Flood From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dozens of villages were inundated when rain pushed the rivers

of northwesternBangladesh over their banks in early October 2005. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) onNASAs Terra satellite captured the top image of the flooded Ghaghat and Atrai Rivers on October 12, 2005. The deep blue of the rivers is spread across the countryside in the flood image. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not [2] normally covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, [3] with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area. Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, since time out of mind, people have lived and worked by the water to seek sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near water. That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived value of living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding. The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroycivilization as an act of divine retribution, and are featured in the mythology of many cultures. Principal types and causes Riverine
[1]

Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, often causing significant damage. Effects

Primary effects

Physical damage Can damage any type of structure, including bridges, cars, buildings, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals. Secondary effects

  

Water supplies Contamination of water. Clean drinking water becomes scarce. Diseases Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases.

Crops and food supplies Shortage of food crops can be caused due to [4] loss of entire harvest. However, lowlands near rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods in order to add nutrients to the local soil.  Trees Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation.[5]  Transport - Transport links destroyed, so hard to get emergency aid to those who need it. Tertiary/long-term effects Economic Economic hardship, due to: temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortage leading to price increase, etc. Control In many countries across the world, rivers prone to floods are often [6] carefully managed. Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands. Europe Remembering the misery and destruction caused by the 1910 Great Flood of Paris, the French government built a series of reservoirs called Les Grands Lacs de Seine (or Great Lakes) which helps remove pressure from the Seine during floods, especially the regular winter [7] flooding. London is protected from sea flooding by the Thames Barrier, a huge mechanical barrier across the River Thames, which is raised when the sea water level reaches a certain point. Venice has a similar arrangement, although it is already unable to cope with very high tides; a new system of variable-height dikes is under construction. The defences of both London and Venice would be rendered inadequate if sea levels were to rise. The Adige in Northern Italy was provided with an underground canal that allows to drain part of its flow into the Garda Lake (in the Po drainage basin), thus lessening the risk of estuarine floods. The underground canal has been used twice, in 1966 and 2000. The largest and most elaborate flood defences can be found in the Netherlands, where they are referred to as Delta Works with the Oosterschelde dam as its crowning achievement. These works were built in response to the North Sea flood of 1953 of the southwestern part of the Netherlands. The Dutch had already built one of the world's largest dams in the north of the country: the Afsluitdijk (closing occurred in 1932). Currently the Saint Petersburg Flood Prevention Facility Complex is to be finished by 2008, in Russia, to protect Saint Petersburg from storm surges. It also has a main traffic function, as it completes a ring road around Saint Petersburg. Eleven dams extend for 25.4 kilometres and stand eight metres above water level. In Austria, flooding for over 150 years, has been controlled by various actions of the Vienna Danube regulation, with dredging of the main Danube during 187075, and creation of the New Danube from 19721988. In Northern Ireland flood risk management is provided by Rivers Agency. North America Another elaborate system of floodway defences can be found in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The Red River flows northward from the United States, passing through the city of Winnipeg (where it meets the Assiniboine River) and into Lake Winnipeg. As is the case with all north-flowing rivers in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, snowmelt in southern sections may cause river levels to rise before northern sections have had a chance to completely thaw. This can lead to devastating flooding, as occurred in Winnipeg during the spring of 1950. To protect the city from future floods, the Manitoba government undertook the construction of a massive system of diversions, dikes, and floodways (including the Red River Floodway and the Portage Diversion). The system kept Winnipeg safe during the 1997 flood that devastated many communities upriver from Winnipeg, including Grand Forks, North

Slow kinds: Runoff from sustained rainfall or rapid snow melt exceeding the capacity of a river's channel. Causes include heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical depressions, foreign winds and warm rain affecting snow pack. Unexpected drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, ordebris can cause slow flooding upstream of the obstruction.  Fast kinds: include flash floods resulting from convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. Estuarine

Commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by stormforce winds. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category. Coastal

Caused by severe sea storms, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. tsunami or hurricane). A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or anextratropical cyclone, falls within this category. Catastrophic

Caused by a significant and unexpected event e.g. dam breakage, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. earthquake or volcanic eruption). Human-induced

 Accidental damage by workmen to tunnels or pipes. Muddy

A muddy flood is produced by an accumulation of runoff generated on cropland. Sediments are then detached by runoff and carried as suspended matter or bed load. Muddy runoff is more likely detected when it reaches inhabited areas. Muddy floods are therefore a hill slope process, and confusion with mudflows produced by mass movements should be avoided. Other

 

Floods can occur if water accumulates across an impermeable surface (e.g. from rainfall) and cannot rapidly dissipate (i.e. gentle orientation or low evaporation). A series of storms moving over the same area.

