away from said cylinder block, a crankshaft rotatably journaled within said crankcase chamber and driven by a piston reciprocating in said cylinder bore, an intake passage formed in said cylinder head and extending from one side of said cylinder head to said cylinder bore, and an induction system comprised of a surge tank juxtaposed to said outer surface of said crankcase member so that said surge tank is disposed at the opposite end of said cylinder bore from said cylinder head and an intake pipe extending from said surge tank to said cylinder head intake passage. 2. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 1, wherein there are a plurality of cylinder bores and intake passages and wherein there is provided a plurality of intake pipes each serving a respective one of said intake passages from said surge tank. 3. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 2 wherein the intake pipes have portions that extend in parallel, side-by-side relationship along a substantial portion of the cylinder block. 4. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 3, wherein the intake pipes have discharge portions that extend from the parallel, side-by-side portions to the cylinder head intake passages, said discharge portions diverging from each other in the direction toward said cylinder head intake passages, said intake pipes having inlet portions extending from said parallel side-by-side portions to the surge tank which inlet portions enter the surge tank at different locations so as to maintain

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substantially the same length from said surge tank to said cylinder head intake passages for each of the intake pipes. 5. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 1 further including a fuel injector for injecting fuel into the intake passage. 6. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 5 further including a fuel supply system for supplying fuel to the fuel injector and including at least one portion of said fuel supply system passing through the surge tank. 7. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 6, wherein the fuel supply system includes a vapor separator formed in the surge tank and separated therefrom by an integral wall of the surge tank. 8. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 7, wherein there are a plurality of cylinder bores and intake passages and wherein there is provided a plurality of intake pipes each serving a respective one of said intake passages from said surge tank. 9. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 8, when the fuel supply system further includes a high-pressure fuel pump contained within the vapor separator. 10. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 9, wherein there are additionally formed at least one fuel conduit passing through an exterior wall of the surge tank. 11. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 10, further including a return conduit for returning fuel to the vapor separator through an exterior wall of the surge tank. 12. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 11, wherein the conduits further have portions that are nested within an area encompassed by the intake pipes.

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13. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 1, wherein the cylinder is horizontally disposed. 14. An internal combustion engine as set forth in claim 13, wherein the engine is utilized in combination with an outboard motor for driving a propulsion device of said outboard motor and wherein said engine is contained within a powerhead of said outboard motor and is encircled by a protective cowling of said powerhead. 15. An induction system for an a multiple cylinder internal combustion engine having a cylinder block with a plurality of in line cylinders defined cylinder bores having parallel axes, a cylinder head closing one end of said cylinder bores and a crankcase member closing the other end of said cylinder bores, said induction system including a surge tank disposed along one side of said cylinder block at a distance from said cylinder head in the direction of said cylinder bore axes such that said surge tank is closer to said crankcase member than said cylinder head, said surge tank feeding the engine cylinders through a plurality of inlet pipes that extend along said one side of said cylinder block, said inlet pipes having intermediate portions extending in parallel side by side relation to each other and to said cylinder bore axes, discharge portions that extend from one end of the parallel side by side intermediate portions to the engine cylinders and which diverge from each other, and inlet portions extending from the other ends of said parallel side by side intermediate portions and entering said surge tank in staggered locations in the direction of said cylinder bore axes so that the lengths of said inlet pipes are substantially equal. 16. An induction system as set forth in claim 15, wherein the intake pipes communicate with the combustion chambers through intake ports formed in a cylinder head of the engine. 17. An induction system as set forth in claim 16, wherein the intake ports are all spaced the same distance from the surge tank. 18. An induction system as set forth in claim 17, wherein the inlet pipes enter the surge tank at different locations so as to maintain substantially the same length for each of the inlet pipes.

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19. An induction system as set forth in claim 18, wherein the inlet pipes entry into the surge tank lie at different distances from the intake ports. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an induction system for an engine and more particularly to an improved induction system for a marine propulsion engine. The induction system for an internal combustion engine is obviously a very important factor in determining the performance of the engine. Generally, the charging efficiency for the engine can be improved under at least some running conditions by employing a plenum or surge chamber into which atmospheric air is inducted. This plenum chamber then serves the cylinders of the engine through an inlet tracts or runners which extend from the surge chamber to the combustion chamber. By appropriately sizing the volume of the surge chamber and the length and diameter of the runners, the engine may be tuned to provide optimum performance at the desired running conditions. Where the engine has multiple cylinders, it is not always practical to utilize multiple surge chambers. In addition, by providing a common surge chamber and if all other factors are appropriately designed, some economies of size and can be obtained. This latter factor is particularly important when the engine is employed in a marine propulsion system such as an outboard motor. Obviously, outboard motors provide a significant challenge for engine designers because of their compact nature. In addition to being relatively compact, the engine in an outboard motor is surrounded for the most part by a protective cowling to protect the engine from the water. This further limits however, the ability of the engine to induct air and also further dictates the design of the induction system. It is, therefore, a principal object to this invention to provide an improved induction system for an internal combustion engine. It is a further object of this invention to provide an improved induction system for a marine propulsion engine and particularly having multiple cylinders and utilized in the powerhead of an outboard motor. When a single surge tank is used for a multiple cylinder engine, another design factor is important. This is that the individual induction passages that extend to the individual cylinders should have substantially the same length. At times this length also should be relatively substantial. With the space constraints in outboard motors and other applications having restricted space availability this is an not insignificant problem. It is, therefore, another principle object of the invention to provide a compact and

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high efficiency induction system for a multiple cylinder engine. For a variety of reasons, there is considerable emphasis on applying four-cycle engines for the power plant of an outboard motor to replace the more conventionally employed two-cycle engines. This presents additional problems, particularly in the design of the induction system. With a four-cycle engine, the air is basically inducted into the crankcase chamber which is at a position spaced from the cylinder head. With four-cycle engines, on the other hand, the induction system feeds the intake charge to the combustion chambers generally through the cylinder head. Because of the other ancillaries associated with the cylinder head, this minimizes the space available in this area for the induction system. It is, therefore, yet another object of this invention to provide an improved induction system for a four-cycle outboard motor engine. In the form of both improved power output and also better fuel economy and exhaust emission control, the utilization of fuel injection is considered. Fuel injection permits greater control over the fuel flow and particularly under transient conditions. However, fuel injection systems, particularly as utilized in outboard motors require a number of components which also raise space problems due to the compact nature of outboard motors. It is, therefore, a still further object of this invention to provide an improved fuel injection system for an outboard motor. It is a further object of this invention to provide an improved and compact fuel injection and induction system for an outboard motor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A first feature of this invention is adapted to be embodied in an internal combustion engine that is comprised of a cylinder block that forms at least one cylinder bore. A cylinder head is affixed at one end of the cylinder block and closes one end of the cylinder bore. A crankcase chamber is formed at the other end of the cylinder block and is closed and formed by a crankcase member that is also fixed relative to the cylinder block. A crankcase is rotatably journaled in the crankcase chamber and is driven by a piston that reciprocates in the cylinder bore. An intake passage is formed in the cylinder head and extends from one side of the cylinder head. An intake pipe extends from the one side of the cylinder head from the intake passage and terminates at a surge tank that is positioned at a side of the crankcase

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number that is spaced from the cylinder block. Another feature of the invention is also adapted to be embodied in a multiple cylinder internal combustion engine. The engine is provided with an induction system that includes a surge tank or plenum chamber that feeds the engine cylinders through a plurality of inlet pipes. The inlet pipes enter the surge tank in staggered locations so that their lengths are substantially equal. Yet another feature of the invention is also adapted to be embodied in an internal combustion engine. The engine is provided with an induction system that includes a surge tank or plenum chamber that feeds the engine cylinders through one or more inlet pipes. A fuel injection system is provided that injects fuel into the combustion chamber or chambers of the engine. The fuel injector is supplied with fuel from a fuel supply system that is formed at least in part integrally in the surge tank. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION Referring now in detail to the drawings and initially to FIG. 1, an outboard motor constructed in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is identified generally by the reference numeral 11 and is shown as attached to a transom 12 of a watercraft, indicated generally by the reference numeral 13 and which is shown in phantom. The invention is described in conjunction with an outboard motor such as the outboard 11 because the invention has particularly utility and marine propulsion systems such as outboard motors because of their compact construction and spacial requirements. It will be apparent, however, to those skilled in the art that certain facts of the invention may be utilized with other types of applications for internal combustion engines. The outboard motor 11 is comprised of a powerhead that consists of powering internal combustion engine 14 and a surrounding protective cowling, indicated generally by the reference numeral 15. This cowling includes a lower tray portion 16 which is formed from a rigid lightweight material such as aluminum or aluminum alloy. An upper main cowling portion 17 is detachably connected to the tray 16 in a known manner. The main cowling portion 17 is preferably formed from an even lighter weight material than the tray 16 such as a molded fiberglass reinforced resin or the like. As will become apparent by reference to the remaining figures, the engine 14 is mounted in the powerhead so that its output shaft, a crankshaft, rotates about a

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vertically extending axis, as is typical with outboard motor practice. This is done so as to facilitate connection between the engine output shaft and a drive shaft 18. The drive shaft 18 depends from the powerhead through a drive shaft housing 19 and into a lower unit 21. There the drive shaft 18 drives a propeller shaft 22 through a conventional bevel gear reversing transmission 23. A propeller 24 is affixed to the propeller shaft 22 for propelling the watercraft 13 in a well known manner. A steering shaft (not shown) is connected by means of an upper bracket assembly 25 and lower bracket assembly 26 to the drive shaft housing 19. This steering shaft is, in turn, journaled within a swivel bracket 27 for steering of the outboard motor 11 about a vertically extending steering axis defined by this steering shaft. A tiller 28 is affixed to the upper end of the steering shaft for steering of the outboard motor 11 in a known manner. A pivot pin 29 connects the swivel bracket 17 to a clamping bracket 31. The clamping bracket 31 is, in turn, affixed to the watercraft transom 12 in a manner known in the art. Pivotal movement about the pivot pin 29 permits tilt and trim movement of the outboard motor 11 as is well known in this art. Because the invention deals primarily with engine 14 and the induction and charge forming system for it, further details of the construction of the outboard motor 11 will not be described. Where any component is either not shown or has not been described, reference may be had to any known prior art construction for an appropriate construction that can be utilized to practice the invention. Referring now in detail primarily to the remaining figures, the construction of the engine 14 will be described in more detail. In the illustrated embodiment, the engine 14 is of the four-cylinder inline type and which operates on a four-cycle principal. Although the number of cylinders employed in the engine may vary and certain features of the invention may be utilized with two-cycle engines, certain features of the invention have particularly utility in conjunction with multi-cylinder four-cycle engines. The engine 14 is comprised of a cylinder block 32 which is preferably formed from a lightweight material such as aluminum or aluminum alloy in which cylinder bores 33 are formed. In the illustrated embodiment, the cylinder bores 33 are formed by pressed cast or plated thin wall liners although other types of constructions obviously can be employed for forming the cylinder bores 33. The cylinder bores 33 are formed so that their axes extend in a horizontal direction with one being positioned vertically above the other. The cylinder bore axis lie in the common vertical plane. One end of the cylinder bores 33 is closed by a cylinder head assembly 34 that is

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detachably connected to the cylinder block 32 at one end thereof. The cylinder head assembly 34 has individual recesses 35 that cooperate with the cylinder bores 33 to form in part the combustion chambers therefore. Although the invention is described in conjunction with an embodiment when the cylinder head assembly 34 is detachable. It will be also understood that the invention can be employed in conjunction with engines having integral cylinder head and cylinder block assemblies. A crankcase chamber 36 is formed at the end of the cylinder block 32 opposite the cylinder head 34 by a skirt 37 of the cylinder block and a crankcase member 38 that is detachably connected thereto. A crankshaft 39 is rotatably journeyed in the crankcase chamber 37 in any known manner. Pistons 41 reciprocate in each of the cylinder bores 32. Piston pins 42 connect the pistons 41 to the upper or small ends of connecting rods 43. The lower or big ends of the connecting rods 43 are journaled on individual throws 44 of the crankshaft 39 in a well known manner. A plurality of intake passages 45 are formed in the cylinder head assembly 34 and extend from valve seats 46 which form the intake ports in the cylinder head recess 35. These intake passages 45 terminate in a vertically extending side of the engine 14 and specifically the cylinder head assembly 34. They are served by an induction system, indicated generally by the reference numeral 47 in a manner which will be described later. Poppet type intake valves 48 are supported in the cylinder head assembly 34 in a known manner. These intake valves 48 are urged to their closed position by coil compression springs 49 acting through keeper retainer assemblies 51 in a known manner. A plurality of exhaust passages 52 extend from exhaust ports formed by exhaust valve seats 53 in the cylinder head recesses 35. These exhaust passages 52 extend on the side of the engine opposite the intake passages 45. These passages 52 curve downwardly toward the cylinder block 32 so as to meet and discharge into runner sections 54 of an exhaust manifold 55 that is formed integrally within the cylinder block 32. This exhaust manifold 55 extends downwardly to meet with an exhaust system (not shown) formed in the drive shaft housing 19 and lower unit 21 for the discharge of exhaust gases to the atmosphere. Any type of exhaust system known in the art may be employed for this purpose. The flow through the exhaust passages 52 is controlled by exhaust valves 56 that are slidably supported in the cylinder head assembly 34. Coil compression springs 57 urge these exhaust valves 56 to their closed position through cooperation with keeper retainer assemblies 58 that are affixed to the stems of the valves 56 in a

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known manner. The intake and exhaust valves 48 and 56 are opened by means of respective intake and exhaust rocker arm assemblies 59 and 61. These rocker arm assemblies 59 and 61 are journaled on a vertically extending rocker arm shaft 62 that is fixed to the cylinder head assembly 34 in a known manner. A camshaft 63 is journaled in the cylinder head assembly 34 also in a known manner and has individual lobes that cooperate with followers of the rocker arms 59 and 61 for opening the intake and exhaust valves 48 and 56, respectively in a manner known in this art. The camshaft 63 is driven by a timing drive at one-half crankshaft speed. This timing drive is shown best in FIGS. 2, 4 and 5 and is comprised of a first or driving sprocket 63 that is affixed to an end of the crankshaft 39 that extends vertically upwardly through the upper end of the cylinder block 32 and crankcase member 38. This sprocket drives a toothed timing belt 64 which, in turn, drives a driven sprocket 65 that is fixed to the camshaft 65 in a known manner. Although a toothed belt drive is depicted and described, it will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that other types of camshaft drives may be employed. A timing case cover 67 is affixed to the upper end of the engine and at least partially encloses the timing drive and specifically the belt 65 and sprocket 64 and 66. In a like manner, the camshaft 63 and rocker arm assembly contained at the upper portion of the cylinder head assembly 34 is enclosed by a cam cover 68. Although they do not appear in the figures, spark plugs are also mounted in the cylinder head assembly 34 for firing the combustible charge delivered to the combustion chambers 35. These spark plugs are fired by an ignition system that includes a flywheel magneto assembly 69 that is affixed to the upper end of the crankshaft 39 above the timing case 67. A flywheel cover 71 is affixed to the engine in an appropriate manner and encloses the flywheel magneto 69. The flywheel magneto 69 is provided with a ring gear 72 that cooperates with a starter motor (not shown) for electric starting of the engine 14. The induction and charge forming system for the engine 14 will now be described beginning initially with the air induction system. This system appears in FIGS. 2-5. This system includes a combined plenum chamber, vapor separator outer housing assembly, indicated generally by the reference numeral 73. This includes a pair of side housing pieces 74 and 75 that are affixed to each other via an intermediate dividing wall 76 so as to form a plenum chamber volume 77 and a vapor separator volume 78. This assembly 73 is mounted on the crankcase chamber side of the engine by means of a pair of mounting posts 79 formed either integrally with or detachably connected to the crankcase member 38 with an air space formed there between so

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as to avoid heat transfer between the crankcase chamber 36 and the housing assembly 73. Atmospheric air is admitted to the plenum chamber volume 77 through atmospheric inlet 80 in which a throttle valve is positioned. This assembly is affixed to the upper end of the assembly 73. Either affixed to or forming a portion of the housing 74 are a plurality of runner sections of the induction system 47. These runner sections are comprised of a pair of outer runner sections 81 and 82 that extend to the upper and lower cylinder head intake passages 45. In order to maintain a compact assembly, the sections 81 and 82 are disposed relatively close to each other along the major side of the length of the cylinder block 32 where they then bend outwardly so as to meet up with and join the upper and lower cylinder head intake passages 45. The runners further include a pair of side-by-side inner runners 83 and 84 which are nested between the runners 81 and 82 and serve the no. 2 and 3 cylinders, respectively, counting from top to bottom. It should be seen that these runners 83 and 84 are spaced further in the direction of the cylinder bore axis from the entry of the runners 81 and 82 into the plenum chamber volume 77. This offset is indicated by the dimension e 1 in FIG. 4. Also, these runners are disposed transversely outwardly relative to the runners 81 and 82 by a distance e 2 as seen in FIG. 5. This is done so that each of the runners 81, 82, 83 and 84 will have substantially the same length while accommodating the difference in their configuration so as to permit them to be configured so as to keep a compact configuration while still maintaining the desired equal length for each runner. The manifold body formed by the runners 81, 82, 83 and 84 which forms the major portion of the induction system 47 is also formed with a injector receiving body portion, indicated generally by the reference numeral 85 which is disposed adjacent the side where the runners meet the cylinder head inlet passages 45. Fuel injectors 86 are mounted in these portions and are disposed so as to spray fuel through discharge passages 87 formed therein which register with the cylinder head intake passages 45 at their inlet openings. The fuel injectors 86 can be of any known type but preferably are electronically controlled and must have electric solenoids that operate their injectors valve for controlling the timing and duration of fuel spray through the passage 87 into the cylinder head intake passages 45. The system for supplying fuel to the fuel injectors 86 will now be described and this includes, as has been previously noted, the vapor separator chamber indicated by the reference numeral 78. The fuel supply system for supplying fuel to the fuel injectors 86 includes a number of components mounted on the side of the engine

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14 adjacent the fuel vapor separator cavity 78. These components include a main fuel filter 88 that receives fuel from a remotely positioned fuel pump through a conduit 89. Fuel is drawn through the fuel filter 88 through a pair of conduits 91 and 92 to a low pressure pump 93. The low pressure pump 93 is mounted on the crankcase 38 and may be driven by the crankshaft in any suitable manner. Fuel is then pumped to the vapor separator cavity 78 through a supply conduit 94. This fuel enters the cavity 78 and is maintained at a suitable level by a float-operated valve (not shown). Mounted within the cavity 78 is a high-pressure electrically driven pump 95 that pressurizes the fuel and then causes the fuel to flow through a conduit 95 which passes through the body 73 and which, in turn, then delivers the fuel to a pressure conduit 96. This conduit 96 terminates at a fitting 97 that delivers the fuel to a delivery passage 98 formed in the body 85. This passage intersects the fuel injectors 86 and supplies fuel to them. A return fitting 99 is provided at the upper end of the body 85 and supplies a return conduit 101 which extends transversely back across a passage 102 formed in the body 73 where it is supplied to a conduit in which a fuel pressure sensor 103 is provided. Fuel pressure is regulated by a pressure regulator which may be a part of the sensor 103 or another element by dumping excess fuel back to the fuel supply system at an appropriate location, for example, to the vapor separator cavity 78. As may be seen in FIG. 2, the conduits 96 and 101 are nested within the area beneath the manifold runners 81, 82, 83 and 84. This protects these conduits and also assists in controlling the fuel temperature. That is, the air flow through the manifold runners 81-84 will cool the fuel. The upper end of the vapor separator cavity 78 and specifically the wall 76 is provided with a restricted opening 104 that permits the vapor that is accumulated to be mixed with the induction air and delivered to the engine so that it will not be discharged to the atmosphere. The engine 14 is provided with a lubricating system of any known type and this lubricating system includes an oil filter 104 that is mounted on the side of the engine opposite the induction system 47 so as to facilitate access and servicing. It has been noted that spark plugs are fired from the magneto generator 69 and also that the fuel injectors 87 are electronically controlled. A number of sensors are incorporated in the engine for outputting signals to an ECU, indicated generally by the reference numeral 105. The ECU 105 is conveniently mounted in a cool location on the plenum chamber housing 74 on a pair of posts 106 so as to provide a cooling air gap there between. Also, the plenum housing 74 insulates the ECU from the high heat of the engine.

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As noted a number of sensors are provided for sensing engine conditions and these include a timing sensor 106 (FIG. 2) that is mounted on the belt case 67 in proximity to a magnetic portion 107 or other marker on the camshaft sprocket 66 so as to emanate a pulse signal indicative of the angular position of the camshaft and its number of revolutions in a given time. There is also provided as seen in FIG. 3 a knock sensor 108 and a cooling jacket temperature sensor 109 that is mounted in proximity to a cooling jacket 111 of the engine. Liquid coolant is circulated through this cooling jacket and through a manifold cooling jacket 112. A sensor 113 senses manifold temperature. Also provided is an oxygen sensor 114 also shown in FIG. 3 that communicates with one of the exhaust passages 52 so as to provide a signal indicative of the air fuel ratio of the engine, as is well known in this art. There also may be provided an intake air temperature sensor 115 and intake air pressure sensor 116 (FIG. 4) which are both mounted in the plenum chamber portion 77 of the housing 73. Other sensors may also be provided for engine control and those skilled in the art will readily understand where such sensors may be placed. Thus, from the foregoing description it should be readily apparent that the described construction provides a very compact and effective induction system for an engine which also permits its utilization as a vapor separator for the fuel injection system and its fuel supply circuit. In addition, by passing some of the conduits through the plenum chamber volume the fuel can be cooled or at least prevented from becoming heated. Of course, the foregoing description is that of preferred embodiment of the invention and various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims.

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ENGINE MOUNT INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE COMPLIANCE TIME:

PART I INSPECTION: To coincide with the next regularly scheduled maintenance event, and each one-hundred (100) hours time in service there after until Part II or PART III of this service bulletin is accomplished. PART II REPLACEMENT: If cracks are found during the inspection of PART I, replace cracked engine mount. Note: Compliance with PART II at any time will relieve the repetitive inspection b requirement of PART I of this Service Bulletin for that particular engine mount.

PART III MODIFICATION: At any point in time when either the left or right engine is removed from the aircraft, replacement with a new engine mount or modifications must be performed prior to returning the aircraft to service. Note: Modifications are allowed only if no cracks are found. Compliance with PART III at any time will relieve the repetitive inspection requirement of PART I of the Service Bulletin for that particular engine mount.

APPROVAL: The technical content of this Service Bulletin has been shown to comply with the applicable Federal Aviation Regulations and is FAA approved.