Dakota and Ste. Agathe, Manitoba. It also kept Winnipeg safe during the 2009 flood. In the U.S., the New Orleans Metropolitan Area, 35% of which sits below sea level, is protected by hundreds of miles of levees and flood gates. This system failed catastrophically, in numerous sections, during Hurricane Katrina, in the city proper and in eastern sections of the Metro Area, resulting in the inundation of approximately 50% of the metropolitan area, ranging from a few centimetres to 8.2 metres (a few [8] inches to 27 feet) in coastal communities. In an act of successful flood prevention, the Federal Government of the United States offered to buy out flood-prone properties in the United States in order to prevent repeated disasters after the 1993 flood across the Midwest. Several communities accepted and the government, in partnership with the state, bought 25,000 properties which they converted into wetlands. These wetlands act as a sponge in storms and in 1995, when the floods returned, the government did not have to expend resources in those [9] areas. :) Asia In India, Bangladesh and China (i.e.,in the Grand Canal of China region) , flood diversion areas are rural areas that are deliberately flooded in [10] emergencies in order to protect cities. Many have proposed that loss of vegetation (deforestation) will lead to a risk increase. With natural forest cover the flood duration should decrease. Reducing the rate of deforestation should improve the [11] incidents and severity of floods. Africa In Egypt, both the Aswan Dam (1902) and the Aswan High Dam (1976) have controlled various amounts of flooding along the Nile river. Clean-up safety Clean-up activities following floods often pose hazards to workers and volunteers involved in the effort. Potential dangers include: water polluted by mixing with and causing overflows from sanitary sewers, electrical hazards, carbon monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to hazardous [12] materials. Because flooded disaster sites are unstable, clean-up workers might encounter sharp jagged debris, biological hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines, blood or other body fluids, and animal and human remains. In planning for and reacting to flood disasters, managers provide workers with hard hats, goggles, heavy work [13] gloves, life jackets, and watertight boots with steel toes and insoles. Benefits There are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities. However, floods (in particular the more frequent/smaller floods) can also bring many benefits, such as recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in particular in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation events can be very unevenly distributed throughout the year. Freshwater floods in particular play an important role in maintaining ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain [14] biodiversity. Flooding adds a lot of nutrients to lakes and rivers which leads to improved fisheries for a few years, also because of the suitability [15] of a floodplain for spawning (little predation and a lot of nutrients). Fish like the weather fish make use of floods to reach new habitats. Together with fish also birds profit from the boost in production caused by [16] flooding. Periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow River, among others. The viability for hydrological based renewable sources of energy is higher in flood prone regions. Computer modelling While flood modelling is a fairly recent practice, attempts to understand and manage the mechanisms at work in floodplains have been made for [17] at least six millennia. The recent development in computational flood modelling has enabled engineers to step away from the tried and tested "hold or break" approach and its tendency to promote overly engineered structures. Various computational flood models have been developed in recent years either 1D models (flood levels measured in the channel) and 2D models (flood depth measured for the extent of the floodplain). HEC[18] RAS, the Hydraulic Engineering Centre model, is currently among the most popular if only because it is available for free. Other models such as [19] TUFLOW combine 1D and 2D components to derive flood depth in the floodplain. So far the focus has been on mapping tidal and fluvial flood events but the 2007 flood events in the UK have shifted the emphasis [20] onto the impact of surface water flooding. Deadliest floods Below is a list of the deadliest floods worldwide, showing events with death tolls at or above 100,000 individuals.

Death toll 2,500,000 [21] 3,700,000 900,000 2,000,000 500,000 700,000

Event 1931 China floods 1887 Yellow River (Huang He) flood 1938 Yellow River (Huang He) flood Banqiao Dam failure, result of Typhoon Nina. Approximately 86,000 people died from flooding and another 145,000 died during subsequent disease. Indian Ocean tsunami 1935 Yangtze river flood St. Felix's Flood, storm surge Hanoi and Red River Delta flood 1911 Yangtze river flood

Location China China China

Date 1931 1887 1938

231,000

China

1975

230,000 145,000 100,000+ 100,000 100,000 Effects of Flooding

Indonesia China Netherlands North Vietnam China

2004 1935 1530 1971

Copyrights 2004@Law Ting Pong Secondary School. All rights reserved.