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PURPOSE: Computer-aided analysis techniques have identified specific locations on the engine mount that are fatigue critical. An investigation into the service history of the aircraft confirms that cracks may develop in high time aircraft at these locations. Comparative analysis demonstrates that the modifications described in this Service Bulletin should substantially improve the service life of the engine mount. It has been determined that cracks in the engine mount may develop at locations not addressed in Service Bulletin 1033. Service bulletin 1033 addressed inspection and repair of the upper left support tube near the engine mount flexible isolator. It has been determined that cracks may develop at each of the engine mount flexible isolators. To remedy this condition, gussets have been designed to reinforce the engine mount tubes in the area where cracks could potentially develop. If this condition exists and is left undetected, integrity of the engine mount may be compromised.

PART I of this service bulletin requires repetitive inspection of both left and right engine mount tubes in the area of the flexible isolators. PART II of this service bulletin requires replacement of the engine mount(s).

PART III of this service bulletin requires the installation of either a new engine mount or reinforcement gusset kit to the left and right engine mounts.

INSTRUCTIONS: PART I INSPECTION: 1. Remove upper and lower cowlings from the left and right engines and locate the four flexible isolators on each engine mount. 2. Clean the engine mount tubing in the area of the flexible isolators.

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3. Inspect the welded engine mount tubing at a point just aft of the flexible isolator. Using a 10x powered magnifying glass examine the circumference of the tubing for evidence of cracks. If the paint has chipped or peeled in this area, remove the paint and perform a dye penetrant inspection. Repeat this process at all solator locations described above for a total of eight locations. 4. If any cracks are noted on the tube at any point, the engine mount must be replaced before further flight. This constitutes compliance with PART II of this Service Bulletin. 5. If no cracks are found, continue with repetitive one hundred (100) hours time in service inspection per the Compliance Time above. 6) Make an appropriate logbook entry of compliance of PART I with this service bulletin for each repetitive inspection.

Part II REPLACEMENT: 1. If any cracks are found on either engine mount, replace the affected engine mount with Piper Part Number 89361-016. 2. Make appropriate entry of compliance with PART II of this Service Bulletin. Note: Compliance with PART II at any time will relieve the repetitive inspection requirement of PART I for that particular engine mount. PART III MODIFICATION:

1. Install additional gussets in accordance with New Kit Note: If either right or left engine is removed from the aircraft for any reason, including overhaul, compliance with either Part II or Part III of this Service Bulletin is mandatory prior to returning the aircraft to service.

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Do not modify or install engine mounts that have cracks or that are not airworthy for any other reason. Note: Compliance with PART III at any time will relieve the repetitive inspection requirement of PART I for that particular engine mount. 2. Make an appropriate logbook entry indicating compliance with PART III of this Service Bulletin.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: PART II Piper Part Number Nomenclature Qty per engine Qty per aircraft Engine mount 1 2 PART III Piper Part Number Nomenclature Qty per engine Qty per aircraft Gusset Installation- 1 2 Engine Mount Assembly

EFFECTIVITY DATE: This Service Bulletin is effective upon receipt.

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TURBOCHARGER INSPECTION
Assuming the engine shows normal vacuum readings but the turbo shows low or no boost, the next step is to find out what is wrong with the turbo. One of the most common causes of poor turbo performance is bad shaft bearings which often results in rubbing or binding between the compressor and turbine wheels and their housings. Turbos spin at speeds that are often in excess of 100,000 rpm. If there is excessive play in the shaft bearings, the shaft will wobble allowing the wheels to scrape against their housings. The added friction prevents the turbo from spooling up normally, reducing the turbo's speed and effective boost delivery. The best way to check for bearing problems or contact between the housing and turbo wheels is to remove the intake or exhaust plumbing from the turbo (which ever is easier) for a peek inside. Any sign of scraping on either the turbo blades or the housing means the bearings are shot and the turbo needs to be replaced or rebuilt. You should also spin the turbo by hand to feel for any roughness or binding. If it doesn't turn freely, repairs are in order. Other problems to watch for are cracks, nicks or chips in the turbo wheel blades, and/or "eroded" (worn) blades. A turbo is a very delicately balanced assembly. Most automotive turbocharger wheel assemblies are balanced to within .001 oz.! A broken blade, worn blades or even nicked blades can be enough to throw the assembly out of balance. The turbo may still spin freely, but the imbalance will prevent it from reaching maximum rpm and eventually pound the shaft bearings out-of-round. There's no way you can rebalance the rotating assembly, so if there is any indication of damage, the damaged parts must be replaced. To check bearing clearances, there's usually no need to remove or disassemble the turbo. A dial indicator can be positioned against the shaft hub to check for bearing free play. Up and down shaft movement should be no more than 0.003 to 0.006 inches. End play should be 0.001 to 0.003 inches. This test may not reveal excessive clearances, however, if the turbocharger has varnished or coked bearings. An alternate technique for checking bearing clearances is to use a dial indicator with an offset probe that can be inserted into the turbo center housing through the oil supply or return port. Positioning the tip of the indicator against the shaft will allow you to measure free play while the shaft is turned. This technique will also allow you to peek inside the housing to check for fried oil on the shaft or housing. Another thing to check for is the presence of oil in either the compressor or exhaust housing. Shaft seals at both ends of the wheel shaft normally keep the oil where it

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belongs. But if either seals goes bad, oil can be pulled out of the bearing housing. Oil leaks are more common on the compressor side because that side of the turbo is constantly exposed to intake vacuum. Oil leaks can also be caused by residue plugging up the oil return line. If oil is present in both housings, but the turbo shows no signs of binding, wobble or rubbing, remove the oil return line and check it for obstructions by passing a stiff wire through it. TURBOCHARGER FAILURE: THE POST MORTEM If the turbo is bad, you should always tear it down regardless of whether you're going to replace it or rebuild it. You need to determine the cause of death so the problem doesn't repeat itself. The first thing to check is the condition of the shaft bearings. The bearings are usually destroyed by either oil contamination, oil starvation or oil coking. Heavy grooving or pitting of the bearing surface usually indicates dirty oil, possibly due to inadequate oil filtration. Check for a plugged oil filter. Once an oil filter becomes clogged and it's bypass valve opens, unfiltered oil flows to the turbo and the rest of the engine. If the inside of the bearing housing resembles the bottom of a frying pan and is coated with black crusty deposits, oil coking was the cause of failure. The bearings are oil cooled, and during normal operation temperatures don't get hot enough to cause oil coking. But when the engine is shut off, temperatures can rise to 600 to 700 degrees F. inside the housing as the turbo undergoes a period of heat soak. The oil oxidizes and forms coke deposits in the housing that then act like an abrasive to wear the bearings. Using a high temperature "turbo" oil or synthetic oil, installing an auxiliary oil cooler, and changing the oil every 3,000 miles can avoid oil breakdown and coking problems. In water-cooled turbos, coking is less of a problem provided the oil is changed regularly and you use a quality motor oil. So if you find an accumulation of black crud inside the housing, better check the coolant hoses for a kink or restriction. Melted or glazed bearings with metal transfer onto the shaft point to oil starvation. Check for a low oil level, oil leaks or a restriction between the turbo and engine, or low oil pressure (30 psi is the recommended minimum for most turbos). Oil starvation when the engine is shut off can be avoided one of two ways: by letting the engine idle for a minute or so after a hard run so the turbo has time to spool back down, or by installing an aftermarket pressure reservoir that automatically maintains oil pressure for up to a minute after the engine is turned off. The oil

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reservoir will also pre-pressurize the turbo oil line to prevent dry starts. A bearing that's been pounded out-of-round, cracked or broken is usually the result of an out-of-balance shaft and wheel assembly, or excessive bearing clearances. The next thing to note is the condition of the compressor and turbine wheels. Cracks can be the result of metal fatigue, but nicked bent or damaged blades can only be caused by foreign objects. If the compressor blades are badly eroded, unfiltered air has been entering the intake system. Check for a missing, torn or poor fitting air filter. Lastly check the condition of the housings. If cracked, badly corroded, warped or scored, replacement will be necessary. Beware of cheap replacement housings made of ordinary cast iron. The exhaust housing should be of nickel alloy to resist high temperature operation. TURBOCHARGER OVERHAUL Installing a new or remanufactured unit is probably the safest way to repair a sick turbo. Not only do you avoid the pitfalls of do-it-yourself rebuilding but you also get a warranty. If you do decide to overhaul the turbo yourself, one of the most difficult aspects of the job is getting the inside of the center housing spotless clean. Ordinary engine degreaser won't remove the baked on oil deposits but spray-on gasket remover will. Taking the housing to a machine shop to have it "boiled out" in a hot solvent or caustic tank is probably the best way to clean it. One thing the experts recommend NOT doing is having the center housing sand blasted. Besides the possibility of leaving sand residue inside the housing where it could later damage the bearings, sand blasting changes the surface texture which can lead to lubrication problems. The bearing surfaces must be highly polished, not rough, so sand blasting is out. Glass beading is okay provided a fine bead is used and the housing is thoroughly cleaned afterwards. The shaft itself can be cleaned in solvent. If the shaft bearing surfaces are not perfectly smooth, round and blemish free, plan on replacing the shaft and turbine wheel. Dirty turbo wheels can be cleaned with solvent and a wire brush. Avoid using abrasives and don't sand blast. Do not attempt to straighten a bent wheel blade. Doing so will only weaken it further, causing the wheel to explode when the turbo hits high rpm. A bent blade upsets the aerodynamics of the wheel, reducing

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pumping efficiency, so always replace any wheel that doesn't have perfect blades. If the compressor or turbine wheels are damaged, they must be replaced. There are a few experts who claim they can successfully repair damaged wheels by welding but for the do-it-yourselfer welding is out of the question -- especially when you consider the "downside" risks of what might happen if a patched compressor wheel were to fail and spew shrapnel into your engine. There's also the problem of rebalancing a repaired turbo wheel. A new compressor wheel may set you back $80 to $100 while a turbine wheel and shaft may run $180 to $200 or more. Worn turbine shafts can sometimes be repaired by grinding the shaft journal down and installing an oversized shaft bearing, or by building up the worn shaft journal with hard chrome and remachining it back to its original dimensions. Regrinding and using an oversized bearing is cheaper than hard chroming, which if not done correctly, will flake off and cause a repeat failure. If the lip of either turbo wheel has been rubbing against the seal area on the center housing, you may find a groove worn into the housing. If this is the case, plan on buying a new center housing. In many instances, it is cheaper to buy a new "turbo cartridge" (the center housing with both wheels and shaft preassembled) than it is to try to rebuild a damaged unit. When reassembling the turbo, cleanliness is absolutely essential. Any dirt, grit or unremoved crud can become the cause of a future relapse. The shaft bearings must be lubricated with assembly lube, and checked for proper fit and alignment. New seals are another must as is torquing the compressor wheel to specs. Once the unit is together, spin the wheels to make sure the shaft turns freely and nothing rubs. A final check of clearances with the dial indicator is advised before reinstalling the unit on the vehicle. Some of the things that should always be done after rebuilding or replacing a turbo include changing the oil and oil filter, checking the air filtration system for leaks or obstructions, and priming the turbo oil supply before starting the engine. Cranking the engine for 10 to 15 seconds with the ignition coil disabled will pump oil to the turbo. Observing these simple precautions can make the difference between a successful repair and the embarrassment of making a second trip to the parts store.

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FLOAT TYPE CARBURETOR TROUBLESHOOTING

All tests and settings for RPM, Valves, Gov., Leak Down, and Compression are by the book, not just about right

1. Surging A. Governor i. Try to stabilize engine RPM, by holding steady, the solid link between the gov arm and the carburetor throttle using your fingers or pliers. 1. If the engine RPM stabilizes the gov or gov adjustment should be checked or reset or sensitivity adjustment changed. 2. If RPM does not stabilize, check for proper linkage assembly, weak gov spring or bent or worn linkages. Could be worn internal governor parts but this is rare. 3. If 2 Stroke, make sure air vane is not binding, proper assembly or linkages and linkages are not bent. ii. Set RPM to proper setting according to spec. NO GUESSING. Set by good tachometer. iii. Change RPM up or down 50-100 RPMs. 1. If variable speed carburetor - change both idle and top RPM 2. If constant speed carburetor raise and lower within range

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B. Engine Condition 1. Fresh Fuel proper fuel/oil mixture on 2 cycles 2. Warm up Time 3 to 5 minutes 3. May need to check leak down and compression 4. Proper Valve Clearance right on not just close. a. HM80-100 best set intake - .008-.009 exhaust .011-.012 5. Check for poor or intermittent spark with inline spark tester 6. If has low oil shut down unhook and retest 7. Check shutdown wires and connections for shorting

C. Fuel and Carburetion 1. Fresh fuel proper fuel/oil mixture on 2 cycles 2. Proper fuel flow to carburetor - use gravity feed 3. Does using the choke help? Try hand choking if engine has primer 4. Is there outside air leaking into intake system? Gaskets and sealing surfaces 5. Is intake tube (if used) obstructed? Look inside 6. Proper bowl nut. Inspect for clean drillings and if has tag material still on drilling. 7. Check idle restrictor jet, damaged, bad drillings and clean. 8. O-rings could be leaking on emulsion tube 9. Proper carburetor. (Has carburetor been updated?) 10. Lastly, replace carburetor or bowl kit

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2. Hard or no start a. Fresh fuel proper fuel/oil mixture for 2 cycles b. Fuel delivery to carburetor try gravity feed procedure c. Getting spark. Not just spark, but good spark consistently d. Engine condition (new or old) Leak down and compression. Compression should be 70 to 100 psi. Below 70 not good. 60 bad e. Proper choking and priming. Yes, choking in warm weather in needed. Hand choke carburetor f. Make sure shut down system in not shorting out. g. Unhook low oil shut down (when used) and retest h. Two cycles with primer. Throttle must be opened when priming

i. LEV Engine with electric start ii. i. Proper Priming ii. Check spark during turn over with electric starter iii. If no spark, or poor spark, could be Brazilian coil. (Identified by squared off look andsilver manufacturing numbers on it (IE 1A 502) used only during production.

j. TVT Cold Hard or No Start

i. Valve clearance must be .004 on both valves

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ii. Check proper RPM settings according to specs iii. Are choke plates closing all the way? iv. Try manual choke with hand or fingers v. Are carburetor synchronized correctly see manual vi. Check compression Should be 80 100 psi. 60-65 psi is not acceptable vii. Try with low oil shut down disconnected (if used) viii. If no spark disconnect ground out wires to each coil. (one at a time)

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TROUBLES SHOOTING OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Troubles Pressure. Probable cause Engine will not start Corrective action Check mixture control for prober position, auxiliary pump on and operating, feed valves open, fuel filters open, tank fuel level.

Troubles No gauge flooded. Probable cause No fuel to engine Corrective action Reset throttle, clear engine of excess fuel and try another start.

Troubles With gauge pressure. Probable cause No fuel to engine Corrective action

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Loosen one line at nozzle. if no fuel flow shows with metered fuel pressure on gauge, replace the fuel manifold valve.

Troubles Rough idle. Probable cause 1. Nozzle air screens restricted. 2. Improper idle mixture adjustment. Corrective action 1. Remove nozzle and clean. 2. Readjust as described under adjustment system. Troubles Poor acceleration Probable cause 1. idle mixture too lean 2. linkage worn Corrective action 1. readjust as described under adjustments 2. replace worn elements of linkages Troubles Engine runs rough

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1. restricted nozzle 2. improper mixture

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Probable cause

Corrective action 1. remove and clean all nozzle 2. check mixture control setting 3. improper pump pressure replace, or call an authorized representative to adjust Troubles Low gauge pressure Probable cause 1. restricted flow to metering valve 2. inadequate flow from pump 3. mixture control level interference Corrective action 1. Check mixture control for full travel. check for clogged fuel filters 2. May be worn fuel pump or sticking relief valve. replace the fuel pump assembly 3. check for possible contact with cooling shroud Troubles High gauge pressure Probable cause 1. restricted flow beyond metering valve 2. restricted recirculation passage in pump Corrective action 1. Check for restricted nozzle or fuel manifold valve. clean or replace as required 2. replace pump assembly Troubles Fluctuating gauge pressure

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Probable cause 1. vapour in system excess fuel temperature 2. fuel in gauge line leak at gauge connection Corrective action 1. If not cleared with auxiliary pump, check for clogged ejector jet in yhe vapour separator cover. clean only with solvent, no wires 2. Drain the gauge line and repair the leak. Troubles Poor idle cut off Probable cause Engine getting fuel Corrective action 1. check mixture control to be in full idle cut off 2. Check auxiliary pump to be off. Clean nozzle assemblies or replace. 3. Replace manifold valve.

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TROUBLE SHOOTING OF FUEL SYSTEM

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PISTON ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING

CLARITY OF INFORMATION This is the first and most important principle. A common mistake is to rely on unclear or vague descriptions of the symptom. Often, there are subtle events or symptoms which occur that someone else may miss, especially if they are otherwise occupied flying the aircraft. It is important to get information on as many other parameters as possible, even ones that seem unrelated. Many things are better sorted out later, in the shop. A good situational awareness is a great asset in this phase of troubleshooting. The best way to get a good read on the symptom is to experience it yourself. Do your best to emulate the same conditions and duplicate the problem. This way you will find the problem and not create a different one; if you end up creating a different one, the old one will come back to haunt you. Remember, the same problem can give different symptoms in different conditions. Sometimes it will be necessary to rely on secondhand descriptions of the symptons. It is then imperative that clear and concise information is exchanged both ways. The person experiencing the symptom, usually the pilot, needs clear and definite instructions to troubleshoot when the symptom occurs again (provided safety of flight is not compromised). Avoid wasteful speculation. This is different from hypothesizing. Speculation is where your mind sort of goes off without you and causes you to start working on things before a test has confirmed that what you are doing will actually fix the problem. Whereas, hypothesizing is based upon educated guesses that presupposes that one is well educated. This brings up the next important principle . SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE Systems knowledge is somewhat similar to clarity of information in that good system information is a must when diagnosing a symptom. You dont need to have mastery of all systems to be effective at this. Accurate systems information can come from any number of sources. Maintenance manuals, training materials, experienced personnel, or manufacturer customer service Y By DIAGNOSIS At this point, sit down with your systems knowledge (whatever the source) and go through the system operation step by step.

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Note which component and situation would cause the symptoms youre experiencing. List these possible causes and move to the next step. TESTING Start with the most likely and simple causes first and test to eliminate or confirm them. Tests should be limited in effect to the suspect component. Dont apply a test that involves too many components or you wont narrow your field of suspects. Use as specific of a test as possible; one that will eliminate possible causes. Accurate information is essential throughout this process. Reevaluation may be needed after testing a suspected cause. If no test indicates the source of the symptom then the dreaded shotgun may be pulled out. Again, limit the replacement of components to those which will affect your symptom. Start with the most inexpensive ones first. If you have access to these components without having to purchase them, or have the ability to return them if not needed, the process will be much cheaper. This one, however, is a time eater. It may take a lot of shop time and shipping charges if it starts to go very far. There are innumerable problems that can and do occur in piston engines. There is, however, a group of problems that are generally the most common. What follows is an aid to help quickly troubleshoot six frequently encountered problems. Well call them the top six. 1. NO START/HARD STARTING: There are three requirements to get an engine to start fuel (in the right proportion), oxygen (air), and fire (timed spark). If the engine wont run, one of these things is missing. Air is almost a given. Even with a significant intake obstruction there will be at least enough air getting into the engine to get it to fire at an idle speed. One exception here is a totally sealed off induction. This would most likely occur after the engine has been removed from storage and someone forgot to remove the intake plug. This source of the no start problem is, however, rarely encountered. Fuel is a much more common culprit. Over priming an engine will prevent it from firing even once. The presence of a strong fuel smell in the exhaust pipe indicates a flooded engine. Moving the mixture to idle cutoff and throttle to wide open while cranking will solve this one whether you have a carbureted or injected engine.Letting the engine sit for awhile also helps get rid of excessive fuel. Use wide openthrottle and mixture idle cutoff while cranking. Lack of fuel can be just as puzzling. A slight fuel smell in the exhaust pipe can usually tip you off that you need more prime. A note on the Teledyne Continental TSIO-360. These engines take a seemingly excessive amount of prime to start. Fuel may be running out the induction drains but the engine often still does not have enough fuel to start. Best method: one, three

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second shot of prime and small bursts of the same while cranking. The last starting requirement can be a little more troublesome. The magneto on a piston engine is designed with a start feature that retards the timing to prevent kick back and provides additional energy to the spark event. This additional energy is required because of the slow cranking of the engine during starting. These requirements are commonly achieved in two ways the impulse coupling and the Bendix Shower of Sparks. The engine with an impulse coupling will have a snapping sound while starting. The engine employing the Shower of Sparks system will have a buzzing sound in the cabin whenever the starter switch is activated. Know which system the aircraft has before attempting to start the engine. The absence of the clicking in an impulse coupling engine denotes a problem with the impulse coupling, probably a broken main or flyweight return spring. This problem requires removal of the magneto(s) with the impulse coupling for repair. If the engine is very cold, stiff oil can also prevent the flyweights from returning to snap the coupling. A thorough preheat solves this one. The absence of buzzing in the shower of sparks system, or the malfunction of the retard points in the magneto, is accompanied many times by the occasional firing of the engine when you let up on the start switch but no firing when the start switch is engaged. This is because of the grounding of the right and left main breaker points by the start switch when in the start position. When the start switch is returned to the normal position, the mags are back in the both position. (This is also true of Shower of Spark systems with separate mag switches. The R & L main breaker points ground with the start switch engaged.) Since the engine is still turning at this instant, a cylinder at or slightly after normal firing position may fire and even allow the engine to start. If the Shower of Sparks unit is not buzzing, the unit needs repair or replacement. If theres buzz but no spark, check the continuity and points in the retard system. Hot starts can be troublesome if youre not experienced with the procedures for the particular engine fuel system. Space doesnt allow for the discussion of this problem here. Consult the Pilots Operating Handbook or engine operators manual for specifics. Another common problem encountered is magneto timing. If the engine has just shown up from the overhaul shop or maintenance has just been performed on the magneto, look for these symptoms and their source problems. Kickback is caused by the start firing event happening too soon, before the piston reaches top center. The usual causes here are: improper retard point timing (Shower of Sparks system) or improper magneto to engine timing (Shower of Sparks and impulse couplings). If no firing by the engine is observed at any time, but you know the magneto is firing (dont use your tongue), the probable cause is the magneto-to-engine timing 180 off. When the flower pot method is used

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it is not too difficult to set timing to before top center on the exhaust stroke instead of the compression stroke. 2. MISS/ROUGH RUNNING: The two most common sources of this symptom are ignition misfire and clogged fuel injector. The misfire most usually Flower pot for checking magneto to engine timing. Inaccurate timing can give excessive mag drops or high cylinder head temperatures. This is also the preferred timing check method for Continental engines per TCM. Bullet plug used to set top center with the flower pot. A cold cylinder exhaust stack just after shutdown indicates the malfunctioning plug or injector. A small amount of water squirted on the stack will steam and possibly boil. shows up on the preflight mag check. To find the offending plug, run the engine on the magneto with the bad drop. If a four or six point EGT/CHT system is installed, note the cold cylinder. Trace the ignition lead back to the magneto with the miss. That plug circuit (plug, high tension lead, or tower in the distributor block) has a short or open. The most common cause here is a dirty/bad spark plug or a chaffed ignition lead. A clogged injector will act very similar to the misfire. The miss is always apparent if the injector is fully clogged (or nearly so). If the injector is partially clogged, the miss will show up while leaning the engine for cruise. (On the multiple point EGT check for a very early peak and a higher head temperature on one cylinder.) In either case, run the engine in the configuration with the noted miss (rich or leaned out) and note the cold cylinder the same as you would for a misfire. Hint: If the aircraft is not equipped with a four or six point EGT/CHT or some of the probes arent working, run the engine in the configuration with the noted miss. While running with the noted miss or immediately after engine shutdown, use a squirt gun or bottle and squirt a small, fine stream of water on each exhaust collector approximately one inch from the cylinder exhaust port. The cylinder with the miss will show up with a much colder exhaust collector at this point. Another common malfunction that is difficult to troubleshoot on the ground is the altitude miss. This is where a plug circuit will misfire only when the aircraft is at or above a certain altitude. If the aircraft has the four or six point EGT/CHT, you can find this one in the air. If not, the shotgun method should be used on the ignition system. The most common culprit is large plug gaps. Clean, gap, and test all the plugs.

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Also, test the ignition high tension lead harness with a high tension lead tester. Check the distributor block for cleanliness, tracking, and cracks. If none of these are the problem, other but less common sources are things such as improper E-gap (magneto internal timing) and weak rotating magnets or coils. For these internal mag problems, the magneto( s) must be removed and troubleshot on a test bench. Note of caution: Do not attempt to do in-flight mag checks for high altitude miss diagnosis. Very often high altitude misses turn into crossfires. Crossfire is when the electrical energy from a miss-fire finds a path of least resistance in one of the electrodes next to it. A mag check while attempting to diagnose which magneto is miss/crossfiring can literally blow the exhaust system into pieces. This is especially true of turbo-charged engines. Mag checks at even low cruise power settings will over temp most cylinder and exhaust components. A note on bad mag checks for Cessna 180/182s. In very cold weather the O-470 will show bad mag checks (200-300 rpm drop). This is because of the poor fuel atomization in very cold air. Try pulling the carb heat on, releaning (if altitude requires) and rechecking. Rough running of these engines during cruise in coldweather can sometimes be cured by flying with carb heat on to bring induction air temperatures back up to normal. A carb air temp gauge is perfect for this malady. 3. HIGH CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE: You may have run into this with a partially clogged injector. If not, try these other sources. Baffling: Bad inter-cylinder or cylinder head baffling can cause localized cooling air loss. Check for stiff or loose baffle seals. The classic birds nest is often a common culprit here too. A healthy starling can build a very effective air block in 15 to 30 minutes. If a cylinder has recently been changed, expect higher head temps on that cylinder for the next 30 to 50 hours of operation. If all the head temps are high look for a more generalized problem. Check for numerous gaps and holes in the baffling. A small air leak goes a long way in dropping the cooling air pressure and causing temperatures to rise. Also, check the cowl flaps for proper rigging. Some models of aircraft have different cowl flap rigging for different years and engines in the same model. Another, but less common cause of high cylinder head temps, can be magneto to engine timing. Advanced timing is generally characterized by smaller than normal mag drops and higher than normal cylinder head temperatures. A simple timing check will confirm or eliminate this one.

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3. HIGH OIL TEMP: High cylinder head temperatures and high oil temps often go together. In this case look for the common causes of both: bad or damaged baffling or its seals, cowl flap rigging, mag timing, or cooling air blockage. If just the oil temp is high and cylinder head temps are normal, look for these common sources: Birds are culprits here, too. A favorite spot for nests is the pockets formed above or in front of the oil cooler. Rags or other debris also lodge here easily. The oil cooler to baffling seal is also important. Air going around instead of through the cooler cuts down on the volume and velocity of the flow through the cooler as well as the cooling air pressure in front of it. Dirty or excessive paint on the fins will slow heat conductivity and allow the temperature to rise more than normal also. This one will be seen mostly on hot summer days where the cooler needs all the help it can get. A quick visual inspection will cue you to this culprit. Another common source here is whats called the Vernatherm or temperature bypass valve. This unit is a thermostatic valve that works much the same as the coolant thermostat in your car or truck. As the oil gets hotter, the valve closes harder, forcing more oil through the cooler. A small amount of water squirted on firing cylinders exhaust stack will ball, sizzle, and immediately fall off stack. Cracked and burned coils, such as that pictured here, will often show up only at altitude as altitude misses. Without an external damage indication, these can usually be found best by disassembly or bench check of the mags. External damage to a magneto caused by chaffing screw and aggravated by internal arcing and burning of the coil. Removal of the vernatherm is required to check. The culprits here are abnormal wear of the valve face and seat, or loss of the expanding medium (some sort of wax). An abnormal pattern for the valve face on the unit is obvious contact or wear on one side and not the other. The face will be worn on high time units but shouldnt be gouging into the seat. Loss of expanding medium is harder to pin down. The easiest way to find out is replacement with one that is known to work properly. With either problem, the fix is replacement of the whole unit. The valve seat may also be in need of refacing. In the winter the problem may be nothing more than a congealed oil cooler. The oil will get thick enough when bitterly cold to obstruct flow through the cooler. This will cause the oil temperature to rise and the oil pressure to fall. When a congealed oil cooler does free up a near instantaneous rise in oil pressure and fall in oil temperature will be noted. The fix here is the proper

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grade engine oil for ambient temperatures (consult the engine operators manual) and winter baffling for the oil cooler or possibly the whole engine. Excessive piston ring blowby will also elevate oil temperatures because of the hot gases escaping into the crankcase. See the section on low cylinder compression for tips to troubleshoot this source. 4. LOW OIL PRESSURE: The three most important factors that determine oil pressure in any given engine are: oil pump volume, engine internal clearances/ leakage, and oil viscosity. The two most common causes of this symptom are oil viscosity and internal clearances/leakage. Oil viscosity is affected by oil grade, temperature and oil damage. The wrong oil grade for ambient temperatures or high oil temperatures will often cause low oil pressure. Oil can be damaged by excessive heat and/or excessive operating time before oil change. All these factors will tend to thin the oil and cause a pressure drop. Any excessive internal leakage in the engine will also cause a drop in pressure even at normal operating temperatures. The most common culprit here is debris under the oil pressure relief valve. This acts to hold the valve off its seat and bleed off oil, dropping the pressure. Remove the valve and clean the face and seat. Note the type of debris that was caught in the valve. This may be an indication of larger problems as noted in the next section. Excessive clearances from worn bearings, worn valve lifter bores, worn oil pump gears, bad prop oil transfer collars, or missing/loose internal oil passage plugs (just back from the engine shop) will cause a drop in oil pressure. An oil analysis and a look at the oil filter will usually cue you to internal engine problems from worn parts as the cause of this symptom. Oil pump volume is not something that we can change in the field usually, but is an aggravating factor on some engines. Engines with standard volume oil pumps but high flow demands are very sensitive to viscosity and clearance/leakage factors. This is most common on naturally aspirated engines that have been turbo-normalized by someone other than the engine manufacturer. If a higher volume oil pump is not a part of the package, the oil pump may be hard pressed to deliver normal pressure when the viscosity gets lower (higher temperatures, aggravated by hot turbochargers). Some aircraft have flow restrictor orifices in the turbo supply line just to keep the oil pressure up. In these engines, any change in flow demand, clearance, or leakage is directly reflected in the oil pressure when at normal operating temperature.

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TYPES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES


To move an airplane through the air, we have to use some kind of propulsion system to generate thrust. The most widely used form of propulsion system for modern aircraft is the gas turbine engine. Turbine engines come in a variety of forms.

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This page shows computer drawings of four different variations of a gas turbine or jet engine. While each of the engines are different, they share some parts in common. Each of these engines have a combustion section (red), a compressor (cyan), a turbine (magenta) and an inlet and a nozzle (grey). The compressor, burner, and turbine are called the core of the engine, since all gas turbines have these components. The core is also referred to as the gas generator since the output of the core is hot exhaust gas. The gas is passed through a nozzle to produce thrust for the turbojet, while it is used to drive the turbine (green) of the turbofan and turboprop engines. Because the compressor and turbine are linked by the central shaft and rotate together, this group of parts is called the turbomachinery.

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The operation of the turbojet, afterburning turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engines are described on separate pages. Because of their high power output and high thermal efficiency, gas turbine engines are also used in a wide variety of applications not related to aeronautics. Connecting the main shaft of the engine to an electro-magnet will generate electrical power. Gas turbines can also be used to power ships, trucks and military tanks. In these applications, the main shaft is connected to a gear box (much like the turboprop) and the resulting power plant is called a turboshaft engine. In the late 1960's, turboshaft powered race cars competed at the Indy 500. TURBOJET ENGINE

Most modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas turbine engines, which are also called jet engines. The first and simplest type of gas turbine is the turbojet. How does a turbojet work?

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On this slide we show a computer animation of a turbojet engine. The parts of the engine are described on other slides. Here, we are concerned with what happens to the air that passes through the engine. Large amounts of surrounding air are continuously brought into the engine inlet. (In England, they call this part the intake, which is probably a more accurate description, since the compressor pulls air into the engine.) We have shown here a tube-shaped inlet, like one you would see on an airliner. But inlets come in many shapes and sizes depending on the aircraft's mission. At the rear of the inlet, the air enters the compressor. The compressor acts like many rows of airfoils, with each row producing a small jump in pressure. A compressor is like an electric fan. We have to supply energy to turn the compressor. At the exit of the compressor, the air is at a much higher pressure than free stream. In the burner a small amount of fuel is combined with the air and ignited. (In a typical jet engine, 100 pounds of air/sec is combined with only 2 pounds of fuel/sec. Most of the hot exhaust has come from the surrounding air.) Leaving the burner, the hot exhaust is passed through the turbine. The turbine works like a windmill. Instead of needing energy to turn the blades to make the air flow, the turbine extracts energy from a flow of gas by making the blades spin in

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the flow. In a jet engine we use the energy extracted by the turbine to turn the compressor by linking the compressor and the turbine by the central shaft. The turbine takes some energy out of the hot exhaust, but there is enough energy left over to provide thrust to the jet engine by increasing the velocity through the nozzle. Because the exit velocity is greater than the free stream velocity, thrust is created as described by the thrust equation. For a jet engine, the exit mass flow is nearly equal to the free stream mass flow, since very little fuel is added to the stream. TURBO FAN

To move an airplane through the air, thrust is generated by some kind of propulsion system. Most modern airliners use turbofan engines because of their high thrust and good fuel efficiency. On this page, we will discuss some of the fundamentals of turbofan engines.

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A turbofan engine is the most modern variation of the basic gas turbine engine. As with other gas turbines, there is a core engine, whose parts and operation are discussed on a separate page. In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a fan in the front and an additional turbine at the rear. The fan and fan turbine are composed of many blades, like the core compressor and core turbine, and are connected to an additional shaft. All of this additional turbomachinery is colored green on the schematic. As with the core compressor and turbine, some of the fan

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blades turn with the shaft and some blades remain stationary. The fan shaft passes through the core shaft for mechanical reasons. This type of arrangement is called a two spool engine (one "spool" for the fan, one "spool" for the core.) Some advanced engines have additional spools for even higher efficiency.

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How does a turbofan engine work? The incoming air is captured by the engine inlet. Some of the incoming air (colored orange) passes through the fan and continues on into the core compressor and then the burner, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs. The hot exhaust passes through the core and fan turbines and then out the nozzle, as in a basic turbojet. The rest of the incoming air (colored blue) passes through the fan and bypasses, or goes around the engine, just like the air through a propeller. The air that goes through the fan has a velocity that is slightly increased from free stream. So a turbofan gets some of its thrust from the core and some of its thrust from the fan. The ratio of the air that goes around the engine to the air that goes through the core is called the bypass ratio.

Because the fuel flow rate for the core is changed only a small amount by the addition of the fan, a turbofan generates more thrust for nearly the same amount of fuel used by the core. This means that a turbofan is very fuel efficient. In fact, high bypass ratio turbofans are nearly as fuel efficient as turboprops. Because the fan is enclosed by the inlet and is composed of many blades, it can operate efficiently at higher speeds than a simple propeller. That is why turbofans are found on high speed transports and propellers are used on low speed transports. Low bypass ratio turbofans are still more fuel efficient than basic turbojets. Many modern fighter planes actually use low bypass ratio turbofans equipped with afterburners. They can then cruise efficiently but still have high thrust when dogfighting. Even though the fighter plane can fly much faster than the speed of sound, the air going into the engine must travel less than the speed of sound for high efficiency. Therefore, the airplane inlet slows the air down from supersonic speeds.

TURBO PROP

To move an airplane through the air, thrust is generated with some kind of propulsion system. Many low speed transport aircraft and small commuter aircraft use turboprop propulsion. On this page we will discuss some of the fundamentals of turboprop engines. The turboprop uses a gas turbine core to turn a propeller. As

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mentioned on a previous page, propeller engines develop thrust by moving a large mass of air through a small change in velocity. Propellers are very efficient and can use nearly any kind of engine to turn the prop (including humans!). In the turboprop, a gas turbine core is used. How does a turboprop engine work?

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Because propellers become less efficient as the speed of the aircraft increases, turboprops are used only for low speed aircraft like cargo planes. High speed

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There are two main parts to a turboprop propulsion system, the core engine and the propeller. The core is very similar to a basic turbojet except that instead of expanding all the hot exhaust through the nozzle to produce thrust, most of the energy of the exhaust is used to turn the turbine. There may be an additional turbine stage present, as shown in green on the diagram, which is connected to a drive shaft. The drive shaft, also shown in green, is connected to a gear box. The gear box is then connected to a propeller that produces most of the thrust. The exhaust velocity of a turboprop is low and contributes little thrust because most of the energy of the core exhaust has gone into turning the drive shaft.

transports usually use high bypass turbofans because of the high fuel efficiency and high speed capability of turbofans. A variation of the turboprop engine is the turboshaft engine. In a turboshaft engine, the gear box is not connected to a propeller but to some other drive device. Turboshaft engines are used in many helicopters, as well as tanks, boats, and even race cars in the late 1960's.

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JET ENGINE

A jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of fluid to generate thrust in accordance with Newton's laws of motion. This broad definition of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, pulse jets and pumpjets. In general, most jet engines are internal combustion engines, but noncombusting forms also exist.

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In common usage, the term 'jet engine' generally refers to a gas turbine driven internal combustion engine, an engine with a rotary compressor powered by a turbine ("Brayton cycle"), with the leftover power providing thrust via a propelling nozzle. These types of jet engines are primarily used by jet aircraft for long distance travel. The early jet aircraft used turbojet engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Modern subsonic jet aircraft usually use high-bypass turbofan engines which help give high speeds as well as, over long distances, giving better fuel efficiency than many other forms of transport. About 7.2% of the oil used in 2004 was ultimately consumed by jet engines.In 2007, the cost of jet fuel, while highly variable from one airline to another, averaged 26.5% of total operating costs, making it the single largest operating expense for most airlines Water jet For propelling boats; squirts water out the back through a nozzle Can run in shallow water, high acceleration, no risk of engine overload (unlike propellers), less noise and vibration, highly maneuverable at all boat speeds, high speed efficiency, less vulnerable to damage from debris, very reliable, more load flexibility, less harmful to wildlife Can be less efficient than a propeller at low speed, more expensive, higher weight in boat due to entrained water, will not perform well if boat is heavier than the jet is sized for Motorjet Most primitive airbreathing jet engine. Essentially a supercharged piston engine with a jet exhaust. Higher exhaust velocity than a propeller, offering better thrust at high speed Heavy, inefficient and underpowered. Examples include: Coand-1910 and Caproni Campini N.1. Turbojet A tube with a compressor and turbine sharing a common shaft with a burner in between and a propelling nozzle for the exhaust.[14] Uses a high exhaust gas velocity to produce thrust. Has a much higher core flow than bypass type engines Simplicity of design, efficient at supersonic speeds (~M2) A basic design, misses many improvements in efficiency and power for subsonic flight, relatively noisy. Low-bypass Turbofan

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One- or two-stage fan added in front bypasses a proportion of the air through a bypass chamber surrounding the core.[15] Compared with its turbojet ancestor, this allows for more efficient operation with somewhat less noise. This is the engine of high-speed military aircraft, some smaller private jets, and older civilian airliners such as the Boeing 707, the McDonnell Douglas DC-8, and their derivatives. As with the turbojet, the design is aerodynamic, with only a modest increase in diameter over the turbojet required to accommodate the bypass fan and chamber. It is capable of supersonic speeds with minimal thrust drop-off at high speeds and altitudes yet still more efficient than the turbojet at subsonic operation. Noisier and less efficient than high-bypass turbofan, with less static (Mach 0) thrust. Added complexity to accommodate dual shaft designs. More inefficient than a turbojet around M2 due to higher cross-sectional area. High-bypass Turbofan First stage compressor drastically enlarged to provide bypass airflow around engine core, and it provides significant amounts of thrust. Compared to the lowbypass turbofan and no-bypass turbojet, the high-bypass turbfan works on the principle of moving a great deal of air somewhat faster, rather than a small amount extremely fast.[15] Most common form of jet engine in civilian use today- used in airliners like the Boeing 747, most 737s, and all Airbus aircraft. Quieter due to greater mass flow and lower total exhaust speed, more efficient for a useful range of subsonic airspeeds for same reason, cooler exhaust temperature. Less noisy and exhibit much better efficiency than low bypass turbofans. Greater complexity (additional ducting, usually multiple shafts) and the need to contain heavy blades. Fan diameter can be extremely large, especially in high bypass turbofans such as the GE90. More subject to FOD and ice damage. Top speed is limited due to the potential for shockwaves to damage engine. Thrust lapse at higher speeds, which necessitates huge diameters and introduces additional drag. Rocket Carries all propellants and oxidants on-board, emits jet for propulsion[16] Very few moving parts, Mach 0 to Mach 25+, efficient at very high speed (> Mach 10.0 or so), thrust/weight ratio over 100, no complex air inlet, high compression ratio, very high speed (hypersonic) exhaust, good cost/thrust ratio, fairly easy to test, works in a vacuum-indeed works best exoatmospheric which is kinder on vehicle structure at high speed, fairly small surface area to keep cool, and no turbine in hot exhaust stream. Needs lots of propellant- very low specific impulse typically 100-450 seconds. Extreme thermal stresses of combustion chamber can make reuse harder. Typically requires carrying oxidiser on-board which increases risks. Extraordinarily noisy.

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Ramjet Intake air is compressed entirely by speed of oncoming air and duct shape (divergent), and then it goes through a burner section where it is heated and then passes through a propelling nozzle[17] Very few moving parts, Mach 0.8 to Mach 5+, efficient at high speed (> Mach 2.0 or so), lightest of all air-breathing jets (thrust/weight ratio up to 30 at optimum speed), cooling much easier than turbojets as no turbine blades to cool. Must have a high initial speed to function, inefficient at slow speeds due to poor compression ratio, difficult to arrange shaft power for accessories, usually limited to a small range of speeds, intake flow must be slowed to subsonic speeds, noisy, fairly difficult to test, finicky to keep lit. Turboprop (Turboshaft similar) Strictly not a jet at all a gas turbine engine is used as powerplant to drive propeller shaft (or rotor in the case of a helicopter) High efficiency at lower subsonic airspeeds (300 knots plus), high shaft power to weight Limited top speed (aeroplanes), somewhat noisy, complex transmission Propfan/Unducted Fan Turbojet engine that also drives one or more propellers. Similar to a turbofan without the fan cowling. Higher fuel efficiency, potentially less noisy than turbofans, could lead to higher-speed commercial aircraft, popular in the 1980s during fuel shortages Development of propfan engines has been very limited, typically more noisy than turbofans, complexity Pulsejet Air is compressed and combusted intermittently instead of continuously. Some designs use valves. Very simple design, commonly used on model aircraft Noisy, inefficient (low compression ratio), works poorly on a large scale, valves on valved designs wear out quickly Pulse detonation engine Similar to a pulsejet, but combustion occurs as a detonation instead of a deflagration, may or may not need valves Maximum theoretical engine efficiency Extremely noisy, parts subject to extreme mechanical fatigue, hard to start detonation, not practical for current use Air-augmented rocket Essentially a ramjet where intake air is compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocket Mach 0 to Mach 4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to 4 Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric, inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type, cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to ramjets. Scramjet Similar to a ramjet

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without a diffuser; airflow through the entire engine remains supersonic Few mechanical parts, can operate at very high Mach numbers (Mach 8 to 15) with good efficiencies[18] Still in development stages, must have a very high initial speed to function (Mach >6), cooling difficulties, very poor thrust/weight ratio (~2), extreme aerodynamic complexity, airframe difficulties, testing difficulties/expense Turborocket A turbojet where an additional oxidizer such as oxygen is added to the airstream to increase maximum altitude Very close to existing designs operates in very high altitude, wide range of altitude and airspeed, Airspeed limited to same range as turbojet engine, carrying oxidizer like LOX can be dangerous. Much heavier than simple rockets. Precooled jets / LACE Intake air is chilled to very low temperatures at inlet in a heat exchanger before passing through a ramjet and/or turbojet and/or rocket engine. Easily tested on ground. Very high thrust/weight ratios are possible (~14) together with good fuel efficiency over a wide range of airspeeds, mach 0-5.5+; this combination of efficiencies may permit launching to orbit, single stage, or very rapid, very long distance intercontinental travel. Exists only at the lab prototyping stage. Examples include RB545, SABRE, ATREX. Requires liquid hydrogen fuel which has very low density and heavily insulated tankage.