1. Economy

Economic loss o The flooding in Jiangxi of China in 1998 caused great damage. The economic loss was HK$156 billion, 400 buildings surrounding the lake were inundated, leaving more than 1 million people homeless. Resources used in reconstruction o After flooding, government has to input many resources for aiding or reconstruction, e.g., police force, fire control, aid worker, resources used for resisting flood, etc. This also brings loss to society.

2. Environment

Traffic

Flooding will lead to the damages of roads, collapse of bridges or traffic congestion, which may affect the daily operation.

Damaging the farmland o Flooding brings too much water which will cause damage to farmland.

3. Human Beings

People died and lose their homes o Flooding will cause death and injuries. In year 1998, 0.23 billion of people were affected in the flooding of Xian, including 3 thousands people dead, 1 million of people lost their homes. In 1996, the monsoon flood in India affected more than five million people in the northern and

eastern part of the country. Severe floods have also killed some 200 people in India and Bangladesh and left millions homeless and starvation.

4. Disease

Flooding usually brings infectious diseases, e.g. military fever, pneumonic plague, dermatopathia, dysentery, common cold (type A), breakbone fever, etc. And for those areas which have no electric supply due to flooding, food poisoning may occur as food may not be properly frozen.

flood damage. This is why floods create the greatest losses in poor countries, which tend to be less prepared toward prevention. In these countries, floods can effectively wipe out decades of investments in infrastructure, seriously cripple economic prosperity, and result in thousands of deaths and epidemics, according to a UN report on reducing flood losses (pfd). How Can Flood Damage be Reduced? We cant always stop floods from happening, but with the right planning we can certainly prevent or reduce the damage they cause. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) estimates that advance flood warnings can reduce flood damage by up to 35 percent. According to the UNs report on reducing flood loss (pdf), communities, nations, and regions can no longer afford to simply respond to and recover from these disasters. An integrated approach to flood disaster management will reduce the losses and break the cycle of event-disaster. In fact, the report goes on to say that the greatest tragedy is that most of the deaths, associated post traumatic stresses, and social and economic hardships resulting from floods can be either avoided or dramatically reduced, with the right measures in place. Possible measures that can reduce the impact of floods include:

The top soil of the earths crust is the most vulnerable component that can be affected by flood. If devoid of vegetation or foliage of any kind, the upper crust is exposed to the harshest weather conditions. When floods strike the barren top soil layer instantly washes along with the water currents. The land is thus stripped of the basic properties that support healthy vegetation or regeneration of any kind. The washed away soil flows into adjacent water-bodies such as lakes and rivers and later gets swept away into the sea. Under constant wet conditions, when flood waters remain stagnant for days on a particular land area, there are grave implications on the soil chemistry. As the earth remains underwater for such a long period of time, there is considerable reduction in oxygen content of the soil. As the layer of water cuts off the supply of air to the earth, the fundamental chemistry of the soil is totally disturbed. Subsequently this destroys the basic characteristics of soil that negatively affects the crop productivity and farming activities. Soil aggregation is positively correlated to the physical and chemical properties of the soil which helps in improving the soil quality. However, when the soil aggregation quality is depleted, harsh damages and growth deterrence occurs to the plants and crops trapped under such flooded conditions. This also induces pH imbalance in the soil as flooded conditions boosts acidity and reduces alkalinity. Many a time, refuse and other similar biodegradable garbage get trapped under the flood water. Submerged under the water, the garbages regular degradation process is disturbed and slashed to half the speed compared to the decomposition of organic matter in normal soil. Moreover, the final result of such decay or decomposition is the production of large concentrations of ethanol and hydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the soil and its productivity. Flood waters also gush past different landscapes without discrimination, causing layers of sand and infertile soil to be swept onto the fertile lands of fields and thickets of tree. This infertile sand and silt form a layer over the roots of crops, plants and trees, choking them and cutting off the air supply completely. This process is called sedimentation, which destroys the vigour and growth process of the roots. In some cases, the flood water also washes away small plants and similar vegetation, stripping the soil of nutrients and making it gullible to further erosion. In case of rigorous and continuous occurrence of such trends, desertification and constant erosion of rocks take place.