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FUNCTION OF JET ENGINE COMPONENTS


Major components

The major components of a jet engine are similar across the major different types of engines, although not all engine types have all components. The major parts include:

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Cold Section: o Air intake (Inlet) The standard reference frame for a jet engine is the aircraft itself. For subsonic aircraft, the air intake to a jet engine presents no special difficulties, and consists essentially of an opening which is designed to minimise drag, as with any other aircraft component. However, the air reaching the compressor of a normal jet engine must be travelling below the speed of sound, even for supersonic aircraft, to sustain the flow mechanics of the compressor and turbine blades. At supersonic flight speeds, shockwaves form in the intake system and reduce the recovered pressure at inlet to the compressor. So some supersonic intakes use devices, such as a cone

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or ramp, to increase pressure recovery, by making more efficient use of the shock wave system. Compressor or Fan The compressor is made up of stages. Each stage consists of vanes which rotate, and stators which remain stationary. As air is drawn deeper through the compressor, its heat and pressure increases. Energy is derived from the turbine (see below), passed along the shaft. Bypass ducts much of the thrust of essentially all modern jet engines comes from air from the front compressor that bypasses the combustion chamber and gas turbine section that leads directly to the nozzle or afterburner (where fitted).

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Common: o Shaft The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs most of the length of the engine. There may be as many as three concentric shafts, rotating at independent speeds, with as many sets of turbines and compressors. Other services, like a bleed of cool air, may also run down the shaft. Diffuser section: - This section is a convergent duct that utilizes Bernoulli's principle to decrease the velocity of the compressed air to allow for easier

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The various components named above have constraints on how they are put together to generate the most efficiency or performance. The performance and

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ignition. And, at the same time, continuing to increase the air pressure before it enters the combustion chamber. Hot section: o Combustor or Can or Flameholders or Combustion Chamber This is a chamber where fuel is continuously burned in the compressed air. o Turbine The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a windmill, gaining energy from the hot gases leaving the combustor. Some of this energy is used to drive the compressor, and in some turbine engines (ie turboprop, turboshaft or turbofan engines), energy is extracted by additional turbine discs and used to drive devices such as propellers, bypass fans or helicopter rotors. One type, a free turbine, is configured such that the turbine disc driving the compressor rotates independently of the discs that power the external components. Relatively cool air, bled from the compressor, may be used to cool the turbine blades and vanes, to prevent them from melting. o Afterburner or reheat (chiefly UK) (mainly military) Produces extra thrust by burning extra fuel, usually inefficiently, to significantly raise Nozzle Entry Temperature at the exhaust. Owing to a larger volume flow (i.e. lower density) at exit from the afterburner, an increased nozzle flow area is required, to maintain satisfactory engine matching, when the afterburner is alight. o Exhaust or Nozzle Hot gases leaving the engine exhaust to atmospheric pressure via a nozzle, the objective being to produce a high velocity jet. In most cases, the nozzle is convergent and of fixed flow area. o Supersonic nozzle If the Nozzle Pressure Ratio (Nozzle Entry Pressure/Ambient Pressure) is very high, to maximize thrust it may be worthwhile, despite the additional weight, to fit a convergentdivergent (de Laval) nozzle. As the name suggests, initially this type of nozzle is convergent, but beyond the throat (smallest flow area), the flow area starts to increase to form the divergent portion. The expansion to atmospheric pressure and supersonic gas velocity continues downstream of the throat, whereas in a convergent nozzle the expansion beyond sonic velocity occurs externally, in the exhaust plume. The former process is more efficient than the latter.

efficiency of an engine can never be taken in isolation; for example fuel/distance efficiency of a supersonic jet engine maximises at about mach 2, whereas the drag for the vehicle carrying it is increasing as a square law and has much extra drag in the transonic region. The highest fuel efficiency for the overall vehicle is thus typically at Mach ~0.85.

For the engine optimisation for its intended use, important here is air intake design, overall size, number of compressor stages (sets of blades), fuel type, number of exhaust stages, metallurgy of components, amount of bypass air used, where the bypass air is introduced, and many other factors. For instance, let us consider design of the air intake. Air intakes Subsonic inlets Pitot intakes are the dominant type for subsonic applications. A subsonic pitot inlet is little more than a tube with an aerodynamic fairing around it. At zero airspeed (i.e., rest), air approaches the intake from a multitude of directions: from directly ahead, radially, or even from behind the plane of the intake lip. At low airspeeds, the streamtube approaching the lip is larger in cross-section than the lip flow area, whereas at the intake design flight Mach number the two flow areas are equal. At high flight speeds the streamtube is smaller, with excess air spilling over the lip. Beginning around Mach 0.85, shock waves can occur as the air accelerates through the intake throat. Careful radiusing of the lip region is required to optimize intake pressure recovery (and distortion) throughout the flight envelope. cases

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Pitot intake operating modes

thin round intake lip with thick round intake lip with internal compression due mostly external compression to space constrains of the nacelle

Supersonic inlets Supersonic intakes exploit shock waves to decelerate the airflow to a subsonic condition at compressor entry. There are basically two forms of shock waves: 1) Normal shock waves lie perpendicular to the direction of the flow. These form sharp fronts and shock the flow to subsonic speeds. Microscopically the air molecules smash into the subsonic crowd of molecules like alpha rays. Normal shock waves tend to cause a large drop in stagnation pressure. Basically, the higher the supersonic entry Mach number to a normal shock wave, the lower the subsonic exit Mach number and the stronger the shock (i.e. the greater the loss in stagnation pressure across the shock wave). 2) Conical (3-dimensional) and oblique shock waves (2D)[27] are angled rearwards, like the bow wave on a ship or boat, and radiate from a flow disturbance such as a cone or a ramp. For a given inlet Mach number, they are weaker than the equivalent normal shock wave and, although the flow slows down, it remains supersonic throughout. Conical and oblique shock waves turn the flow, which continues in the new direction, until another flow disturbance is encountered downstream. A sharp-lipped version of the pitot intake, described above for subsonic applications, performs quite well at moderate supersonic flight speeds. A detached

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normal shock wave forms just ahead of the intake lip and 'shocks' the flow down to a subsonic velocity. However, as flight speed increases, the shock wave becomes stronger, causing a larger percentage decrease in stagnation pressure (i.e. poorer pressure recovery). An early US supersonic fighter, the F-100 Super Sabre, used such an intake.

An unswept lip generate a shock wave, which is reflected multiple times in the inlet. The more reflections before the flow gets subsonic, the better pressure recovery More advanced supersonic intakes, excluding pitots: a) exploit a combination of conical shock wave/s and a normal shock wave to improve pressure recovery at high supersonic flight speeds. Conical shock wave/s are used to reduce the supersonic Mach number at entry to the normal shock wave, thereby reducing the resultant overall shock losses. b) have a design shock-on-lip flight Mach number, where the conical/oblique shock wave/s intercept the cowl lip, thus enabling the streamtube capture area to equal the intake lip area. However, below the shock-on-lip flight Mach number, the shock wave angle/s are less oblique, causing the streamline approaching the lip to be deflected by the presence of the cone/ramp. Consequently, the intake capture area is less than the intake lip area, which reduces the intake airflow. Depending on the airflow characteristics of the engine, it may be desirable to lower the ramp angle or move the cone rearwards to refocus the shockwaves onto the cowl lip to maximise intake airflow.

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c) are designed to have a normal shock in the ducting downstream of intake lip, so that the flow at compressor/fan entry is always subsonic. However, if the engine is throttled back, there is a reduction in the corrected airflow of the LP compressor/fan, but (at supersonic conditions) the corrected airflow at the intake lip remains constant, because it is determined by the flight Mach number and intake incidence/yaw. This discontinuity is overcome by the normal shock moving to a lower cross-sectional area in the ducting, to decrease the Mach number at entry to the shockwave. This weakens the shockwave, improving the overall intake pressure recovery. So, the absolute airflow stays constant, whilst the corrected airflow at compressor entry falls (because of a higher entry pressure). Excess intake airflow may also be dumped overboard or into the exhaust system, to prevent the conical/oblique shock waves being disturbed by the normal shock being forced too far forward by engine throttling. Many second generation supersonic fighter aircraft featured an inlet cone, which was used to form the conical shock wave. This type of inlet cone is clearly seen at the very front of the English Electric Lightning and MiG-21 aircraft, for example.

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Compressors

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Axial compressors

Compressor stage GE J79 Axial compressors rely on spinning blades that have aerofoil sections, similar to aeroplane wings. As with aeroplane wings in some conditions the blades can stall. If this happens, the airflow around the stalled compressor can reverse direction violently. Each design of a compressor has an associated operating map of airflow versus rotational speed for characteristics peculiar to that type (see compressor map). At a given throttle condition, the compressor operates somewhere along the steady state running line. Unfortunately, this operating line is displaced during transients. Many compressors are fitted with anti-stall systems in the form of bleed bands or variable geometry stators to decrease the likelihood of surge. Another method is to

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split the compressor into two or more units, operating on separate concentric shafts.

Another design consideration is the average stage loading. This can be kept at a sensible level either by increasing the number of compression stages (more weight/cost) or the mean blade speed (more blade/disc stress). Although large flow compressors are usually all-axial, the rear stages on smaller units are too small to be robust. Consequently, these stages are often replaced by a single centrifugal unit. Very small flow compressors often employ two centrifugal compressors, connected in series. Although in isolation centrifugal compressors are capable of running at quite high pressure ratios (e.g. 10:1), impeller stress considerations limit the pressure ratio that can be employed in high overall pressure ratio engine cycles.

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Increasing overall pressure ratio implies raising the high pressure compressor exit temperature. This implies a higher high pressure shaft speed, to maintain the datum blade tip Mach number on the rear compressor stage. Stress considerations, however, may limit the shaft speed increase, causing the original compressor to throttle-back aerodynamically to a lower pressure ratio than datum. Combustors

Combustion chamber GE J79 Flame fronts generally travel at just Mach 0.05, whereas airflows through jet engines are considerably faster than this. Combustors typically employ structures to give a sheltered combustion zone called a flame holder. Combustor configurations include can, annular, and can-annular. Great care must be taken to keep the flame burning in a moderately fast moving airstream, at all throttle conditions, as efficiently as possible. Since the turbine cannot withstand stoichiometric temperatures (a mixture ratio of around 15:1), some of the compressor air is used to quench the exit temperature of the combustor to an acceptable level (an overall mixture ratio of between 45:1 and 130:1 is used[28]). Air used for combustion is considered to be primary airflow, while excess air used for cooling is called secondary airflow. The secondary airflow is ported through many small holes in the burner cans to create an blanket of cooler air to insulate the metal surfaces of the combustion can from the flame. If the metal were

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subjected to the direct flame for any length of time, it would eventually burn through. Rocket engines, being a non 'duct engine' have quite different combustor systems, and the mixture ratio is usually much closer to being stochiometric in the main chamber. These engines generally lack flame holders and combustion occurs at much higher temperatures, there being no turbine downstream. However, liquid rocket engines frequently employ separate burners to power turbopumps, and these burners usually run far off stochiometric so as to lower turbine temperatures in the pump Turbines

Turbine Stage GE J79

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Because a turbine expands from high to low pressure, there is no such thing as turbine surge or stall. The turbine needs fewer stages than the compressor, mainly because the higher inlet temperature reduces the deltaT/T (and thereby the pressure

ratio) of the expansion process. The blades have more curvature and the gas stream velocities are higher. Designers must, however, prevent the turbine blades and vanes from melting in a very high temperature and stress environment. Consequently bleed air extracted from the compression system is often used to cool the turbine blades/vanes internally. Other solutions are improved materials and/or special insulating coatings. The discs must be specially shaped to withstand the huge stresses imposed by the rotating blades. They take the form of impulse, reaction, or combination impulse-reaction shapes. Improved materials help to keep disc weight down Afterburners (reheat)

Turbofan fitted with afterburner Due to temperature limitations with the gas turbines, jet engines do not consume all the oxygen in the air ('run stoichiometric'). Afterburners burn the remaining oxygen after exiting the turbines, but usually do so inefficiently due to the low pressures typically found at this part of the jet engine; however this gains significant thrust, which can be useful. Engines intended for extended use with afterburners often have variable nozzles and other details.

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Nozzles

Afterburner GE J79 The primary objective of a nozzle is to expand the exhaust stream to atmospheric pressure, and use the heat of combustion to accelerate the jet to high speed so as to efficiently propel the vehicle. For airbreathing engines, if the fully expanded jet has a higher speed than the aircraft's airspeed, then there is a net rearward momentum gain to the air and there will be a forward thrust on the airframe. Simple convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e. smallest flow area), in the jet wake. Although much of the gross thrust produced will still be from the jet momentum, additional (pressure) thrust will come from the imbalance between the throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure. Many military combat engines incorporate an afterburner (or reheat) in the engine exhaust system. When the system is lit, the nozzle throat area must be increased, to

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accommodate the extra exhaust volume flow, so that the turbomachinery is unaware that the afterburner is lit. A variable throat area is achieved by moving a series of overlapping petals, which approximate the circular nozzle cross-section. At high nozzle pressure ratios, the exit pressure is often above ambient and much of the expansion will take place downstream of a convergent nozzle, which is inefficient. Consequently, some jet engines (notably rockets) incorporate a convergent-divergent nozzle, to allow most of the expansion to take place against the inside of a nozzle to maximise thrust. However, unlike the fixed con-di nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, when such a device is used on a turbojet engine it has to be a complex variable geometry device, to cope with the wide variation in nozzle pressure ratio encountered in flight and engine throttling. This further increases the weight and cost of such an installation.

Variable Exhaust Nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet The simpler of the two is the ejector nozzle, which creates an effective nozzle through a secondary airflow and spring-loaded petals. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. As the aircraft speeds up, the two nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engines can actually use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit area at very low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability. Disadvantages are average performance (compared to the other nozzle type) and relatively high drag due to the secondary airflow. Notable aircraft to have utilized this type of nozzle include the SR-71, Concorde, F-111, and Saab Viggen For higher performance, it is necessary to use an iris nozzle. This type uses overlapping, hydraulically adjustable "petals". Although more complex than the ejector nozzle, it has significantly higher performance and smoother airflow. As such, it is employed primarily on high-performance fighters such as the F-14, F-15, F-16, though is also used in high-speed bombers such as the B-1B. Some modern

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iris nozzles additionally have the ability to change the angle of the thrust (see thrust vectoring).

Iris vectored thrust nozzle Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to minimize weight. Because of the much higher nozzle pressure ratios experienced, rocket motor con-di nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet engines. The Convair F-106 Delta Dart has used such a nozzle design, as part of its overall design specification as a aerospace interceptor for high-altitude bomber interception, where conventional nozzle design would prove ineffective. At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans use an extremely low area ratio (less than 1.01 area ratio), convergent-divergent, nozzle on the bypass (or mixed exhaust) stream, to control the fan working line. The nozzle acts as if it has variable geometry. At low flight speeds the nozzle is unchoked (less than a Mach number of unity), so the exhaust gas speeds up as it approaches the throat and then slows down slightly as it reaches the divergent section. Consequently, the nozzle exit area controls the fan match and, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake increases nozzle pressure ratio to the point where the throat becomes choked (M=1.0). Under these circumstances, the throat area dictates the fan match and being smaller than the exit pushes the fan working line slightly towards surge. This is not a problem, since fan surge margin is much better at high flight speeds.

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MATERIALS USED FOR GT ENGINE COMPONENTS


Strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, thermally stable components are essential to the viability of any aircraft design, and certain materials have been developed to provide these and other desirable traits. Titanium, first created in sufficiently pure form for commercial use during the 1950s, is utilized in the most critical engine components. While it is very difficult to shape, its extreme hardness renders it strong when subjected to intense heat. To improve its malleability titanium is often alloyed with other metals such as nickel and aluminum. All three metals are prized by the aerospace industry because of their relatively high strength/weight ratio.

The intake fan at the front of the engine must be extremely strong so that it doesn't fracture when large birds and other debris are sucked into its blades; it is thus made of a titanium alloy. The intermediate compressor is made from aluminum, while the high pressure section nearer the intense heat of the combustor is made of nickel and titanium alloys better able to withstand extreme temperatures. The combustion chamber is also made of nickel and titanium alloys, and the turbine blades, which must endure the most intense heat of the engine, consist of nickel-titaniumaluminum alloys. Often, both the combustion chamber and the turbine receive special ceramic coatings that better enable them to resist heat. The inner duct of the exhaust system is crafted from titanium, while the outer exhaust duct is made from compositessynthetic fibers held together with resins. Although fiberglass was used for years, it is now being supplanted by Kevlar, which is even lighter and stronger. The thrust reverser consists of titanium alloy. The Manufacturing

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Process

Building and assembling the components of a jet engine takes about two years, after a design and testing period that can take up to five years for each model. The research and development phase is so protracted because the engines are so complex: a standard Boeing 747 engine, for example, contains almost 25,000 parts. Building componentsfan blade In jet engine manufacture, the various parts are made individually as part of subassemblies; the subassemblies then come together to form the whole engine. One such part is the fan blade, situated at the front of the engine. Each fan blade consists of two blade skins produced by shaping molten titanium in a hot press. When removed, each blade skin is welded to a mate, with a hollow cavity in the center. To increase the strength of the final product, this cavity is filled with a titanium honeycomb. Compressor disc The disc, the solid core to which the blades of the compressor are attached, resembles a big, notched wheel. It must be extremely strong and free of even minute imperfections, as these could easily develop into fractures under the tremendous stress of engine operation. For a long time, the most popular way to manufacture the disc entailed machine-cutting a metal blank into a rough approximation of the desired shape, then heating and stamping it to precise specifications (in addition to rendering the metal malleable, heat also helps to fuse hairline cracks). Today, however, a more sophisticated method of producing discs is being used by more and more manufacturers. Called powder metallurgy, it consists of pouring molten metal onto a rapidly rotating turntable that breaks the metal into millions of microscopic droplets that are flung back up almost immediately

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Turbine blades are made by forming wax copies of the blades and then immersing the copies in a ceramic slurry bath. After each copy is heated to harden the ceramic and melt the wax, molten metal is poured into the hollow left by the melted wax.

A jet engine works by sucking air into one end, compressing it, mixing it with fuel and burning it in the combustion chamber, and then expelling it with great force out the exhaust system. due to the table's spinning. As they leave the table, the droplets' temperature suddenly plummets (by roughly 2,120 degrees Fahrenheit1,000 degrees Celsiusin half a second), causing them to solidify and form a fine-grained metal powder. The resulting powder is very pure because it solidifies too quickly to pick up contaminants. In the next step, the powder is packed into a forming case and put into a vacuum. Vibrated, the powder sifts down until it is tightly packed at the bottom of the case; the vacuum guarantees that no air pockets develop. The case is then sealed and heated under high pressure (about 25,000 pounds per square inch). This combination of heat and pressure fuses the metal particles into a disc. The disc is then shaped on a large cutting machine and bolted to the fan blades. Compressor blades Casting, an extremely old method, is still used to form the compressor blades. In this process, the alloy from which the blades will be formed is poured into a ceramic mold, heated in a furnace, and cooled. When the mold is broken off, the blades are machined to their final shape. Combustion chamber Combustion chambers must blend air and fuel in a small space and work for prolonged periods in extreme heat. To accomplish this, titanium is alloyed to increase its ductilityits ability to formed into shapes. It is then heated before being poured into several discrete, and very complex, segment molds. Molds, allowed to cool, and welded together before being mounted on the engine. Turbine disc and blades The turbine disc is formed by the same powder metallurgy process used to create the compressor disc. Turbine blades, however, are made by a somewhat different method than that used to form compressor blades, because they are subjected to even greater stress due to the intense heat of the combustor that lies

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just in front of them. First, copies of the blades are formed by pouring wax into metal molds. Once each wax shape has set, it is removed from the mold and immersed in a ceramic slurry bath, forming a ceramic coating about .25-inch (.63centimeter) thick. Each cluster is then heated to harden the ceramic and melt the wax. Molten metal is now poured into the hollow left by the melted wax. The internal air cooling passages within each blade are also formed during this stage of production. The metal grains in the blade are now aligned parallel to the blade by a process called directional solidifying. The grain direction is important because the turbine blades are subjected to so much stress; if the grains are aligned correctly, the blade is much less likely to fracture. The solidifying process takes place in computer-controlled ovens in which the blades are carefully heated according to precise specifications. The metal grains assume the correct configuration as they cool following their removal from the ovens. The next and final stages in preparing turbine blades are machine-shaping and either laser drilling or spark erosion. First, the blade is honed to the final, desired shape through a machining process. Next, parallel lines of tiny holes are formed in each blade as a supplement to the interior cooling passageways. The holes are formed by either a small laser beam or by spark erosion, in which carefully controlled sparks are permitted to eat holes in the blade. Exhaust system The inner duct and the afterburners of the exhaust system are molded from titanium, while the outer duct and the nacelle (the engine casing) are formed from Kevlar. After these three components have been welded into a subassembly, the entire engine is ready to be put together.

Final assembly Engines are constructed by manually combining the various subassemblies and accessories. An engine is typically built in a vertical position from the aft end forward, on a fixture that will allow the operator to manipulate the engine easily during build up. Assembly begins with bolting the high pressure turbine (that

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closest to the combustor) to the low-pressure turbine (that furthest from the cumbustor). Next, the combustion chamber is fastened to the turbines. One process that is used to build a balanced turbine assembly utilizes a CNC (Computer Numerically Controlled) robot capable of selecting, analyzing, and joining a turbine blade to its hub. This robot can determine the weight of a blade and place it appropriately for a balanced assembly. Once the turbines and combustion chamber have been assembled, the high and low pressure compressors are attached. The fan and its frame comprise the forward most subassembly, and they are connected next. The main drive shaft connecting the low pressure turbine to the low pressure compressor and fan is then installed, thus completing the engine core. After the final subassembly, the exhaust system, has been attached, the engine is ready to be shipped to the aircraft manufacturer, where the plumbing, wiring, accessories, and aerodynamic shell of the plane will be integrated. Quality Control As production begins on a newly designed engine, the first one built is designated a test engine, and numerous experiments are run to test its response to the various situations the engine model will encounter during its service life. These include extreme weather conditions, airborne debris (such as birds), lengthy flights, and repeated starts. The first engine built is always dedicated to quality testing; it will never fly commercially. Throughout the entire process of building an engine, components and assemblies are inspected for dimensional accuracy, responsible workmanship, and material integrity. Dimensional inspections are undertaken in many different ways. One common method is CNC inspection. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) will inspect key features of a part and compare them to the designed dimensions. Parts are also inspected for material flaws. One method is to apply a fluorescent liquid over the entire surface of a part. After the liquid has migrated into any cracks or marks, the excess is removed. Under an ultraviolet light any surface imperfections that could cause premature engine failure will illuminate.

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All rotating assemblies must be precisely balanced to insure safe extended operation. Prior to final assembly, all rotating subassemblies are dynamically balanced. The balancing process is much like spin-balancing the tire on your car. The rotating subassemblies and the completed engine core are computer "spun" and adjusted to insure that they rotate concentrically. Functional testing of a finished engine takes place in three stages: static tests, stationary operating tests, and flight tests. A static test checks the systems (such as electrical and cooling) without the engine running. Stationary operating tests are conducted with the engine mounted on a stand and running. Flight testing entails a comprehensive exam of all the systems, previously tested or not, in a variety of different conditions and environments. Each engine will continue to be monitored throughout its service life.