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Investments in water retention Educating people on disaster preparedness Building flood protection facilities such as dikes, levees, and flood embankments Investing in advanced computer modeling which lets disaster authorities accurately predict where floods will occur and how severe they may be After the Deluge The task of rehabilitation after a flood can take years. Crops, homes, and livelihoods are destroyed. Massive flooding, such as the recent ones in Pakistan can leave hundreds of thousands of people homeless, with no money, food or clothes, which places a huge strain on a countrys economy. Flood victims face additional problems, such as disease outbreaks, lack of clean drinking water and electricity. Not only do they face the challenge of rebuilding their homes, but also that of staying safe and healthy in the meantime. Interestingly, floods can also leave some good behind. In fact, the UN report on flood prevention states that, throughout the history of mankind, floods have brought untold wealth and prosperity to civilizations. Annual flooding has helped support agriculture in places like the Mississippi Valley, the Ganges and Nile rivers and the Tigris-Euphrates for millennia, by leaving millions of tons of nutrient-rich silt deposits in those regions. According to the World Bank, despite their dangers, floods can also be harnessed beneficially as sources of irrigation water, groundwater recharge, and soil fertility renewal. They can improve water quality, and sustain ecosystems and fisheries. Environment Agency produces 'flood facts' to warn against future flooding On the 60 year anniversary of the 1947 floods - some of the most devastating floods to hit the Thames Valley in living memory - the Environment Agency is urging those at risk to take the necessary action to reduce the impact flooding can cause. The floods of 1947 affected thousands of homes, forcing many war-weary to evacuate their homes, and leaving many more without electricity or heating. The floods followed a particularly harsh winter with weeks of frost and snow. In early March much of this snow was melted by heavy rainfall, and with a frozen, impermeable ground, these elements combined to produce an estimated of 117mm of rainfall, which quickly overwhelmed the area's rivers and streams. 'Although floods on the scale of 1947 are very rare on the Thames, history shows they do happen, and could happen again,' Steve Naylor, from the Environment Agency's Flood Forecasting said. 'We endeavor to reduce flood risk where we can, however living in the floodplain is never without risk, so it's vital to ensure people take action to protect themselves and ensure that they have done all they can to limit the damage, difficulties and misery flooding can cause.' After 1947, numerous schemes were carried out on rivers and tributaries of all sizes throughout the Thames Region. Such schemes include the River Lee flood relief channel which protects properties in north east London and the Maidenhead, Windsor and Eton flood relief scheme, which includes the Jubilee River, and was built to protect Maidenhead and Windsor from floods as severe as those in 1947. A few months after it was opened, it succeeded in protecting more than 1,000 properties in January 2003. These were the biggest since 1947, causing flooding in Oxford, Reading, and many other towns and villages on the Thames. However, the most effective way to reduce flood risk is not to build in flood risk areas, and to take the opportunity in any redevelopment to ensure that the potential for flood damage is reduced or eliminated by designing flood resistant buildings. In recent years the Environment Agency has made strides in defining areas at risk by using recorded flooding information and simulations to produce detailed flood maps. These maps are a valuable tool in limiting inappropriate development in the floodplain, and are also an important resource for homeowners to check their level of risk online at www.environment-agency.gov.uk/flood 'We would urge everyone to check whether they are at risk of flooding by looking

Facts About Floods Anywhere it rains, it can flood. United States Federal Emergency Management Association Its hard to believe that something as fundamental to human survival as water can also be such a terrifying and destructive force. Did you know that floods affect more people and result in greater economic loss than any other natural disaster? Whats more, with climate change, it is possible that flooding will increase in different parts of the world. Why do Floods Happen? Floods happen when there is too much water with nowhere to go, for example when river banks overflow and there is inadequate drainage to handle the excess water. This usually occurs with heavy and prolonged rainfall. Unusually early snowmelt from mountains can trigger floods too, as a huge amount of water is suddenly released too quickly. Deforestation also leads to flooding, because without vegetation the soil loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Floods usually take hours or days to develop, which means that with good warning systems in place, people can prepare and evacuate, if necessary. However, flash floods form quickly and are very dangerous because people have no time to prepare. They are usually caused by sudden, excessive rainfall that makes rivers, streams or other bodies of water overflow from their banks. Infrastructure plays a huge role in determining the impact of a flood. Heavy rainfall can cause terrible flooding in one country, and just amount to bad weather in another, where there are stronger measures in place toward curbing

up their address on our floodmaps," Steve Naylor added. If you are at risk there are a lot of things you can do to protect yourself such as signing up to our free Floodline Warnings Direct service which sends automatic flood warnings over the phone. We would also urge you to ensure you have a flood plan in place so you know what needs to be done in the event of a flood. For information and advice, please contact Floodline on 0845 988 1188 or log onto our website.' 10 Flood Facts 1. A staggering 117mm (4.6inches) of rainfall (rain combined with snow melt) caused the 1947 floods. 2. There are now approximately 215,000 properties at risk today in the Thames Valley. 3. Floodplains in the Thames Valley area cover 10,000km2, equivalent to 10 per cent of the region's land. 4. The snow was up to 1.5m deep in some areas of the Chilterns, with snow drifts of between 3-5m 5. The 1947 floods are rated from a 1/56 - 1/100 year event. 6. An estimated 715 cubic metres of water rushed over Teddington Weir. This is the equivalent to 61.7 billion litres of water per day. In 2003 the recorded peak flow was around 470 cubic metres per second. 7. Other significant floods to hit the Thames Valley since 1947 were 1968, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2003 and 2006 at varying magnitude. 8. The 1947 floods cost the UK a total 12 million - equivalent to nearly 300million in today's money. 9. Almost 300,000 hectares (approximately 700,000 acres) of land across the UK - a total area equivalent to the size of Kent was inundated. 10. Current estimates are that peak river flows in Britain could be 20 percent higher by 2080. Soil erosion is a concept in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by one [1] or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or [2] undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bushfires. It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously [3] degraded. Causes Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:

planning or management of irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in Bangladesh. The role of population factors in land degradation processes obviously occurs in the context of the underlying causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan). Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils. Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sown. [edit]Climate change Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was identified in a [citation needed] 2007 IPCC report. As a result ofsea-level rise from climate change, salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low lying areas. Effects of Soil Erosion Back to Top

Soil erosion results in the loss of soil fertility and makes the land barren. There are more than 25 million hectares of barren lands in the world now.

Soil erosion also leads to desertification. Desertification refers to increase of desert areas. ScienceDaily (Mar. 23, 2006) Around the world, soil is being swept and washed away 10 to 40 times faster than it is being replenished, destroying cropland the size of Indiana every year, reports a new Cornell University study.

Vehicle off-roading Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals Effects

       

Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices Livestock including overgrazing Inappropriate Irrigation and overdrafting Urban sprawl and commercial development Land pollution including industrial waste
[4]

The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the [5] productivity of the land. The major stresses on vulnerable land include: Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water Soil acidification and the formation of acid sulfate soil resulting in barren soil Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water containing sodium bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and reduced crop yields Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the [6] land Soil waterlogging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface [6] land drainage to remediate the negative effects Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter

     

Yet the need for food and other agricultural products continues to soar. "Soil erosion is second only to population growth as the biggest environmental problem the world faces," said David Pimentel, professor of ecology at Cornell. "Yet, the problem, which is growing ever more critical, is being ignored because who gets excited about dirt?" Plenty of people should be, stressed Pimentel, whose study on the food and environmental threat of soil erosion is published in a recent issue of the Journal of the Environment, Development and Sustainability (Vol. 8, 2006). "Erosion is a slow and insidious process," stressed Pimentel. "Yet, controlling soil erosion is really quite simple: The soil can be protected with cover crops when the land is not being used to grow crops." Other ways to reduce erosion include reducing the need for people in developing countries to clear forests for agriculture, overgraze their cattle and remove crop residues for cooking fuel. The vast majority -- 99.7 percent -- of human food comes from cropland, which is shrinking by more than 10 million hectares (almost 37,000 square miles) a year due to soil erosion, Pimentel reports, while more people than ever -- more than 3.7 billion people -- are malnourished. "Erosion is one of those problems that nickels and dimes you to death: One rainstorm can wash away 1 mm (.04 inches) of dirt. It doesn't sound like much, but when you consider a hectare (2.5 acres), it would take 13 tons of topsoil -- or 20 years if left to natural processes -- to replace that loss," Pimentel said. "And that kind of loss occurs year after year by wind and rain around the world." The study, which pulls together statistics on soil erosion from more than 125 sources, reports:

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The United States is losing soil 10 times faster -- and China and India are losing soil 30 to 40 times faster -- than the natural replenishment rate. The economic impact of soil erosion in the United States costs the nation about $37.6 billion each year in productivity losses. Damage from soil erosion worldwide is estimated to be $400 billion per year. As a result of erosion over the past 40 years, 30 percent of the world's arable land has become unproductive. About 60 percent of soil that is washed away ends up in rivers, streams and lakes, making waterways more prone to flooding and to contamination from soil's fertilizers and pesticides. Soil erosion also reduces the ability of soil to store water and support plant growth, thereby reducing its ability to support biodiversity. Erosion promotes critical losses of water, nutrients, soil organic matter and soil biota, harming forests, rangeland and natural ecosystems.

Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublandsto obtain timber, fuelwood and other productsat a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan. Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer use, and a host of possible problems arising from faulty

Erosion increases the amount of dust carried by wind, which not only acts as an abrasive and air pollutant but also carries about 20 human infectious disease organisms, including anthrax and tuberculosis

zones, leaving behind a dry land. In this context read about thefacts about wind erosion.