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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GT ENGINES


All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards. Jet engines make their jet from propellant from tankage that is attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') or from ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed; or more commonly, a combination of the two sources. Thrust The motion impulse of the engine is equal to the fluid mass multiplied by the speed at which the engine emits this mass: I=mc where m is the fluid mass per second and c is the exhaust speed. In other words, a vehicle gets the same thrust if it outputs a lot of exhaust very slowly, or a little exhaust very quickly. (In practice parts of the exhaust may be faster than others, but it's the average momentum that matters, and thus the important quantity is called the effective exhaust speed - c here.) However, when a vehicle moves with certain velocity v, the fluid moves towards it, creating an opposing ram drag at the intake: mv Most types of jet engine have an intake, which provides the bulk of the fluid exiting the exhaust. Conventional rocket motors, however, do not have an intake, the oxidizer and fuel both being carried within the vehicle. Therefore, rocket motors do not have ram drag; the gross thrust of the nozzle is the net thrust of the engine. Consequently, the thrust characteristics of a rocket motor are different from that of an air breathing jet engine, and thrust is independent of speed. The jet engine with an intake is only useful if the velocity of the gas from the engine, c, is greater than the vehicle velocity, v, as the net engine thrust is the same as if the gas were emitted with the velocity c-v. So the thrust is actually equal to

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S = m (c-v) This equation implies that as v approaches c, a greater mass of fluid must go through the engine to continue to accelerate, but all engines have a designed limit on this, and also that the vehicle can't accelerate past its exhaust velocity as it would have zero thrust. Energy efficiency

Dependence of the energy efficiency () upon the vehicle speed/exhaust speed ratio (v/c) for air-breathing jet and rocket engines Energy efficiency () of jet engines has two main components, cycle efficiency (c)- how efficiently the engine can accelerate the jet, and propulsive efficiency (p)-how much of the energy ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet. even though overall energy efficiency is simply: = pc For all jet engines the propulsive efficiency is highest when the engine emits an exhaust jet at a speed that is the same as, or nearly the same as, the vehicle velocity as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy. The exact formula for airbreathing engines moving at speed v with an exhaust velocity c is given in the literature as:[19] is

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And for a rocket:

[20]

In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is cycle efficiency; essentially a jet engine is typically a form of heat engine. Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures that are reached in the engine to that they are exhausted at from the nozzle, which in turn is limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures and can have very large, energy efficient nozzles. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, the practical combustion temperatures and nozzle efficiencies are much lower.

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Fuel/propellant consumption

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Specific impulse as a function of speed for different jet types with kerosene fuel (hydrogen Isp would be about twice as high). Although efficiency plummets with speed, greater distances are covered, it turns out that efficiency per unit distance (per km or mile) is roughly independent of speed for jet engines as a group; however airframes become inefficient at supersonic speeds

A closely related (but different) concept to energy efficiency is the rate of consumption of propellant mass. Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured by Specific Fuel Consumption, Specific impulse or Effective exhaust velocity. They all measure the same thing, specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others. For airbreathing engines such as turbojets energy efficiency and propellant (fuel) efficiency are much the same thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of energy. In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust, and this means that a high energy propellant gives better propellant efficiency but lower energy efficiency. SFC in lb/(lbfh) 10.9 7.95 4.5 1.9 1.195 0.605 0.307 SFC in Isp in g/(kNs) s 309 225 127 53.8 33.8 17.1 8.696 330 453 800 1900 3012 5950 Effective exhaust velocity (m/s) 3240 4423 7877 18,587 29,553 58,400

Engine type NK-33 rocket engine

scenario vacuum

Space SSME rocket engine Shuttle vacuum Ramjet M1 SR-71 at J-58 turbojet M3.2 (wet) RollsConcorde Royce/Snecma M2 cruise Olympus 593 CF6-80C2B1F Boeing 747turbofan 400 cruise General Electric sea level CF6 turbofan Thrust-to-weight ratio

11,700 115,000

Engine

Thrust-to-weight ratio

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The thrust to weight ratio of jet engines of similar principles varies somewhat with scale, but mostly is a function of engine construction technology. Clearly for a given engine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust to weight is, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the lift needed to carry the engine weight.

Concorde's Olympus 593 4.0 with reheat J-58 (SR-71 Blackbird jet engine) 5.2 Space shuttle's SSME 73.12 RD-180 rocket engine 73.4 NK-33 rocket engine 136.66

Comparison of types

Comparative suitability for (left to right) turboshaft, low bypass and turbojet to fly at 10 km altitude in various speeds. Horizontal axis - speed, m/s. Vertical axis displays engine efficiency. Turboprops obtain little thrust from jet effect, but are useful for comparison. They are gas turbine engines that have a rotating fan that takes and accelerates the large mass of air but by a relatively small change in speed. This low speed limits the speed of any propeller driven airplane. When the plane speed exceeds this limit,

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propellers no longer provide any thrust (c-v < 0). However, because they accelerate a large mass of air, turboprops are very efficient. turbojets and other similar engines accelerate a much smaller mass of the air and burned fuel, but they emit it at the much higher speeds possible with a de Laval nozzle. This is why they are suitable for supersonic and higher speeds. Low bypass turbofans have the mixed exhaust of the two air flows, running at different speeds (c1 and c2). The thrust of such engine is S = m1 (c1 - v) + m2 (c2 - v) Where m1 and m2 are the air masses, being blown from the both exhausts. Such engines are effective at lower speeds, than the pure jets, but at higher speeds than the turboshafts and propellers in general. For instance, at the 10 km altitude, turboshafts are most effective at about Mach 0.4 (0.4 times the speed of sound), low bypass turbofans become more effective at about Mach 0.75 and turbojets become more effective than mixed exhaust engines when the speed approaches Mach 2-3. Rocket engines have extremely high exhaust velocity and thus are best suited for high speeds (hypersonic) and great altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15.

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ENGINE NOISE
Much of the noise in propeller aircraft comes equally from the propellers and aerodynamics. Helicopter noise is aerodynamically induced noise from the main and tail rotors and mechanically induced noise from the main gearbox and various transmission chains. The mechanical sources produce narrow band high intensity peaks relating to the rotational speed and movement of the moving parts. In computer modeling terms noise from a moving aircraft can be treated as a line source. Aircraft Gas Turbine engines (Jet Engines) are responsible for much of the aircraft noise during takeoff and climb. However, with advances in noise reduction technologies - the airframe is typically noisier during landing. The majority of engine noise is due to Jet Noise - although high bypass-ratio turbofans do have considerable Fan Noise. The high velocity jet leaving the back of the engine has inherent shear layer instability (if not thick enough) and rolls up into ring vortices. This of course later breaks down into turbulence. The SPL associated with engine noise is proportional to the jet speed (to a high power) therefore, even modest reduction s in exhaust velocity will see a large reduction in Jet Noise. Noise is due to shockwaves that form when the exhaust jet interacts with the external air. The intensity of the noise is proportional to the thrust as well as proportional to the fourth power of the jet velocity. Generally then, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass turbofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets are the loudest. Although some variation in jet speed can often be arranged from a jet engine (such as by throttling back and adjusting the nozzle) it is difficult to vary the jet speed from an engine over a very wide range. Therefore since engines for supersonic vehicles such as Concorde, military jets and rockets inherently need to have supersonic exhaust at top speed, so these vehicles are especially noisy even at low speeds.

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JET ENGINE ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS


A jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of fluid to generate thrust in accordance with Newton's laws of motion. This broad definition of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, pulse jets and pumpjets. In general, most jet engines are internal combustion engines[1] but noncombusting forms also exist. MANUFACTURING PROCESS: Aero jets manufacture, testing and disposal methods led to toxic contamination of both the land and groundwater in the Rancho Cordova area, leading to the designation of a Superfund site. Solvents such as trichloroethylene (TCE) and chloroform and rocket fuel by-products such as NNitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and perchlorate were discovered in drinking water wells near Aerojet in 1979. Since then, two State agencies and the Environmental Protection Agency have been working with Aerojet to ensure that the company cleans up pollution caused by its operations at the site. Under state and federal enforcement orders, Aerojet installed several systems on the borders of its property to pump out and treat contaminated groundwater. Aerojet has also conducted a number of removal actions for onsite soils, liquids, and sludges. In 2003, groundwater sampling data revealed a plume of contamination extending northwest under Carmichael. As Aerojet downsized, many of their industrial plants were idled, and the company looked for ways to capitalize them. Their massive investment in chemical mixing equipment used to build their solid fuel rockets was later leased to third parties, notably pharmaceutical companies, under the name Aerojet Fine Chemicals. The division was later sold. Aerojet Real Estate was "more direct", leasing buildings, or selling off undeveloped land. It owns approximately 12,600 acres (51 km) of land, located 15 miles (24 km) east of downtown Sacramento. The remaining research and development sections of Aerojet are currently organized into the Aerospace and Defense division (ADS). They continue to develop and produce liquid, solid, and air-breathing engines for strategic and

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tactical missiles, precision strike missiles, and interceptors required for missile defense. Product applications for defense systems include strategic and tactical missile motors; maneuvering propulsion systems; attitude control systems; and warhead assemblies used in precision weapon systems and missile defense, as well as airframe structures required on the F-22 Raptor aircraft and fire suppression systems for military and commercial vehicles. Their space-related products include liquid engines for expendable and reusable launch vehicles, upper stage engines, satellite propulsion, large solid boosters, and integrated propulsion subsystems. Most recently, Aerojet successfully qualified a 4.5 kW Hall effect thruster electric propulsion system based on technology licensed from the Busek Corporation. Aerojet is under contract to Lockheed Martin to provide the first two shipsets of the new thruster system for the next generation Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system, an Air Force program.

Aerojet Qualifies High Power Electric Propulsion System:

The electric propulsion system, a popular choice for improving spacecraft efficiency in orbit, is now certified for flight for a variety of commercial and

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Aerojet, a GenCorp company, has announced the successful qualification test of its 4.5 kW Hall Thruster electric propulsion system - the highest power flightqualified Hall propulsion system in the world - for use on large, high-power communications satellites.

government programs. Aerojet is under contract to Lockheed Martin to provide the first two shipsets of the new thruster system for the next generation Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system, an Air Force program. Aerojet qualified the Hall System during a 5,600 hour life test at its Redmond, Wash. Electric propulsion test facility. The Hall Thruster is an electric propulsion system that provides operational lifetime somewhat similar to a light bulb measured in thousands of hours - while conventional chemical thruster performance is measured in minutes. By demonstrating such significant gains in performance and operational life, Aerojet will ensure dramatic cost savings for spacecraft. Those savings could exceed 2,000 lbs. of fuel - greatly improving launch vehicle flexibility and spacecraft on-orbit capability. "The successful qualification of the Aerojet Hall Thruster means the highest powered, most efficient Hall propulsion system is now available in the United States and is ready for flight," said Robert Peha, vice president and general manager of Aerojet Redmond Operations.

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TURBINE FUEL SYSTEMS


The purpose of a turbine engine fuel system is basically the same as a reciprocating engine fuel system. A turbine fuel system must store, transfer, and meter fuel to a turbine engine in the proper amount and at the right pressure. However, because of the type of fuel used, turbine fuel systems require a few additional components. A turbine fuel system consists of tanks, lines, valves, pumps, filter devices, gauges, a fuel control unit, and fuel nozzles. In addition, a fuel heater is having an approved landing weight that is less than the takeoff weight; a special valve is installed to allow emergency fuel dumping.

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Most turbine fuel systems also include a warning annunciate for low fuel quantity and low fuel pressure conditions. Most large turbine aircraft fuel systems include central refueling provisions, and a means of transferring fuel between tanks. Such a fuel system is known as a cross feed system and it allows fuel to be

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fed to any engine from any tank. In addition, a cross feed system provides a means of balancing the fuel load and maintaining aircraft stability. is identified by name and by colored bands painted or decaled around the pipe at intervals along its length. As a general rule, turbine fuels are much more viscous than reciprocating fuels. This allows the fuel to act as a lubricant in pumps and fuel control units. However, the high viscosity also allows turbine fuels to hold water and solid material that does not easily settle out. Any time water is present in fuel, the potential for fuel icing or microbial growth exists. Because of this, many aircraft and engine manufacturers recommend the use of anti-icing and anti-microbial fuel additives. Except for very low temperatures, anti-icing additives help prevents water that is entrained in fuel from freezing. On the other hand, anti-microbial agents kill the microbes, fungi, and bacteria which tend to form slime or matted waste inside fuel tanks. These micro-organisms Can accumulate and clog filters and fuel lines as well as create corrosive compounds that corrode fuel cells. Quite often, fuel additives are premixed in the fuel by the distributor. However, when fuels are supplied without additives, the appropriate quality of additives is metered into the fuel while refueling the aircraft. If metering is not available, the additives are poured into the fuel tanks just before refueling. This way, the turbulence created by the refueling process sufficiently mixes the additive with the fuel. The type and amount of additive used must be approved by the aircraft manufacturer in order to maintain the fuel system's airworthiness. Approved fuel and fuel Additives for each turbine engine are found in the aircraft operator's manual or Type Certificate Data Sheet. Pretties a commonly used additive which contains both anti-icing and anti-microbial agents.

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TURBINE ENGINE FUEL METERING: Turbine engine fuel metering devices have the same purpose as their reciprocating engine counterparts. In other words, they must meter fuel to a turbine engine for reliable ground and air operations. If you recall from your earlier studies on turbine engines, the power output of a turbine engine varies with the amount of air that is drawn into the compressor and the amount of heat that is generated in the combustion section. You should also recall that the amount of heat produced in the combustors is determined by the amount of fuel that is scheduled into the engine. Based on this, a turbine engine fuel metering device. Must schedule the proper amount of fuel to the engine to obtain a given power output. Due to the inertia of the main turbine and the large changes in airflow associated with power changes, turbine engines do not respond rapidly to abrupt power lever movements. For example, when an engine is decelerated and the fuel flow is decreased more rapidly than the airflow through the engine, an incombustible fuel/air mixture could result and cause what is known is a lean die-out. On the other hand, if an engine is accelerated too rapidly, and an excessive amount of fuel is scheduled into the combustors before the main turbine has time to accelerate, a rich blowout can occur. For these reasons, a turbine engine fuel metering device must control fuel flow and engine acceleration and deceleration rates. The main components of a typical turbine engine fuel metering system include a fuel control unit and fuel nozzles.

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FUEL CONTROL UNITS: When the engine operator makes a power setting with the cockpit controls, the fuel control unit, or FeU, responds by adjusting fuel flow to the engine. The FeU meters fuel in accordance with the power lever position to provide the precise amount of fuel necessary for the desired thrust. In order to perform its fuel metering functions, a fuel control unit monitors several engine operating parameters including power lever position, engine rpm, compressor inlet air temperature and pressure, and burner or compressor discharge pressure. Based on the detected parameter information, a fuel control provides the precise fuel flow needed. In addition, many fuel control units incorporate several automatic functions to help prevent flameouts, over-temperature occurrences, and over-speed conditions. Turbine engine fuel controls are designed to meter fuel by weight rather than by volume. The reason for this is that the heat energy per pound of fuel is a constant value regardless of fuel temperature, while the heat energy per unit volume of fuel varies. If you may recall, as the temperature of turbine fuel increases, its volume also increases. By the same token, as the temperature of turbine fuel decreases, its volume decreases. Fuel control units meter the correct amount of fuel into the combustion section to obtain an optimum air-to-fuel mixture ratio of 15:1 by weight. This ratio represents 15 pounds of combustor primary air to one pound of fuel. If you recall from Section B, a mixture ratio of 15:1 is the theoretically perfect mixture for combustion. A typical fuel control unit is an engine-driven accessory that meters fuel using hydro mechanical, hydro pneumatic, or electronic forces. Today, hydro mechanical and electronic fuel control units are used on most turbojet and turbofan engines. On the other hand, hydro-pneumatic units are used on several turboprop engines.

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HYDROMECHANICAL:

A typical hydro mechanical fuel control unit is divided into a fuel metering section and a computing section.

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The fuel metering section consists of a fuel pump, a pressure regulating valve, a single metering valve, and a fuel shutoff valve. On the other hand, the computing section consists of a speed sensitive control, or governor, that responds to the position of the power lever and the speed of the engine. Additional components include a servo valve that controls the rate of engine acceleration and deceleration, and two bellows that adjust fuel flow based on burner and inlet air pressure.

FUEL METERING SECTION:

The primary purpose of the fuel metering section of a hydro mechanical fuel control unit is to meter the appropriate amount of fuel to the combustion section at the correct pressure. In order to do this, a typical fuel metering section utilizes a positive displacement fuel pump, a main metering valve, and a pressure regulating valve. In addition, to provide a positive means of stopping the flow of fuel to the engine for engine shut down, a fuel shutoff valve is provided downstream from the main metering valve. To understand how the fuel metering section works. To begin, boost pump fuel is directed to the main fuel pump which sends unpressurized fuel to the main metering valve. A typical metering valve consists of a tapered valve that meters the fuel flow to the combustors based on power lever position and the pressure at the engine inlet and within the burners. As unmetered fuel flows through the opening created by the metering valve, it becomes metered fuel and a pressure differential is created across the metering valve. In order to properly meter fuel by weight, a constant pressure differential, or drop, must be maintained. To do this, a pressure regulating valve is installed in parallel with the main metering valve.

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A pressure regulating valve is similar to a pressure relief valve in that a spring-loaded valve controls the amount of fuel that is bypassed back to the inlet of the fuel pump. However, in order to maintain a constant pressure differential across the metering valve, a pressure regulating valve utilizes a diaphragm that is exposed to pump pressure on one side and metered fuel pressure on its opposite side. This way, the pressure regulating valve senses the pressure drop across the metering valve and is able to maintain a pre-determined pressure drop based on the spring pressure.

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COMPUTING SECTION:

The computing section of the fuel control is responsible for positioning the metering valve to obtain the appropriate power output and control the rate of acceleration and deceleration. To do this, a typical computing section utilizes a speed sensitive governor, a servo valve, and two pressure sensitive bellows. During engine operation, forward movement of the power lever causes the spring cap to slide down the pilot servo valve rod and compress the flyweight speeder spring. This action forces the tops of the Flyweights inward, creating an under-speed condition. When this occurs, the fuel in the pilot servo valve is displaced from top to bottom causing the slider to move down. The pilot servo valve is a hydraulic dampener which transforms sudden throttle movements into slow, smooth commands to reposition the main metering valve. As the slider moves down the inclined plane of the multiplying linkage, it moves to the left and forces the metering Valve to open. Any time the metering valve is opened further, more fuel flows to the engine to increase the power output.

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As power output increases, engine speed also increases causing the governor drive to rotate faster. The increased rotational speed increases the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights causing them to return to an upright position.

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HYDRO-PNEUMATIC:

As mentioned earlier, hydro-pneumatic fuel controls are often used on turboprop engines. A hydro pneumatic fuel control differs from hydro mechanical fuel control in that a hydro-pneumatic fuel control utilizes a pneumatic computing section that determines fuel flow rates based on the position of the power lever, N1 rpm, compressor ditto governors, an N1governor, and an Nz governor are also used in this type of fuel control unit. The N1 governor controls compressor turbine speed while the Nz governor controls the power turbine speed. The propeller of a free-turbine type of turboprop engine is driven by Nz and, therefore, propeller rpm is controlled by the Nz governor. Both governors sense compressor discharge air and are connected to the pneumatic computing section. Therefore, functions of the governors and pneumatic computing section are interdependent. A starting flow control unit also is utilized in this type of fuel control and is installed between the main metering valve and fuel nozzles. A starting flow control unit consists of a casing which contains a ported plunger that slides in a ported sleeve. A rack and pinion assembly converts rotational movement of the input lever into linear motion for moving the plunger. The starting flow control unit ensures the correct fuel pressure to the nozzles and provides a means of draining residual fuel from the fuel manifolds when the engine is shutdown. This helps to prevent fuel from boiling and fouling the system with carbon due to heat absorption after engine shutdown. ELECTRONIC: As turbine engines advanced in technology, scheduling the proper amount of fuel to the engine became more important. In fact, the only way a modern turbofan engine can realize its optimum designed efficiency is if the fuel is precisely scheduled to the engine while several engine parameters are monitored. To obtain the monitoring and control needed, most modern turbofan engines utilize an electronic engine control, or EEC, to schedule fuel. In addition to its ability to monitor and precisely meter fuel, an EEC offers the benefit of saving fuel, increasing reliability, reducing operator workload, and reducing maintenance costs. Furthermore, a properly functioning EEC can prolong engine life by preventing over-temperature and over-speed occurrences. Today, there are two types of

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electronic engine controls used; the supervisory engine control system and the fullauthority control system.

SUPERVISORY EEC: A supervisory EEC consists of an electronic control and a conventional hydro mechanical fuel control unit. With this type of system, the hydro mechanical fuel control unit controls most engine operations including starting, idle, acceleration, deceleration, and shutdown. On the other hand, the electronic control monitors several engine operating parameters and adjusts the fuel control unit to obtain the most effective engine operation based on the position of the power lever. With this type of system, once the operator sets the power lever to obtain a specific engine pressure ratio (EPR), the electronic engine control adjusts the fuel control unit as necessary to maintain the selected EPR as the aircraft climbs or as atmospheric conditions change. In addition, most EECs also limit an engine's operating speed and temperature to prevent over-speed and over-temperature occurrences. In fact, some supervisory EECs may be used primarily as an engine speed and temperature limiting control. For example, the supervisory EEC used on a Rolls Royce RB-211 works on a hydro mechanical schedule until the engine is accelerated to near full engine power. However, once the engine nears its maximum rotational speed and operating temperature, the EEC begins operating as a limiter to limit the mount of fuel that goes to the engine. As a safety feature, if a supervisory EEC should malfunction, control automatically reverts back to the hydro mechanical fuel control. In addition, a warning light illuminates in the cockpit to warn the aircraft operator that the EEC is no longer inputting information to the fuel control unit. By the same token, an aircraft operator can manually revert to the hydro mechanical control whenever it is deemed necessary.