Soil erosion can also be caused by the glaciers and ice. This type of erosion is more evident in snow capped regions and high altitudes, where soil particles get removed by the movement of glaciers through them.

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When soil erosion happens very gradually it has minimal effect on the land as enough time would be there for the replacement with new soil. But accelerated erosion leads to detrimental effects. Soil erosion decreases soil fertility as it diminishes the amount of nutrients. Decrease in soil fertility due to erosion leads to decrease the productivity of crop and also quality of crop. Eroding land can lead to accidents and when soil that shifts and gets accumulated on roads and streets can obstruct the driving. These effects are common in sloppy and mountain regions. Soil erosion can cause great damage to environment as increased loss of soil can affect the growth of natural vegetation and in turn this leads to conversion of fertile land into a desert. Soil erosion leads to deposition of sediment by water currents in water bodies like ponds, which can hurt marine plant and animal life. The soil sediments can cover up fish eggs present in ponds and prevent their hatching. Due to erosion soil particles stay suspended in water and prevent light from reaching marine plants and affect photosynthesis process. Due to huge amount of suspended soil particles in water it retains the heat and raises the water temperature, which affects the living organisms. Presence of soil particles due to erosion affects the quality of drinking water resource The United States is losing soil 10 times faster -- and China and India are losing soil 30 to 40 times faster -- than the natural replenishment rate. The economic impact of soil erosion in the United States costs the nation about $37.6 billion each year in productivity losses. Damage from soil erosion worldwide is estimated to be $400 billion per year. As a result of erosion over the past 40 years, 30 percent of the world's arable land has become unproductive. About 60 percent of soil that is washed away ends up in rivers, streams and lakes, making waterways more prone to flooding and to contamination from soil's fertilizers and pesticides. Soil erosion also reduces the ability of soil to store water and support plant growth, thereby reducing its ability to support biodiversity. Erosion promotes critical losses of water, nutrients, soil organic matter and soil biota, harming forests, rangeland and natural ecosystems.

Soil erosion causes are also associated with climatic conditions like temperature, wind speed and rate of precipitation affecting the intensity of erosion. A land grazed by farm animals is more prone to soil erosion. Effects of Soil Erosion

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One of the key facts about soil erosion is creation of a new type of land where fresh deposition of soil particles will take place. The vegetation of the region is affected as a result of soil erosion. When the soil gets washed away then the productivity or the fertility of the land decreases. The moisture and mineral holding capacity of the soil is highly reduced. Thus the land becomes devoid of any type of agricultural activities.

This gradual process reduces the weight of the earth's mantle and the surface layers, Did You Know * Annual soil loss in South Africa is estimated at 300 - 400 million tonnes, nearly three tonnes for each hectare of land. * Replacing the soil nutrients carried out to sea by our rivers each year, with fertilizer, would cost R1000 million. * For every tonne of maize, wheat, sugar or other agricultural crop produced, South Africa loses an average of 20 tonnes of soil. * The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation, a branch of United Nations) estimates that the global loss of productive land through erosion is 5-7 million ha/year. Causes of Soil Erosion Wind and water are the main agents of soil erosion. The amount of soil they can carry away is influenced by two related factors: * speed - the faster either moves, the more soil it can erode; * plant cover - plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much more damage. The Importance of Plants Plants provide protective cover on the land and prevent soil erosion for the following reasons: * plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows much of the rain to soak into the ground; * plant roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away; * plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its ability to erode; * plants in wetlands and on the banks of rivers are of particular importance as they slow down the flow of the water and their roots bind the soil, thus preventing erosion. The loss of protective vegetation through deforestation (see Enviro Facts "Deforestation"), over-grazing, ploughing, and fire makes soil vulnerable to being swept away by wind and water. In addition, over-cultivation and compaction cause the soil to lose its structure and cohesion and it becomes more easily eroded. Erosion will remove the top-soil first. Once this nutrient-rich layer of soil is gone, few plants will grow in the soil again. Without soil and plants the land becomes desert-like and unable to support life - this process is called desertification (see Enviro Facts "Desertification"). It is very difficult and often impossible to restore desertified land. Politics, Economics and Soil Erosion To understand soil erosion we must be aware of the political and economic factors affecting land users.