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Full-AUTHORITY EEC:

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A full-authority digital engine control, or FADEC, performs virtually all the functions necessary to support engine operation during all phases of flight. In addition, all FADEC systems are fully redundant and, therefore, eliminate the need for a hydro mechanical fuel control unit. A typical FADEC system consists of a redundant, two-channel EEC that can pull information from either channel. In most cases, the EEC receives input on engine speed (N1and Nz), throttle lever position, bleed-air status, aircraft altitude, total inlet air pressure and temperature, stator vane angle, fuel flow rate, fuel and oil temperature, turbine exhaust pressure and temperature, and burner pressure. This input information is analyzed by the EEC and then a series of commands are issued to a set of actuators that control engine operating parameters. On aircraft equipped with a FADEC system, the aircraft operator simply places the power lever in a specific position to obtain a given EPR,

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or power output, and the EEC automatically accelerates or decelerates the engine to the EPR desired. In addition, the EEC maintains the selected EPR as the aircraft changes altitude or ambient conditions change. This greatly reduces pilot workload as well as under-speed and over-speed occurrences. In addition, since an EEC closely monitors and controls the engine operating parameters so that maximum thrust is obtained for a given amount of fuel, engines that are equipped with an EEC are usually more fuel efficient. To provide a high degree of reliability, FADEC systems are designed with several redundant and dedicated subsystems. For example, as mentioned earlier, an EEC consists of two redundant channels that send and receive data. Each channel consists of its own processor, power supply, memory, sensors, and actuators. In addition, anyone channel can take information from the other channel.

TURBINE FUEL CONTROL MAINTENANCE:

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Turbine engine fuel control repairs in the field consist of control replacement or occasional field adjustments. Furthermore, adjustments are limited to idle and maximum speed adjustments. If you recall, the process of adjusting a turbine engine fuel control is commonly referred to as trimming the engine. The primary purpose for trimming a fuel Trim checks are completed whenever engine thrust is suspect, and after such maintenance tasks as prescribed by the manufacturer. An engine change, fuel control change, or throttle linkage adjustments for proper control cushion and spring back are all examples which require trimming procedures. A fuel control may also need to be retimed when deterioration of engine efficiencies occur as service time takes its toll. Another example is when wear and tear on engine control linkages cause misalignment between the cockpit and engine. Manual trimming procedures vary widely between engine models; therefore, before you attempt to trim an engine, you should take time to review the specific procedures in the engine's maintenance manual. A typical trimming procedure requires you to install calibrated instruments for reading turbine discharge pressure or EPR. In addition, a calibrated tachometer must be installed to read Nz rpm. Once the instrumentation is installed, the aircraft should be pointed

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into the wind. However, if the velocity of the wind blowing into the intake is too great, elevated compression and turbine discharge pressures will result which, ultimately, will produce a low trim setting. Another step in the trimming procedure is to measure the barometric pressure at the engine inlet and the ambient temperature. This is required to correct performance readings to standard sea-level conditions. To obtain a temperature reading it is common practice to hang a thermometer in the shade of the nose wheel well. The ideal conditions for trimming a turbine engine are no wind, low humidity, and standard temperature and pressure. With the engine running at idle and maximum power, observe the turbine discharge or EPR readings to determine how much trimming is necessary. If trimming of either the idle or maximum settings is necessary, it is typically accomplished by turning a screw type adjustment on the fuel control unit. However, most manufacturers recommend that in the fuel control, all final adjustments must be made in the increase direction. If an over adjustment is made, the trim should be decreased below target values, then increased back to the desired values.

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FUEL CONTROL ADJUSTMENTS:

Remote adjusting equipment. A remote control unit allows you to make the trim adjustments from the cockpit during ground test with the cowls closed. Another important part of the trim procedure is to check for power lever cushion, or springback. You should move the power lever full forward and release it before and after the trim run. The amount of lever spring back is then measured against prescribed tolerances. If the cushion and spring back are out of limits, you must make the necessary adjustments in accordance with the manufacturer's rigging instructions. Correct power lever spring back ensures a pilot that takeoff power will be obtained and that additional power lever travel is available for emergencies. Correct spring back is indicated when the fuel control reaches its internal stop before the cockpit power lever reaches its stop. A trim check is normally followed by an acceleration check. After completing the trim check, place a mark on the cockpit power lever quadrant at the takeoff trim position. Then, advance the power lever from the idle position to takeoff thrust position and measure the time against a published tolerance. A typical acceleration time from idle to takeoff thrust for a large gas turbine engine ranges from 5 to 10 seconds. Once the fuel control unit has been trimmed and control spring back is correct, the engine should produce its rated thrust in standard conditions. In nonstandard conditions with high ambient temperatures, the rated thrust is degraded. While low humidity is desirable for purposes of accuracy during trimming procedures, high atmospheric humidity actually degrades rated thrust very little. The reason for this is that only 25 percent of the air passing through a turbine engine is used for combustion.

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JET ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEM & LUBRICATING OILS


The large operating tolerances and high bearing pressures in reciprocating engines require the use of high viscosity oil. Turbine engines, on the other Hand, are built with extremely tight tolerances and the ball and roller bearings used are subjected to relatively low pressures. Because of this, low viscosity oils are used in turbine engines. In addition to having a low viscosity, the oil used in turbine engines must provide adequate lubrication over a wide temperature range, typically from -60F to +400F. Given these temperature extremes, conventional mineralbased oil would congeal at the Low temperature extremes and break down at the upper extremes. In addition, mineral-based oils tend to leave lacquer and carbon, or coke deposits when exposed to excessive temperatures. Because of this, synthetic oils are used almost exclusively in turbine engines. In addition to its ability to lubricate over a wide temperature range, synthetic oils have a low volatility which helps prevent evaporation at high altitudes.

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In addition, most synthetic oils contain an antifoaming additive which helps reduce foaming and ensures positive lubrication. Additional characteristics possessed by synthetic oils include having a high viscosity index, high flash point, low pour point, and excellent cohesion and adhesion properties. Cohesion is a characteristic of oil molecules that causes them to stick together under compression loads, while adhesion allows oil to adhere to surfaces under centrifugal loads. Currently, there are two types of synthetic oils used in turbine engines: Type I, or MIL-L-7808 and Type II, or MIL-L-23699. Type I synthetic oil is an alkyl dieter oil with a 3 centistokes rating. This type of synthetic oil has a very low viscosity and was used primarily in early turbine engines. On the other hand, Type II synthetic oil is a polyester lubricant that has a 5 centistokes rating and is used in most modern turbine engines. As discussed in Section a, different types of synthetic oil should not be mixed. In addition, since some proprietary additives

many not mix with others, some manufacturers recommend that different brands of synthetic oil not be mixed. JET ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEM The lubricating system on turbine engine supplies oil to moving parts within the engine. Which are subjected to friction and heating. In most case, pressure lubricating is used to lubricate all necessary components within a turbine engine. The reason for this is that, unlike reciprocating engine that have several moving part that splash oil around the engine, a turbine engine has one or two rotating shaft that ride on bearings and an accessory gear box.

COMPONENTS OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM 1. OIL RESERVOIR 2. OIL PUMPS 3. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

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4. OIL FILTER 5. OIL JET 6. VENT SYSTEM 7. CHECK VALVE 8. OIL COOLER 9. OIL PRESSURE GAUGE 10. OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE

OIL RESERVIOR: The oil reservoir in a dry sump system is usually constructed of sheet metals aluminum or stainless steel and is designed to furnish a constant supply of oil to the engine during all approved flight maneuvers. As mentioned earlier, in a dry sump system, the oil reservoir may be mounted externally or internally, when mounted externally, the reservoir may be attached to the engine case or mounted internally, the oil reservoir is formed by an internal space, or cavity, within the engine structure. Common locations for internal oil reservoirs include cavities between major case sections and propeller reduction gear boxes.

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OIL PUMPS: It is use to pressurize the oil. The inlet of the pump from tank to the various required area of the engine.

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TYPES OF OIL PUMPS: 1. 2. 3. 4. GEAR PUMP VANE PUMP GEROTOR PUMP SCAVENGE PUMP

GEAR PUMP: The gear-type pump is the most common type of oil pump used in turbine engines. A typical gear-type pump consists of two meshed gears that rotate inside a housing. The gears and housing are precisely machined to keep clearances between them as small as possible. Oil is picked up by the gears at the pump inlet and then becomes trapped between the teeth and the housing. As the gears rotate, the trapped oil is released at the pump outlet.

VANE PUMP: A vane-type pump uses sliding vanes mounted in an eccentric rotor to move fluids. A rotor drive shaft and eccentric rotor from one rotating part, drives the vanes around the pump chamber. The vanes are free to slide in and out of the eccentric rotor, increasing the volume between the vanes as each pair approaches the oil inlet.

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When a pair of vanes passes the oil inlet, oil floods the space between the vanes. As the vanes rotate past the inlet, the eccentric shape of the rotor reduces the volume between the vanes as they near the oil outlet and the oil is forced out of the pump. Often pumps used in an oil system, the sliding vane pump are considered to be more tolerant of debris. This makes the sliding vane pumps ideal for use in a scavenge system. GEROTOR PUMP: Another type of constant-displacement pump used to move oil through a turbine engine is the gerotortype pump. As discussed in the previous section, a typical gerotor-type pump consists of an engine-driven spur gear that rotates within free spinning rotor housing. The rotor and drive gear ride inside a housing that has two oblong openings. One opening is the oil inlet while the other is the oil outlet.

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SCAVENGE PUMP: In addition to a pressure pump, almost all turbine engine lubrication systems must utilize a scavenge pump to return oil to the oil reservoir. A scavenge pump may be a gear- vane-, or gerotor-type pump that is driven by the engine. As a rule, scavenge pumps have a capacity that is greater than a pressure pump.

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The reason for this is that after oil flows through an engine it typically has a greater volume due to foaming and thermal expansion. Therefore, to ensure that oil does not collect in the engine sump, the scavenge pump must be capable of pumping a greater volume of oil than the pressure pump. One unique feature of many turbine engine oil pumps is that the pressure pump and scavenge pump are often enclosed in a single housing.

Some turbine engine lubricating systems rely on a pressure relif valve to regulate the oil pressure within the system. on the other hand, some system does not use a pressure relief valve and allow full pump pressure to circulate within the system. Lubricating systems that have a relief valve system, while system that does not incorporate a relief valve are called full flow system. OIL FILTERS:

Once oil is discharged from an oil pressure pump, it flows to an oil filter. The purpose of the filter is to remove solid particles that are suspended in the oil. The contaminants typically found in a turbine engine oil system include products of oil decomposition, metallic particles produced by engine wear, and corrosion. In addition, since large amounts of air move through a turbine engine, airborne contaminants can enter the oil system through the main bearing seals. Occasionally, dirt and other foreign matter may also be inadvertently introduced into the oil supply during servicing. All turbine engines include an oil filter downstream from the oil pump. In addition, most engines force the oil to pass through another filter just prior to entering the bearing chambers. This filter is commonly referred to as a last chance filter because it represents the last opportunity to filter the oil before it enters the bearing chamber. Since last chance filters are placed deep within an engine, they are cleaned only when an engine is disassembled for overhaul. On some engines, filtration is also provided in the scavenge subsystem. With this type of system, the oil is filtered prior to reaching the reservoir.

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This way, any contaminants that are flushed out of the bearing chambers do not make it back to the clean oil in the reservoir. The effectiveness of a turbine engine oil filter is measured in microns. One micron represents a size or distance equal to one millionth of a meter, or approximately .000039 inch. To put micron measurements in perspective, consider that objects must be approximately 40 microns or larger to be distinguishable by the human eye. Turbine engines utilize three types of filters; a wire mesh oil screen, a screen disk, or a pleated-fiber filter. A typical wire-mesh filter is rated at 20 to 40 microns. In other words, particles larger than 40 microns in size are filtered from the oil supply. To create a larger surface area for filtration, many oil screens are pleated. Typically installations that utilize screen-type filters include bowl-type in-line filters and gearbox filters. The screen-disk type filter is more common to Pratt & Whitney engines and consists of a series of wafer thin screens that are separated by spacers. The screens are stacked on a perforated metal core and oil is filtered as it passes from the outer edge to the core. A typical rating on a screen disk filter is approximately 20 microns. In addition, its construction permits the filter to be disassembled and cleaned. This type of filter is often used in the pressurized portion of an oil system and fits into an annulus provided in the main accessory gearbox. Pleated-fiber filters are typically rated at about 15 microns and are similar to the filters used in

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reciprocating engines. A typical pleated-fiber filter element consists of millions of resin-impregnated fibers that are formed into a long sheet, folded into pleats, and assembled around a perforated steel core. Because of their construction, pleatedfiber filters are generally intended to be replaced at specific time intervals. FAR requirements dictate that all oil filters be constructed and installed in a way that permits full oil flow even if the filter becomes completely blocked. Therefore, some means of bypassing the filter must be provided. The most common way of meeting this requirement is to incorporate an oil bypass valve that automatically lets oil bypass the filter entirely once it becomes plugged. Since the use of unfiltered oil to lubricate main bearings can cause extensive damage, most turbine powered aircraft incorporate a warning light in the cockpit to warn the operator when the filter is being bypassed. OIL JETS: An oil jet is basically a fixed nozzle that provides a relatively constant oil flow to the main bearings at all engine speeds. Oil jets are located in the pressure lines adjacent to, or within, the bearing compartments And rotor shaft couplings. Due to the high rpm and high loading placed on main rotor bearings, constant oil flow to the bearings is vital. This is especially true for the turbine bearings since they are subjected to the most heat. Oil jets can deliver lubrication oil in the form of a solid oil spray or an air-oil mist. While an air-oil mist is considered adequate for some types of bearings, a solid oil spray typically provides better engines that utilize oil dampened bearings that rely on an oil film between the outer race and bearing housing to reduce rotor vibrations and compensate for slight rotor misalignments. The small nozzle orifices in the tips of oil jets become clogged easily and, because they are located deep within an engine, they are not accessible for cleaning except during engine overhaul. Therefore, the oil must be free of particle contaminants. As discussed Earlier, last chance filters are placed in the oil line upstream from the oil jets to help prevent nozzle clogs. However, bearing failure will inevitably result if the last chance filter becomes clogged. VENT SYSTEM: In many turbine engines, the bearing chambers all accessory gearbox are vented to the oil reservoir The primary purpose of a vent system is to vent

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excessive pressure in the bearing chambers so the pressure differential between the bearing chamber and the lubrication system is maintained and the pressurized air within the bearing chambers and accessory gearbox provides a source of pressurization for the oil reservoir. If you recall, turbine engine oil reservoirs are pressurized to help ensure a positive flow of oil to the pump and minimize oil foaming. To control the amount of pressurization, the oil reservoir is vented to the atmosphere through a check relief valve that maintains a reservoir pressure of three to six psi. CHECK VALVES: A check valve is sometimes installed in the oil supply line of dry-sump oil systems. The check valve prevents supply oil from seeping through the oil pump elements and high-pressure lines after shutdown. Without the check valve, oil could accumulate in the accessory gearbox, compressor rear Housing and combustion chamber. Such accumulations could cause excessive loading on the accessory drive gears during an engine start, contamination of the cabin pressurization air, or an internal oil fire. Check valves are usually spring-loaded, ball-and socket valves constructed to allow the free flow of pressurized oil. The oil pressure required to open a check valve varies, but typically ranges from two to five psi. OIL PRESSURE GAUGE: To allow you to monitor the effectiveness of a given lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped with an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in pounds per square inch. A turbine engine pressure gauge is typically connected to the oil system downstream of the main oil filter. This location ensures an indication of the actual pressure being delivered to the engine. As an additional feature, some oil pressure systems incorporate a low-pressure warning light. When aircraft electrical power is turned on and the engine is not running, each engine's low oil pressure light illuminates. However, when starting the engine, the warning light should extinguish once oil pressure increases above the low limit marked on the oil pressure gauge.

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OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE: The oil temperature gauge allows you to monitor the temperature of the oil. This is important because oil circulation cools the engine as it lubricates the moving parts. The oil temperature sensor location in a turbine engine lubrication system is less critical than in a reciprocating engine. Therefore, engine manufacturers place the sensor in either the pressure subsystem or the scavenge subsystem. This option is possible because turbine engine lubrication systems have a flow rate of two to five times the Oil tank capacity per minute. As a result, temperatures stabilize throughout the entire lubrication system very rapidly. Some engine manufacturers prefer the temperature sensor to be installed in the scavenge subsystem. Their reason for this is it provides a slightly quicker indication of high friction buildup caused by failing parts, such as bearings and gears. However, of the Two locations, it is more common to place the sensor in the pressure subsystem to sense the oil temperature at the engine's oil inlet.

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TURBINE ENGINE IGNITION SYSTEMS


The primary function of a turbine engine ignition system is to ignite the fuel in the combustion chamber during engine starts. Once ignited, combustion becomes self sustained and an ignition source is no longer required. Therefore, most turbine engine ignition systems are normally operated only for brief periods. A secondary function of the ignition system is to provide standby protection against an in-flight flameout. To do this, most turbine engine ignition systems have continuous or automatic relight settings that can be selected in flight. Engines equipped with a continuous setting incorporate a separate low tension continuous duty circuit. With this type of system, a pilot can select continuous ignition with one or both igniter plugs. On engines equipped with an automatic relight setting, the ignition system monitors one or more parameters and provides ignition only when a monitored parameter falls below a specified operational value. One popular method of activating this type of system is to use pressure sensors installed at the compressor discharge. When used this way, a drop in discharge pressure automatically activates the ignition system. CAPACITOR-DISCHARGE Almost all turbine engines utilize a capacitor-discharge ignition system. Unlike the ignition systems used on reciprocating engines that produce a high voltage, low amperage spark, a capacitor-discharge ignition system delivers a high voltage, high amperage spark that has high heat intensity. This high-energy spark is needed to ignite the fuel/air mixture in low temperatures and at high altitudes. To give you an idea as to the intensity often spark produced by a capacitor-discharge system most turbine engine ignition systems are assigned a joule rating based on the amount of power they produce. One joule represents the number of watts in a spark times the duration of the spark. A typical spark lasts a few millionths of a second and, therefore, for one joule to be produced, the number of watts in the spark must be high. A typical capacitor discharge ignition system produces a spark that may be as high as 20 joules and 2,000 amps. The two common types of capacitor-discharge systems are the high tension and low-tension systems. Both systems consist of two identical independent systems containing two transformers, or exciter units, two high tension leads, and two igniter units. Each exciter unit, sometimes called an exciter box, generates electrical energy for operating the igniters.

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Most exciters are sealed units containing electronic circuitry that is potted in an epoxy resin. In some cases, both exciters are housed together as a single unit. In this case, the two exciter circuits are often considered to be one unit. LOW-TENSION SYSTEM In a low-tension system, 28 volts DC is supplied to each exciter unit. Each unit then steps up the 28 volts DC to produce the high voltage pulses necessary to fire one igniter unit. In order for an exciter unit to step up the input voltage, a coil must be used. In addition, the DC input current must be converted so it pulsates in the coil's primary winding. To do this, many low tension systems use a vibrator type circuit.

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When a low-tension system is de-energized, a permanent magnet holds the points in the vibrator circuit closed. However, once the cockpit switch is closed, current flows from ground, up through the primary winding, across the points, and to the battery's positive terminal. As electromagnetic forces in the primary winding build and become stronger than the permanent magnet, the points are pulled open, and current flow stops. This action is repeated approximately 200 times per second and produces pulsating DC voltage. To prevent arcing at the points, a capacitor is installed in parallel with the points. When current initially flows through the primary winding, a relatively small pulse is produced in the secondary winding. This pulse attempts to flow from the secondary winding to ground, up through the storage capacitor, and to the top side of the secondary winding. To stop current flow in this direction, a diode rectifier is installed between the top side of the secondary winding and the storage capacitor. To prevent this initial pulse from flowing to the igniter, a discharge tube is installed between the capacitor and igniter. When the points open, the electromagnetic field surrounding the primary winding collapses and a strong pulse is induced into the seconding winding. Secondary current now flows from the top of the secondary winding, through the rectifier, and into the storage capacitor. As electrons pile up on the top plate of the storage capacitor a negative charge accumulates and free electrons are repelled from the bottom plate of the capacitor to ground. After repeated cycles, the storage capacitor builds a charge that is capable of jumping the gap in the discharge tube. The initial current surge ionizes the air gap, which makes it conductive and allows the capacitor to discharge fully to the igniter. The igniter in a low-tension system is referred to as a self-ionizing or shunted-gap-type igniter. The firing end of the igniter contains a semi -conductor material which bridges the gap between the

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center and ground electrodes. When current initially flows to the igniter, it flows through the center electrode, the semi-conductor, the outer casing, and back to the capacitor. As soon as current flows through the semiconductor, the semi-conductor heats up and its resistance increases. At the same time, the air gap heats up sufficiently to ionize and decrease resistance. Once the resistance across the air gap becomes less than the resistance across the semi-conductor, the capacitor fully discharges across the air gap to create a high energy capacitive discharge spark. As a safety precaution, many ignition systems have a bleed resistor. The purpose of the bleed resistor is to allow the capacitor to slowly discharge when the system is de-energized. It also protects the circuit from overheating if the ignition system is energized with no igniter plugs installed. HIGH-TENSION SYSTEM In a high-tension ignition system, 115 volt, 400 Hz alternating current is applied to the transformer/exciter unit. The use of alternating current eliminates the need for a vibrator circuit which, in turn, eliminates the problems associated with vibrating contacts.

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When 115 volts AC is applied to a high-tension circuit, the primary winding of the power transformer induces approximately 2,000 volts into the secondary winding during the first half cycle. Once induced into the secondary, current flows from the

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negative side of the winding and out to ground. Current then flows up from ground at rectifier tube A, through resistor R] and the doublers capacitor, and back to the positive side of the secondary winding. This charges the left side of the doublers capacitor to 2,000 volts. Rectifier tube Blocks any other current path during this half cycle. through ground and back to the negative side of the secondary coil. During this half cycle, rectifier tube A blocks current flow from the doublers capacitor and R] to ground ensuring current flow to the storage capacitor. Repeated pulses charge the storage capacitor to a point where the air gap in the discharge tube ionizes. When this occurs, current flows across the air gap and to the trigger transformer. Once at the trigger transformer, current flows through the primary winding and trigger capacitor to ground. The storage capacitor discharge through the primary winding of the trigger transformer induces 20,000 volt pulse in the secondary winding. This 20,000 volt pulse ionizes the igniter plug air gap creating a low resistance path that allows both the trigger capacitor and storage capacitor to fully discharge at the igniter plug. The high-tension spark vaporizes and ignites fuel globules around the igniter electrodes. During the second half cycle, the primary winding induces another 2,000 volts into the secondary winding. Once induced the current flows from the positive side of the coil and charges the right side of the doublers capacitor to 2,000 volts. The doublers capacitor now has a total charge of 4,000 volts and current flows through resistor Rz, rectifier tube B, and the storage capacitor to ground. IGNITERS Igniters for gas turbine engines differ considerably from the spark plugs used on reciprocating engines. For example, the air gap on an igniter is much wider than that of a conventional spark plug and the electrode is designed to withstand a much more intense spark. TYPES OF IGNITERS Many varieties of igniter plugs are available and, therefore, procedures regarding the service and maintenance of igniters vary. Because of this, engine manufacturers specify the approved igniters for a given engine as well as the servicing instructions.