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Erosion increases the amount of dust carried by wind, which not only acts as an abrasive and air pollutant but also carries about 20 human infectious disease organisms, including anthrax and tuberculosis. Interesting Facts about Soil Erosion Soil erosion has become a topic of concern by researchers and environmentalists. Sincere steps of soil erosion prevention are taken by government to curb its disastrous effects. An intense erosion will deprive the land of any vegetation. This further results in minimal rainfall and drought. Thus, the natural cycle is disrupted. Get the detailed information about soil erosion from the next segment. Causes of Soil Erosion

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Soil erosion facts are associated with the various agents of nature causing erosion naturally. The high speed of the flowing river water is one of the prime causes of soil erosion of the river basins and the coastal regions. Areas lying on high altitudes are eroded and the sediment gets deposited on the low lying lands. Wind erosion is the most devastating agent of soil erosion. It's more evident in the dry areas like desserts. The power of the wind has the ability to weather rocks, soil, etc and transport them to a different

In South Africa apartheid policies ensured that 42% of the people lived on 13 % of the land (the "homelands"). This overcrowding has resulted in severe erosion. As the land became increasingly degraded and thus less productive, subsistence farmers were forced to further overuse the land. The intensive agriculture and overgrazing that followed caused greater degradation. Soil erosion can be seen as both a symptom of underdevelopment (i.e. poverty, inequality and exploitation), and as a cause of underdevelopment. A reduced ability to produce, invest one's profit and increase productivity, contributes to increasing poverty, and can lead to desertification, drought, floods, and famine. On commercial farm lands, overstocking, mono-cropping, and the ploughing of marginal lands unsuitable for cultivation has led to soil erosion and desertification. Frequently these practices have been unwittingly encouraged by the state offering subsidies which made it profitable to exploit the land in the short-term. Preventing Soil Erosion Preventing soil erosion requires political, economic and technical changes. Political and economic changes need to address the distribution of land in South Africa as well as the possibility of incentives to encourage farmers to manage their land sustainably. Aspects of technical changes include: * the use of contour ploughing and wind breaks; * leaving unploughed grass strips between ploughed land; * making sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is rich in humus (decaying plant and animal remains). This organic matter is the "glue" that binds the soil particles together and plays an important part in preventing erosion; * avoiding overgrazing and the over-use of crop lands; * allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the water's edge; * encouraging biological diversity by planting several different types of plants together; * conservation of wetlands (see Enviro Facts "Wetlands" and "River Catchments").

that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released. [edit]Causes Landslides occur when the stability of a slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include: groundwater (porewater) pressure acting to destabilize the slope Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire) erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves weakening of a slope through saturation by snowmelt, glaciers melting, or heavy rains earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes volcanic eruptions

      

Landslides are aggravated by human activities, Human causes include:

     

deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes vibrations from machinery or traffic blasting earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water which infiltrates the soil.

[edit]Types [edit]Debris flow Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its path. Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes. Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure and often claim human lives. Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a "dominoeffect" may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid-liquid mixture can reach densities of up to 2 tons/m and velocities of up to 14 m/s (Chiarle and Luino, 1998; Arattano, 2003). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area = 1.76 km ) affected by a [citation needed] debris flow, Chiarle and Luino (1998) estimated a peak discharge of 3 750 m /s for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was 19 m/s, a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred. [edit]Earth flow Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, which move at any speed from slow to fast. Typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h. Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are slower moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from within. They are different from fluid flows in that they are more rapid. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water content is in the flow itself: if there is more water content in the flow, the higher the velocity will be. These flows usually begin when the pore pressures in a fine-grained mass increase until enough of the weight of the material is supported by pore water to significantly decrease the internal shearing strength of the material. This thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a slow, rolling motion. As these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process causes the flow to thicken. The bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much

Barren lands results in occurrence of drought due to absence of rainfall in those particular regions. These were some of the causes and effects of soil erosion Control of Soil Erosion

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which might subsequently lead to tectonic shift in the earth's crust.

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Soil erosion prevention measures are implemented on a large scale today. To name a few they are, shifting vegetation, afforestation, conservation tillage, gardening and contour farming. Erosion control products help in retaining the organic value of the soil as well as the pH. The requirements of the soil are restored by mulching. Soil erosion control is also carried out by planting erosion control plants. Native plants, willow trees, yarrow flowers are help to retain the moisture of the soil. One of the most effective technique to prevent soil erosion is by controlling the rate of grazing in a the land vulnerable to erosion. Regular watering of soil also keeps loose particle attached with the ground. Thus, preventing it from getting eroded.