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When installed in an engine, the igniter tip must protrude the proper length into the combustor. In most cases, the igniter tip extends approximately 0.1 inch into the combustion chamber. However, in the case of a constrained-gap igniter, the igniter does not have to project into the combustion chamber. The reason for this is the center electrode of a constrained- gap igniter plug is recessed in the body of the plug. Therefore, in order for the high intensity spark to get from the center electrode to ground, it must jump out away from the plug's tip. This allows the tip of a constrained-gap igniter to remain partially recessed in the combustion chamber liner which, in turn, allows it to operate at cooler temperatures.

GLOW PLUGS Some small turbine and turboprop engines incorporate a glow plug type igniter rather than a spark igniter. Although glow plugs are not considered to be an igniter in the strictest sense, they do serve the same purpose. A glow plug consists of a resistance coil that is very similar in appearance to an automobile cigarette lighter. However, with a glow plug, the coil generates a very high heat value that is capable of igniting a fuel/air mixture in extremely low temperatures. In a typical glow plug ignition system, 24 to 28 volts is supplied to each glow plug causing them to become yellow hot. Once hot, air directed up through the glow plug coil mixes with fuel dripping from the main fuel nozzle. This is designed to occur when the main nozzle is not completely atomizing its discharge during engine start. The influence of the airflow on the dripping fuel acts to create a hot streak or torch-like ignition. After engine start, fuel flow through the glow plug is terminated and the air source keeps the igniter coil cool during normal engine operation.

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IGNITION SYSTEM INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE Maintenance of a typical turbine engine ignition system consists primarily of inspecting, testing troubleshooting, and replacing various components. However, when performing these operations, you should bear in mind that most turbine engine ignition systems produce lethal amounts of electrical current. Therefore, it is imperative that you follow the manufacturers recommended safety procedures. For example, before you perform any maintenance on an ignition system ensure that the ignition switch is off. As a safety precaution, manufacturers typically recommend a waiting period after the ignition system is turned off before you begin disassembling any connections. To remove an igniter plug. disconnect the transformer input lead and wait the time prescribed by the manufacturer. Once the recommended time has passed, disconnect the igniter lead and ground the center electrode to the engine. Following these steps helps ensure that no lethal electrical charges are discharged during the removal process. In situations where a transformer must be removed. you should exercise caution. The reason for this I that some older transformers contain amounts of radioactive material. The radioactive material I used to calibrate the discharge point to a preset voltage. CLEANING AND SERVICING IGNITERS The outer case of high voltage igniter plugs may be cleaned with a soft brush and approved solvent. Typically, ceramic insulators and electrode tips are cleaned with solvent and a felt swab. After cleaning, blow off the remaining solvent with dry compressed air. The self-ionizing, or shunted-gap igniters used with low-tension systems are generally cleaned only on their outer casing. The semiconductor material at the firing end is easily damaged and manufacturer seldom permit any type of cleaning, regardless of the amount of carbon buildup. If glow plug heater coils have carbon buildup which appears to fuse the coils together, the coil end can be immersed in carbon remover to soften the deposit. Once softened, a soft nylon or fiber brush is used to remove any remaining carbon. Finally, the coil is rinsed in warm water and blown dry with compressed air. Inspection of a high voltage igniter plug or glow plug generally consists of a visual inspection and a dimensional check. Use of a technician's scale or suitable depth micrometer is recommended. Visually inspect self-ionizing igniters used in low tension systems in the same manner but do not make dimensional checks. The delicate nature of the semiconductor material makes contact with any tool risky. The semiconductor material often consists of only a very thin coating over a ceramic base material. If an igniter is determined to be faulty, follow the proper disposal procedures outlined by the manufacturer. The materials used in some

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igniters may require special handling. After you have completed a visual and dimensional inspection, reinstall the serviceable igniters or glow plugs and prepare the engine for an operational check. However, before an operational check is performed, ensure that no fuel is in any of the combustors. A fuel-wetted combustor may erupt in fire when the igniters are tested. The operational check should follow the guidelines established by the engine manufacturer and the aircraft ground run-up checklist. When operated, all igniters produce a snapping sound when they are fired. The sound emanates from the high intensity spark that jumps the air gap between the igniter electrodes. As a general rule, the more intense the spark, the louder the snapping noise. Therefore, to conduct an operational test, one person stands near the engine and listens for the snapping noise produced by each igniter while someone in the cockpit activates the ignition switch. TROUBLESHOOTING Logical troubleshooting procedures should be used when investigating an ignition system problem. To aid in this process, many engine manufacturers produce troubleshooting charts to help in the diagnosis and repair of commonly encountered problems.

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As a safety precaution, you should never energize turbine engine ignition system for troubleshooting with the igniter plugs removed. If this is done, serious overheating or damage to the exciter box may result.

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TURBINE ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS


Gas turbine engines are generally started by a starter that connects to the main gearbox. In this configuration, the starter rotates the compressor through the gearbox. On engines that utilize a dual axial compressor, the starter rotates the high speed compressor and N1turbine system only. Likewise, on turboprop and turbo shaft engines utilizing a free-turbine, only the compressor and its associated turbine assembly are rotated by the starter. Compressor rotation by a starter provides the engine with sufficient air for combustion and also aids the engine in self-accelerating to idle speed once combustion occurs. Neither the starter nor the turbine wheels have sufficient power on their own to bring an engine from rest to idle rpm. However, when used in combination, the process takes place smoothly in approximately 30 seconds on a typical engine. Many starting systems have a speed sensor device which automatically disengages the starter after self-accelerating speed is reached. At this point, turbine power is sufficient to accelerate the engine to idle rpm. If an engine is not assisted to the correct speed, a hung start may occur. A hung start occurs whenever an engine lights up but does not accelerate to idle rpm. If a hung start occurs, the engine must be shut down and the cause for insufficient starting speed corrected before another attempt is made. Any attempt to accelerate an engine that is hung can often lead to a hot start, because the engine is operating with insufficient airflow to combust more fuel. Starting systems for turboprop and turboshaft engines are designed according to whether the engine is a fixed shaft or free-turbine design. For example, with a fixed shaft turboprop engine, the starter must rotate the engine and propeller. Therefore, starters used on fixed shaft turboprops engines typically develop more torque. In addition, to help reduce drag, fixed shaft turboprop engines are started with the propeller in low pitch allowing more speed and airflow. Free-turbine engines, the other hand, present very little drag on turbine acceleration because only the gas generator portion of the engine is being turned by the starter. This factor allows the use of less powerful, lighter weight starters. In addition, since the propeller is not turned by the starter, the engine can be started with the propeller blades in any position. ELECTRIC STARTERS Like reciprocating engines, several gas turbine engines utilize an electric starting motor. The two most common types of electric starter motors include the starter generator and direct-cranking starter. Units such as this starter-generator are frequently used on light gas turbine engines. To save weight and reduce complexity, a starter-generator turns the engine during

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the starting process and then becomes a generator to supply electrical power once the engine is running. STARTER-GENERATORS Starter-generators provide an efficient means of accomplishing both starting and power generation functions. In addition, since a starter-generator performs the functions of both a starter and generator, it provides an inherent weight-savings. Because of the efficiency and weight-saving features, starter-generators are widely utilized on both turboprop and corporate jet aircraft.

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There are several different types of starter-generators in use today. Most contain two field coils and common armature winding. One field coil is connected in

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series with the armature and has a low resistance, while the second shut winding has a comparatively high resistance. When used as a starter, current flows through both the series field winding and the armature to produce the torque needed to rotate the engine. However, in the generator mode, the shut field receives current while the series field receives no current. To properly control a starter-generator during the start sequence, there are several components that must be used in a starter generator circuit. For example, in addition to needing a battery and/or master switch, many starter-generator circuits use an under current controller, a start switch, some sort of power lever relay, and an ignition solenoid.

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The purpose of an undercurrent controller is to ensure positive action of the starter and to keep it operating until the engine is rotating fast enough to sustain combustion. A typical undercurrent controller contains two solenoids; a starter solenoid and an undercurrent solenoid. The starter solenoid controls the input to the starter, while the undercurrent solenoid controls the starter solenoid. To start an

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engine equipped with an undercurrent solenoid, you must first close the battery and engine master switches. This completes the circuit from the aircraft's bus to the start switch, fuel valves, and power lever relay. Energizing the power lever relay starts the fuel pumps which provide the necessary fuel pressure for starting the engine. As the start switch is turned on, two solenoids close the starter solenoid and the ignition solenoid. The starter solenoid closes the circuit from the power source to the starter motor while the ignition solenoid closes the circuit to the ignition units. As soon as current begins flowing to the motor through the starter solenoid, the undercurrent solenoid closes. Once closed, the undercurrent relay completes a circuit from the bus to the starter solenoid coil and ignition solenoid coil, allowing the start switch to be returned to its neutral position while the start sequence continues. As the motor builds up speed, the current draw of the motor begins to decrease. Once the current draw falls below approximately 200 amps, the undercurrent solenoid opens. This action breaks the circuit from the bus to the coil of the starter and ignition solenoid. This, in turn, stops current flow to the starter motor and ignition exciters. Once the start sequence is complete, the engine should be operating efficiently and ignition should be self-sustaining. If, however, the engine hangs, or fails to reach sufficient speed to halt the starter operation the start switch should be moved to the stop position to break the circuit from the positive bus to the main contacts of the undercurrent relay. If there is not enough battery power to accelerate the engine to starting speed, most starter-generator circuits allow the use of an external power source. However, when external power is used, there must be a switch in the circuit that prevents the battery from being connected to the bus. As an added feature in most starter-generator circuits, a means of testing the ignition exciters is typically provided. In the example used earlier, the ignition exciters are tested by means of a test switch that bypasses the ignition solenoid. To get current to the test switch, the battery switch and engine master switch must be turned on, while the power 8-47 lever(s) must be advanced to close the power lever switch and relay. STARTER-GENERATOR TROUBLESHOOTING The need for troubleshooting is dictated by unsatisfactory starter-generator performance. Efficient troubleshooting is based on a systematic analysis of what is happening so you will be able to determine the cause of a malfunction. There is no magic in successful troubleshooting, but rather an application of logic and a thorough knowledge of the basics of engine operation. For example, if you are faced with a problem of deteriorating starter-generator performance, the first thing you should do is get all of the facts. Take nothing for granted, and ask the pilot questions. For example, find out if the trouble comes about suddenly or was it a gradual decrease in performance? Under what conditions does this performance

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loss show up? After getting all of the facts, perform a ground check to see if the problem can be duplicated. The next step is to eliminate all of the areas that are not likely to cause the trouble. To assist in the troubleshooting process, some manufacturers provide troubleshooting charts.

DIRECT-CRANKING STARTERS Direct-cranking starters are seldom used on large turbine engines; however, they are used frequently for starting auxiliary and ground power units. A typical direct cranking electric starter used on a small turbine engine consists of an electric motor, a set of reduction gears, and an automatic engaging and disengaging clutch mechanism.

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The automatic clutch assembly performs two main functions. First, the clutch assembly prevents the starter from applying excessive torque to the engine accessory drive gearbox. To do this, an adjustable torque setting within the clutch assembly is set at approximately 130 inch-pounds of torque. Whenever the starter applies more than 130 inch pounds of torque to the engine drive gear, small clutch plates within the clutch housing slip, thereby reducing the chance of damaging the drive gear. During starting, the friction clutch is designed to slip until the differential torque between the engine and starter falls below the slip torque setting. The second function of the clutch assembly is to act as an over-run clutch. When the starter is rotated, centrifugal force causes the pawls to move inward against spring tension to engage the engine drive gear. As the armature drives the clutch housing, the housing bumps the pawls inward until they catch the engine drive gear. This occurs because the pawl cage assembly floats within the pawl

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clutch housing. Once the engine begins to exceed starter speed, the pawls slip out of the tapered slots of the engine drive gear and are disengaged by the retracting springs. This over-running feature prevents the engine from driving the starter to burst speed. AIR TURBINE STARTERS As an alternative to either of the electric starters just discussed, the air turbine, or pneumatic starter was developed. As its name implies, an air turbine starter utilizes a small turbine wheel to convert the velocity energy of a moving airstream into mechanical energy to turn an engine. A typical air turbine starter consists of a small turbine assembly, reduction gear assembly, and clutch assembly. Because there are so few parts in an air turbine starter, they typically weigh about one-fifth the weight of a comparable electric starter. This gives air turbine starters a high power-to-weight ratio. Because of this, pneumatic starters are used almost exclusively on commercial jet aircraft.

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To activate a pneumatic starter, a high volume air source of approximately 40 psig at 50 to 100 pounds per minute is required. The air source may be an onboard auxiliary power unit, ground power unit, or an operating engine bleed air source. Air is supplied to the starter inlet where it enters the air turbine assembly. Two common types of turbine assemblies used on pneumatic starters are the radial inward flow turbine and the axial-flow turbine. As soon as air enters a pneumatic starter, the air passes through a set of turbine nozzle vanes. The vanes convert the low pressure, high volume air to a high velocity airstream that spins the turbine blades at high kinetic energy levels. In a typical pneumatic starter, the turbine rotates at 60 to 80 thousand rpm. This rotational speed is reduced 20 to 30 times through a reduction gear assembly that is lubricated by an integral oil supply. The output end of the reduction gearing connects to a sprag clutch assembly which is located inside the drive shaft housing. A typical sprag clutch assembly consists of a set of pawls and a clutch ratchet. When standing still, the pawls are forced inward by small leaf springs to engage the sprag clutch ratchet. this configuration, when the sprag clutch ratchet is turned by the starter, the drive shaft and housing also turn. Once the engine starts and accelerates to idle speed, centrifugal force pulls the pawls outward disengaging the starter from the drive shaft housing. Once the start sequence is complete, the air supply is shut off automatically by a centrifugal cutout switch that closes the inlet air supply valve. This allows the sprag clutch ratchet and starter gear to coast to a halt while the drive shaft housing and pawls continue rotating at engine gearbox speed.

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To prevent a pneumatic starter from being damaged in the event the clutch does not release from the engine drive shaft housing during the start sequence, a drive shaft shear point is typically incorporated. In other words, if the engine starts to drive the starter, the drive shaft will shear once the engine induces a predetermined amount of torque on the starter. As discussed earlier, when the engine begins accelerating to idle speed, the air supply powering the starter should shut off automatically. However, if this does not happen, most pneumatic starters have an air inlet design that chokes off the airflow so the starter turbine stabilizes at a maximum speed. If this feature were not incorporated, the airflow would accelerate the turbine assembly until it fails at its burst speed. On some engines that use a pneumatic starter equipped with a sprag clutch, a clicking sound can sometimes be heard after the engine has been shut down and is coasting. This sound is considered

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normal and is the result of the spring tension on the pawls overcoming centrifugal force and forcing the pawls to ride on the clutch ratchet. AIR SUPPLY VALVE As pressure builds in the air supply line downstream from the butterfly valve, the control rod bellows partially compresses. As this occurs, the pilot valve rod lifts off its seat, allowing servo piston air to vent to the atmosphere. When downstream air pressure reaches a preset valve, the amount of air flowing to the servo piston will equal the amount of air being bled to the atmosphere and the system will be in a state of equilibrium. At this point, the control head is allowing maximum air pressure to the starter. On aircraft that use a pneumatic starter, an air supply valve is installed in the air inlet line leading to the starter. A typical air supply valve consists of a control head and a butterfly valve. In most cases, the control head is actuated by a switch in the cockpit, while the butterfly valve is actuated pneumatically or manually.

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When a predetermined starter drive speed is reached, a centrifugal cutout flyweight switch de-energizes a solenoid which forces the control crank to release the pilot valve cap. Once the pilot valve cap seats, all air pressure vents to the atmosphere and the butterfly valve closes. The following discussion describes how the components in the control head of an air supply valve regulate the amount of air supplied to the starter. To aid in understanding how the components work together, you should refer to the previous figure. As mentioned previously, the

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control head is actuated electrically by a switch in the cockpit. Once activated, the control crank rotates and pushes the control rod to extend the bellows fully. In addition, the control crank applies pressure to seat the pilot valve rod and displace the pilot valve cap. With the pilot valve cap off its seat, filtered air is allowed to flow to the servo piston. As air pressure compresses the servo piston, the butterfly valve opens and allows air to flow to the starter. When the starter air valve cannot be controlled electrically due to a malfunction, a manual override handle can be used to position the butterfly valve. However, when attempting to start an engine using the manual override, make sure you follow the manufacturers procedures. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE Air turbine starters are pneumatic accessories designed to operate at high rpm in a high temperature environment. Because of this, adequate lubrication is crucial. Routine inspections of pneumatic starters should include a check of the starter's oil level and examination of the magnetic drain plug. It is normal for small particles to be present on the drain plug, but particles that feel sandy or gritty are evidence of some sort of internal failure. In addition to normal maintenance practices, there may be times when you have to troubleshoot a malfunction. To facilitate the troubleshooting process, some manufacturers provide a chart listing several common malfunctions as well as the probable cause and remedy.

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FUEL NOZZLE TESTING


Manufacturers maintenance manuals as well as appropriate safety precaution should be always be used when performing any type of maintenance on fuel nozzle Generally fuel nozzle assembly consist of fuel manifold adapter ,a sheath, a locking plate a abwasher and a fuel nozzle due to important nature of the spray pattern of a nozzle , it is necessary to clean and test fuel nozzle at certain intervals. The procedure for testing fuel nozzle begins with lubricating nozzle with fuels then installing the nozzle into manifold adapter. Using new tab washers for each nozzle .tighten the nozzle assembly and torque but do not bent the lux of tab washers until testing is completed. Fuel nozzle are subjected to two separate test Leakage test Functional test Leakage test It is need to make sure that the nozzle is not leaking at the adaptor connection Functional test It is to observe the spay pattern

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Constant development concurrent with market and client requirements has gained Avtron the reputation for having the best universal fuel nozzle test stands in the world. From small commuter jet engines to massive F119 fuel pumps for the most advanced tactical military aircraft, we have been the preferred provider of fuel nozzle test stands for over thirty years. As an example of client confidence, Avtron fuel nozzle test stands are exclusively used by the world's largest gas turbine fuel system manufacturer, Parker Hannifin Corporation. Test stands with fuel flows from 2 to 8000 pounds per hour, at 10 to 2000 PSIG, using MIL-C-7024, type II or jet fuels are available as standard designs. Other features of our units include: Independent Dual Fuel Flow Circuits for Fuel Nozzles with Primary and Secondary Flow Requirements Fuel Temperature Control to +/- 2F Electronic Spray Angle Measurement Airflow Measurement Using Sonic Orifices (Single or Dual Orifice Systems) Automatic Limit Checking with Pass/Fail Display Automated Calibration Screens Easy, Prompt Entry of Test Scripts with Archiving of up to 50 Tests Available to the Operator Test Data Printing and Networked Data Logging MIL-T-83431 Specifications

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COMPONENT MAINTENANCE
Compressor Blades: Compressor blades are subject to the same type of damage encountered by fan blades and the repair procedures are similar. Figure 18-26 is adapted from the maintenance manual for the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engine and shows some of the permissible repairs for compressor blades. Note that there are definite limit on the depth of a cut that is allowed in removing a nick, scratch or other damage caused by the ingestion of a foreign object. The limits vary in accordance with the part of the blade where the damage is located. The portions of the blade which have higher stresses may not be cut as deeply as the portions subjected to lower stresses during operation. During blade repairs, care must be taken to maintain the original profile of the blade within reasonable limits. The foregoing examples of blade repairs are provided for information only, to illustrate typical practices. For a specific engine, the appropriate specifications given in the maintenance manual must be used. Compressor and Turbine Wash: As an engine operates, deposits accumulate on the engines internal gas path components such as the compressor and turbine blades. These deposits can accumulate at the point of deteriorating the engines performance. To recover this performance loss, a type of compressor wash must be performed to remove the bake-on salt, dirt or other types of contamination deposits. Cleaning of the engine can be divided into internal and external washing. Washing of the compressor section of the engine is accomplished by injecting the applicable fluid into the engines intake using either an installed compressor wash ring or a hand-held wash wand. This provides the engine with the correct flow of fluid in the form of a spray. Turbine washes are done in much the same manner except that the wash tube is generally attached to the combustion section of the engine. Internal engine washing can be done by two methods: the motoring wash and the running wash. The motoring wash is generally done by turning the engine using only the starter. This ensures that the wash fluid stays in a liquid form. The engine is run up by the starter to between 10 and 25 percent rpm. When the engine

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reaches about 5 percent rpm, the cleaning mixture can be sprayed into the engines intake as the engine continues to accelerate. Spraying should be stopped as the engine slow back down to about 5 percent rpm. Sometimes it is necessary to do a cleaning wash and a rinse wash to remove the cleaning fluid. Before the internal wash is attempted, the compressor bleed air and any other components that might that become contaminated must be closer off or isolated to prevent contamination. Starter limits must also be adhered to so as to prevent overheating and damaging of the starter. As a general rule, the starter should not be operated for more than 30 s, and the correct cool-down time should be observed between runs. The imagines ignition should be turned off during the motoring runs. The running wash is performed with the engine running as idle speed and the cleaning fluid mixture and the rinse solution injected at the correct flow rate. Some different types of internal engine washes are the compressor performance discovery wash, and the turbine desalination wash. The engines maintenance manual will list the proper fluids and frequency of washes. In cold weather and in very contaminated environment, special frequency and frequency need to be used. A schematic of a compressor/turbine wash rig is shown in figure.

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REPAIR LIMITS FOR COMPRESSOR BLADES

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MAXIMUM ALLOWANCE BLENDED NICK LIMITS (INCHES)

BLADE AREA A B C D E F

STAGE 1 VIEW A 1/32 RB 5/32 B .003 RB 1/8 D 1/16 D

CAUTION: The limits referred to in this figure in areas C,E and F pertain to local, isolated, damaged areas only and must not be in interpreted as authority for removal of materials all across the tip and leading or trailing edges as might be done in a single machining cut.

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CROSS SECTION OF FAN BLADE ABOVE PART SPAN SHROUD

Turbine Blades: Serviceability limits for turbine blades are much more stringent than are those for nozzle vanes. This is particularly true for first-stage blades because of the high temperature involved. The centrifugal stresses to which turbine blades are subjected to require that the blades are be free of cracks in any area and that no nicks or dents exist in the root area. A limited number of small nicks and dents can be permitted in the areas of the blade away from the root area. No burning or distortion is permitted. Other conditions to look for during inspection include blade creep, which is the permanent elongation of the turbine blades due to rational forces, and untwist, which is a condition that results from the gas path forces acting on the turbine blades. These forces tend to change the pitch of the blade, which generally decreases blade efficiency. A compressor-turbine wheel is shown in figure. Repair for Turbine Nozzles, vanes and blades: When a bore scope inspection reveals that there is damage or deterioration in the hot sections of the engine, the areas involved must be disassembled sufficiently to remove the defective parts. Parts requiring repair and replaced with new or reworked parts from the factory or overhaul facility.

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Replacement of turbine blades must be done with blades having the correct moment-weight designation to ensure that the turbine rotor will be in balance when assembled. The maintenance manual for each engine specifies the correct arrangement of blades according to their moment-weight markings.

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TESTING OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE AFTER OVERHAUL


The testing of a new or overhauled gas-turbine engine to ensure correct performance is accomplished on an instrumented test stand. Procedures for testing are developed and published by the engine manufacturer, and these procedures must be followed precisely to ensure that correct information is obtained regarding the performance of the engine. The operation of an engine stand is usually accomplished with a bellmouth air inlet. The purpose of this type of inlet is to eliminate any loss of air pressure at the compressor inlet. Since a large volume of air is drawn into the engine a rapid increase in air velocity must take place as the air nears the inlet. Moreover, to supply the demand, air must flow from areas outside the area directly in front of the engine. Much of the airflow will have to change direction almost 90 as it comes from the sides of the inlet and enters the compressor. With a straight inlet duct, this directional change results in a pressure drop. However the bellmouth duct guides the air in such a way that there is essentially no pressure drop at the compressor inlet. If the bellmouth duct is protected by a screen, a certain amount of pressure drop will occur and must be taken into consideration when the performance of the engine is measured. In testing of a gas-turbine engine, it is common practice to measure certain essential parameters in order to evaluate the engine performance correctly. Among these parameters are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Ambient air temperature(Tamb) Ambient air pressure(P amb) Exhaust total pressure(Pt7) Low-pressure compressor rpm(N1) High- pressure compressor rpm(N2) Exhaust-gas temperature(EGT) Fuel flow in pounds per hour(pph)(Wj) Thrust(Fn) Low-pressure compressor outlet pressure(Ps3)

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10. High-pressure compressor outlet pressure(Ps4) These parameters are usually adequate to determine engine performance, but others may be recorded if desired or necessary. When an engine is assembled as a complete powerplant for a quick engine change (QEC), it is necessary to consider the equipment installed on the engine, because it may affect some of the performance measurements. Oil flow and temperature will be changed as a result of the engine oil cooler and the engine pump. Likewise, fuel flow and pressures will be affected by the engine-driven fuel pump. Because standard performance of an engine occurs only under standard conditions, air pressure and temperature must be corrected to standard conditions. This is accomplished by means of correction factors designated by the Greek letters delta() and theta(). Delta is used to correct for pressure and theta provides the correction for temperature. The values for delta and theta may be found on an appropriate chart or they may be calculated as follows: = P/P0 =P/29.92 = T/T0 = t (0F)+460/519 where, P = observed barometric pressure (in HG abs) P0 = standard-day barometric pressure T = temperature, 0R (0F + 460) T0=standard-day temperature,5190R For any particular type or model of engine, specific instructions are made available by the manufacturer for the testing of the engine in a test cell or on the aircraft.

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OPERATIONAL CHECKS: To ensure that a gas-turbine engine is in satisfactory operating condition, engine and aircraft manufacturers specify certain operational checks to be routinely performed by maintenance personnel. The particular types of checks and the procedures to be followed vary, depending on the type of engine and the aircraft involved.

Dry motoring check: The dry motoring check may be required during or after inspection and maintenance to ensure that the engine rotates freely, that instrumentations functions properly, and that starter operation meets speed requirements for successful starts. This check is also used to prime and leak-check the lubrication system when maintenance has required replacement of system components. A dry motoring check should be performed according to the following procedure: 1. Ascertain that all conditions required prior to a normal start are met. These conditions can be established by conducting a normal prestart inspection. 2. Position engine controls and switches as follows: a. Ignition, OFF b. Fuel shutoff lever, OFF c. Throttle, IDLE d. Fuel boost, ON 3. Energize the starter and motor the engine as long as necessary to check instruments for positive indications of engine rotation and oil pressure. 4. Deenergize the starter and make the following checks during coastdown: a. Listen for unusual noises. Check for roughness. Normal noise consists of clicking of compressor and turbine blades, and gear noise. b. Inspect the lubricating system lines, fittings, and accessories for leakage. c. Check for oil level in the oil tank.

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Wet monitoring check: When it is necessary to check the operation of fuel-system components after removal and replacement or to perform a depreservation of the fuel system, the wet motoring check is employed. This is accomplished as follows: 1. Position the engine controls and switches as for a dry motoring check. 2. Energize the starter. 3. When core engine speed(N2) reaches 10 percent, move the fuel shutoff lever to ON and check for oil pressure indication. 4. Continue motoring the engine until the fuel flow is 226.80 to 272.16 kg/h or for a maximum of 60s. Observe the starter operating limits. 5. Move the fuel shutoff lever to OFF and continue motoring the engine for at least 30s to clear the fuel from the combustion chamber. Check to see that fuel flow drops to zero. 6. Deenergize the starter and during coastdown, check for unusual noises. 7. Inspect the fuel system lines, fittings, and accessories for leakage. 8. Check the concentric fuel shroud for leakage. No leakage is permitted. 9. Inspect the lubrication system for leakage. 10. Check the oil level in the oil tank.

Idle check: The idle check consists of checking for proper engine operation as evidenced by leak-free connections, normal operating noise, and correct indications on engine-related instruments. Engine drain lines must be disconnected from drain cans to check for leakage.

1. Stabilize engine at ground idle.

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After the engine is started according to approved procedure, the following steps should be taken:

2. Check fan speed (N1), core engine speed (N2), oil pressure, and exhaust-gas temperature (EGT) to see that they are within the proper ranges according to the ground idle speed chart and engine specifications. Engine speeds will vary according to compressor inlet temperature. (Tt2). 3. Visually inspect fuel, lubrication, and pneumatic lines, fittings, and accessories for leakage. 4. Deenergize flight-idle solenoid. During operations above ground idle, do not exceed the open-cowling limitations imposed by the airframe manufacturer. 5. Stabilize at flight idle and check the same parameters checked for ground idle. See that they are within the limitations set forth on the flight idle speed charts.

Power assurance check: The power assurance check is performed to make sure that the engine will achieve takeoff power on a hot day without exceeding rpm and temperature limitations. During the tests, the engine being tested is not used to supply power for any aircraft systems-electric, hydraulic, or other. The engine is tested at 50 percent, 75 percent, and maximum power. During engine operation for the power assurance check, EGT must be observed constantly to avoid the possibility of overtemperature. Should the temperature approach maximum allowable, the throttle should always be moved slowly. To perform the power assurance test, follow these steps: 1. Set the engine power at nominal N2 speed as indicated on the appropriate chart for the total air temperature(TAT). 2. Four minutes after the throttle lever is set, record the average readings of TAT,N1 speed,N2speed, EGT, EPR(engine pressure ratio), and fuel flow(Wf). Correct Wf for local barometric pressure in accordance with instructions. Corrected Wf = (observed Wf x 29.92)/(actual barometric pressure)

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3. Using N1 (where N1=target N1 observed N1) as a correction factor, adjust readings according to the parameter adjustments set forth in the operations manual. In the operation of gas-turbine engines of any type, it must be emphasized that temperature and rpm for both N1 and N2 must be watched carefully. If it is expected that a beyond-limits condition is developing, the operator should take immediate action by retarding the throttle or shutting the engine down. Before a hot engine is shut down, it should be operated at ground idle speed for about 3min to permit temperature reduction and stabilization. As soon as the engine is shut down, the EGT gage should be observed to see that EGT starts to decrease. If EGT does not decrease, an internal fire is indicated and the engine should be dry-motored at once to blow out the fire. During coastdown after the engine is shut down, a technician should listen for unusual noises in the engine such as scraping, grinding, bumping and squealing.

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GAS-TURBINE ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING


The troubleshooting of turbine engines follows, in general, the procedures traditionally employed for reciprocating engines; however, new and improved techniques have been developed which aid considerably in identifying and solving technical problems. DEFINITION Troubleshooting may be defined as the detection of fault indications and the isolation of the fault or faults causing the indications. When the fault is isolated are identified, the correction of the fault is simply a matter of applying the correct procedures. Manufacturers and operators of gas-turbine engines work together to develop information and techniques regarding the operation of the engines and to establish techniques for troubleshooting. Numerous systems have been developed by which faults are detected, analyzed and corrected. FAULT INDICATORS Fault indicators include any instruments are devices on an aircraft which can give a member of the crew information about a problem developing in the operation of the engine. These indicators may be divided into two groups the standard engine instruments used to monitor the operation of engines, and special devices designed to detect indications of trouble which may not be revealed by the engine instruments. Typical engine instruments for a gas turbine engine are EGT gages, percent rpm gages (N1 and N2), EPR gages, oil temperature gages, oil pressure gages and fuel gages. When turbo shaft are turbo prop engines are installed, torque indicating gages are often included. These instruments are all effective in detecting faults. In addition to the standard instruments, built in trouble shooting equipment (BITE) systems are often installed. These systems include special sensors and

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transducers which produce signals of vibration and other indications that are indicative of developing problems. By comparing the tendency of engine parameters to change up or down the technician can trouble shoot engine problems. Engine speed (% rpm), exhaust gas temperature (EGT), and fuel flow (Wf) are primary engine parameters for trouble shooting. For long term trouble shooting, these parameters are monitored over a period of time so that a trend can be noticed. This will allow corrective action to be taken as promptly as possible.

Possible faults Ng Ng slightly up or steady Two/three flights ITT after incident. ITT step change at time of incident Momentary fuel nozzle leak Hot or very near Hot start most probable

wf

wf up or slightly up

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Probable faults Ng Ng down Most typical of the hot section problem.

ITT

ITT up

wf

wf up

Possible faults Ng Ng steady Fuel indication

ITT

ITT steady

Fuel nozzles dirty inefficient burning.

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wf up

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Ng

Ng steady

ITT instrumentation A- T5 harness or T5 bus bar problem.

ITT

ITT down 5 to 10C or more

B- may be T5 trim resistor or aircraft ITI system fault.

wf

wf

steady

CONDITION MONITORING

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Aviation maintenance and operations groups are continually striving to improve the service reliability of their gas-turbine engines and, at the time, reduce operating costs. One tool which can aid both of these efforts is engine performance monitoring, through trend analysis. Trend analysis involves the recording and analysis of gas-turbine engine performance and certain mechanical parameters over a period of time. The primary aim of trend analysis is to provide a means of detecting significant changes in the performance parameters resulting from changes in the mechanical condition of the engine. A gas-turbine engine operates in accordance with predetermined relationships among the various performance parameters at steady-state conditions. Once the initial relationships have been established for the various parameters, a specific engine will not vary significantly from this calibration unless some external forces effect it. Thus, abnormal performance of an engine will be indicated by parameter relationships deviating from the norm. Data collection methods will vary depending on whether the data are collected manually or by an onboard computer, as with airline-type aircraft. Data should normally be collected at regular intervals. Variable loads extracted from the engine, such as generator, hydraulic, air conditioning, and bleed air, will have an effect on trend accuracy. To minimize these effects, each time set of readings is taken it is preferable that conditions be repeated as closely as possible with regard to altitude and power. In order to reduce fluctuations in the data, ensure that the engine parameters are stabilized before taking the data readings. The engine parameters should be read separately for each engine and in a reasonable time frame, In a computerized system, the data are read and sent to computers on the ground especially designed to record and store this information. Condition monitoring devices are designed to give an indication of any engine deterioration at the possible stage and also to help identify any area or module in which deterioration is occurring. This facilitates quick diagnosis, which can be followed by either further monitoring or immediate maintenance action on the problem. Condition monitoring devices and equipment can be broadly

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categorized into the areas of flight deck indicators, in-flight recorders, and ground indicators. The engine condition trend monitoring system for a PT6A turboprop engine performs its function through a process of periodically recording engine instrument readings such as torque, interturbine temperature, compressor speed(Ng), and fuel flow(Wf), correcting the readings for altitude, outside air temperature, and airspeed if applicable, and then with a set of typical engine characteristics. Such comparisons produce a set of deviations in ITT, Ng, and Wf. Beginning with the engine in a new or overhauled condition, these deviations are entered on a chart to establish a base line for the engine. As more plots are entered, a trend line for each engine parameter is established. During the life of an engine, these trend lines will remain stable for as long as the engine is free from deterioration. As deteriorations appear, the trend lines will gradually deviate, A correct interpretation of these deviations will enable an operators maintenance facility to plan for corrective maintenance actions, such as a performance recovery compressor wash or a hot section inspection.

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FIRE EXTINGUISHER
The first automatic fire extinguisher of which there is any record was patented in England in 1723 by Ambrose Godfrey, a celebrated chemist. It consisted of a cask of fire-extinguishing liquid containing a pewter chamber of gunpowder. This was connected with a system of fuses which were ignited, exploding the gunpowder and scattering the solution. This device was probably used to a limited extent, as Bradley's Weekly Messenger for November 7, 1729, refers to its efficiency in stopping a fire in London. The modern fire extinguisher was invented by British Captain George William Manby in 1818; it consisted of a copper vessel of 3 gallons(13.6 litres) of pearl ash (potassium carbonate) solution contained within compressed air. The soda-acid extinguisher was first patented in 1866 by Francois Carlier of France, which mixed a solution of water and sodium bicarbonate with tartaric acid, producing the propellant CO2 gas. A soda-acid extinguisher was patented in the U.S. in 1881 by Almon M. Granger. His extinguisher used the reaction between sodium bicarbonate solution and sulfuric acid to expel pressurized water onto a fire.[1] A vial was suspended in the cylinder containing concentrated sulfuric acid. Depending on the type of extinguisher, the vial of acid could be broken in one of two ways. One used a plunger to break the acid vial, while the second released a lead bung that held the vial closed. Once the acid was mixed with the bicarbonate solution, carbon dioxide gas was expelled and thereby pressurize the water. The pressurized water was forced from the canister through a nozzle or short length of hose. The cartridge-operated extinguisher was invented by Read & Campbell of England in 1881, which used water or water-based solutions. They later invented a carbon tetrachloride model called the "Petrolex" which was marketed toward automotive use. The chemical foam extinguisher was invented around 1905 by Alexander Laurant of Russia, who first used it to extinguish a pan of burning naptha. It works and looks similar to the soda-acid type, but the inner parts are different. The main tank

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contains a solution of water, foam compound (usually made from licorice root) and sodium bicarbonate. A cylindrical metal or plastic chamber holds about a quart and a half of 13% aluminum sulfate and is capped with a lead cap. When the unit is turned over, the chemicals mix, producing CO2 gas. The licorice causes some of the CO2 bubbles to become trapped in the liquid and is discharged on the fire as a thick whitish-brown foam. Around 1912 Pyrene invented the carbon tetrachloride (CTC) extinguisher, which expelled the liquid from a brass or chrome container by a handpump; it was usually of 1 imperial quart (1.1 L) or 1 imperial pint (0.6 L) capacity but was also available in up to 2 imperial gallon (9 L) size. A further variety consisted of a glass bottle "bomb" filled with the liquid that was intended to be hurled at the base of a fire. The CTC vaporized and extinguished the flames by creating a dense, oxygenexcluding blanket of fumes, and to a lesser extent, inhibiting the chemical reaction. The extinguisher was suitable for liquid and electrical fires, and was popular in motor vehicles for the next 60 years. In the 1940s, Germany invented the liquid chlorobromomethane (CBM) for use in aircraft. It was more effective and slightly less toxic than carbon tetrachloride and was used until 1969. Methyl Bromide was discovered as an extinguishing agent in the 1920s and was used extensively in Europe. It is a low-pressure gas that works by inhibiting the chain reaction of the fire and is the most toxic of the vaporizing liquids, used until the 1960s. The vapor and combustion by-products of all vaporizing liquids were highly toxic, and could cause death in confined spaces. The carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguisher was invented (at least in the US) by the Walter Kidde Company in 1924 in response to Bell Telephone's request for an electrically non-conductive chemical to extinguisher the previously difficult to extinguish fires in telephone switchboards. It consisted of a tall metal cylinder containing 7.5 lbs. of CO2 with a wheel valve and a woven brass, cotton covered hose, with a composite funnel-like horn as a nozzle. CO2 is still popular today as it is a ozone-friendly clean agent and is useful for a extinguishing a person who is on fire, hence its widespread use in film and television. In 1928, DuGas (later bought by Ansul) came out with a cartridge-operated dry chemical extinguisher, which used sodium bicarbonate specially treated with chemicals to render it free-flowing and moisture-resistant. It consisted of a copper cylinder with an internal CO2 cartridge. The operator turned a wheel valve on top to puncture the cartridge and squeezed a lever on the valve at the end of the hose to

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discharge the chemical. This was the first agent available for large scale threedimensional liquid and pressurized gas fires, and was but remained largely a specialty type until the 1950s, when small dry chemical units were marketed for home use. ABC dry chemical came over from Europe in the 1950s, with Super-K being invented in the early 60s and Purple-K being developed by the US Navy in the late 1960s. Halon 1211 came over to the US in the 1970s, and had been used there since the late 40s or early 50s. Halon 1301 had been developed by DuPont and the US Army in 1954. Both work by inhibiting the chain reaction of the fire, and in the case of Halon 1211, cooling class A fuels as well. Halon is still in use today, but is falling out of favor for many uses due to its environmental impact. Europe and Australia have severly restricted its use, but it is still widely available in North America, the Middle East, and Asia.

Fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not designed[citation needed] for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user (i.e. no escape route, smoke, explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire department. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a handheld cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire. There are two main types of fire extinguishers: Stored pressure and generated pressure. In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the firefighting agent itself. Depending on the agent used, different propellants are used. With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam are pressurized with air. Stored pressure are the most common type fire extinguishers. Cartridge-operated extinguishers, contain the expellant gas in a separate cartridge that is punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the agent. These types as are not as common, used primarily in areas such as industrial facilities, where they receive higher-than-average use. They have the advantage of simple and prompt recharge, allowing an operator to discharge the extinguisher, recharge it, and return to the fire in an reasonable amount of time. Unlike stored pressure types, these extinguishers utilize compressed carbon dioxide instead of nitrogen, although nitrogen cartridges are used on low

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temperature (-60 rated) models. Cartridge operated types are available in dry chemical and dry powder in the US and water, wetting agent, foam, and dry powder(ABC, BC, or D) in the rest of the world. Fire extinguishers are further divided into handheld and cart-mounted, also called wheeled extinguishers. Handheld extinguishers weight from 2 to 30 pounds (1 to 14 kilograms), and are hence easily portable by hand. They exist in both storedand generated-pressure types and contain all types of suppressants. Cart-mounted units typically weigh 50+ pounds (23+ kilograms), are cartridge-operated, and typically contain either dry chemical, Purple-K, foam, Halon, Halotron-1 or CO2. Wheeled models are most commonly found at construction sites, airport runways, heliports, and temporary landing sites. Classification Internationally there are several accepted classification methods for hand-held fire extinguishers. Each classification is useful in fighting fires with a particular group of fuel. TypePre-1997CurrentClassWaterSolid redA FoamSolid blueRed with a blue bandAB Dry chemical (powder)Red with a white bandABCE Carbon dioxideRed with a black bandA (limited)BCEFVapourising liquid (not halon)Red with a yellow bandABCE HalonSolid yellowABE Wet chemicalSolid oatmealRed with an oatmeal bandAF According to the standard BS EN 3, fire extinguishers in the United Kingdom as all throughout Europe are red RAL 3000, and a band or circle of a second color covering at least 5% of the surface area of the extinguisher indicates the contents. Before 1997, the entire body of the fire extinguisher was color coded according to the type of extinguishing agent.

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Typical United Kingdom CO2 and water fire extinguishers Old Code

Type

BS EN 3 Colour Code

Fire Class

Water

Signal Red

Signal Red

Foam

Cream

Red with a Cream panel above the operating instructions

AB

sometimes E

Red with a Blue panel French Dry powder above the operating Blue instructions

AB

sometimes C

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Carbon dioxide CO2

Black

Red with a Black panel above the operating instructions

Wet chemical

No F Class

Red with a Canary Yellow panel above the operating A instructions

Class D powder

Red with a Blue panel French above the operating Blue instructions

The UK recognizes six fire classes. Class A fires involve organic solids such as paper and wood. Class B fires involve flammable liquids. Class C fires involve flammable gases. Class D fires involve metals, Class E fires involve live electrical items and Class F fires involve cooking fat and oil. Fire extinguishing capacity is rated by fire class using numbers and letters such as 13A, 55B. EN 3 does not recognize a separate E class - this is an additional feature requiring special testing (dielectric test per EN 3-7:2004) and NOT passing this test makes it compulsory to add a special label (pictogram) indicating the inability to isolate the user from a live electric source. In the UK the use of Halon gas is now illegal except under certain situations.[3] There is no official standard in the United States for the color of fire extinguishers, though they are typically red, except for Class D extinguishers, which are usually yellow, and water, which usually silver, or white if water mist. Extinguishers are marked with pictograms depicting the types of fires that the extinguisher is approved to fight. In the past, extinguishers were marked with colored geometric symbols, and some extinguishers still use both symbols. The types of fires and additional standards are described in NFPA 10: Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, 2007 edition. Fire Class Geometric Symbol Pictogram Intended Use Mnemonic

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Green

Garbage can and wood pile

Ordinary solid

Think A for anything

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Triangle

burning

combustibles

that leaves ash

Red Square

Gasoline can with a burning puddle

Flammable liquids and gases

Think B for anything in a barrel - gas, oil, etc.

Blue Circle

Electric plug with a burning outlet

Energized electrical equipment

Think C for current

Yellow Pentagram (Star)

Burning Gear and Bearing

Combustible metals

Black Hexagon

Pan burning

Cooking oils and fats

Think K for kitchen

The Underwriters Laboratories rate fire extinguishing capacity in accordance with UL/ANSI 711: Rating and Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishers. The ratings are described using numbers preceding the class letter, such as 1-A:10-B:C. The number preceding the A multiplied by 1.25 gives the equivalent extinguishing capability in gallons of water. The number preceding the B indicates the size of fire in square feet that an ordinary user should be able to extinguish. There is no additional rating for class C, as it only indicates that the extinguishing agent will not conduct electricity, and an extinguisher will never have a rating of just C.

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