Landslide From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action ofgravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions

more common than their rapid counterparts. They develop a sag at their heads and are usually derived from the slumping at the source. Earthflows occur much more during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the slope content. Fissures develop during the movement of clay-like material creates the intrusion of water into the earthflows. Water then increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength [2] of the material. [edit]Debris avalanche A debris avalanche is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks soil and debris mixed with water or ice (or both). They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent [2] mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris. Debris avalanches differ from debris slides because their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower cohesion or higher water content and commonly steeper slopes. Movement Debris slides generally start with big rocks that start at the top of the slide and begin to break apart as they slide towards the bottom. This is much slower than a debris avalanche. Debris avalanches are very fast and the entire mass seems to liquefy as it slides down the slope. This is caused by a combination of saturated material, and steep slopes. As the debris moves down the slope it generally follows stream channels leaving a v-shaped scar as it moves down the hill. This differs from the more U-shaped scar of a slump. Debris avalanches can also [3] travel well past the foot of the slope due to their tremendous speed. [edit]Sturzstrom A sturzstrom is a rare, poorly understood type of landslide, typically with a long run-out. Often very large, these slides are unusually mobile, flowing very far over a low angle, flat, or even slightly uphill terrain. See also: Slump (geology) [edit]Shallow landslide Landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth from few decimetres to some metres). They usually include debris slides, debris flow, and failures of road cut-slopes. Landslides occurring as single large blocks of rock moving slowly down slope are sometimes called block glides. Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable soils on top of low permeable bottom soils. The low permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high permeable soils creating high water pressure in the top soils. As the top soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a slope with silt and sand as its top soil and bedrock as its bottom soil. During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain trapped in the top soils of silt and sand. As the topsoil becomes saturated and heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and become a shallow landslide. R. H. Campbell did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island California. He notes that if permeability decreases with depth, a perched water table may develop in soils at intense precipitation. When pore water pressures are sufficient [4] to reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs. [edit]Deep-seated landslide Landslides in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located below the maximum rooting depth of trees (typically to depths greater than ten meters). Deep-seated landslides usually involve deep regolith, weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failure associated with translational, rotational, or complex movement. These typically move slowly, only several meters per year, but occasionally move faster. They tend to be larger than shallow landslides and form along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by concave scarps at the [5] top and steep areas at the toe. [edit]Causing tsunamis Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water, can generate tsunamis. Massive landslides can also generate megatsunamis, which are usually hundreds of meters high. In 1958, one such tsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska. [edit]Related phenomena

into geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology. Since many factors are considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an appropriate tool because it has functions of collection, storage, manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially referenced data which can be handled fast [7] and effectively. Remote sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide hazard assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used to gather landslide characteristics, like distribution and classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and land use/land cover to be [8] used to help predict future events. Before and after imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape changed after an event, what may have triggered the [9] landslide, and shows the process of regeneration and recovery. Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is [10] possible to generate maps of likely occurrences of future landslides. Such maps should show the locations of previous events as well as clearly indicate the probable locations of future events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that their occurrence is determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides will occur under the same conditions as past [11] events. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in which the past events took place and the expected [12] future conditions. Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment. Early predictions and warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of life. Because landslides occur frequently and can represent some of the most destructive forces on earth, it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what causes them and how people can either help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur. Sustainable land management and development is an essential key to reducing the negative impacts felt by landslides. GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so many variables are involved, it is important to be able to overlay the many layers of data to develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's surface. Researchers need to know which variables are the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given location. Using GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future events which have the potential to save lives, property, and money. [edit]Prehistoric landslides

 

Landslide which moved Heart Mountain to its current location, the largest ever discovered on land. In the 48 million years since the slide occurred, erosion has removed most of the portion of the slide. Flims Rockslide, ca. 13,000 km (3,100 cu mi), Switzerland, some 10000 years ago in post-glacial Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so far described in the alps and on dry land that can be easily identified in a modestly [13] eroded state. The landslide around 200BC which formed Lake Waikaremoana on the North Island of New Zealand, where a large block of the Ngamoko Range slid and dammed a gorge of Waikaretaheke River, forming a natural reservoir up to 248 metres deep.
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Cheekye Fan, British Columbia, Canada, ca. 25 km (9.7 sq mi), Late Pleistocene in age. [edit]Prehistoric submarine landslides

The Storegga Slide, Norway, ca. 3,500 km (840 cu mi), ca. 8,000 years ago, a catastrophic impact on the contemporary coastal Mesolithic population  The Agulhas slide, ca. 20,000 km3 (4,800 cu[14] off South Africa, postmi), Pliocene in age, the largest so far described  The Ruatoria Debris Avalanche, off North[15] Island New Zealand, ca. 3,000 km in volume, 170,000 years ago. [edit]Historical landslides

An avalanche, similar in mechanism to a landslide, involves a large amount of ice, snow and rock falling quickly down the side of a mountain.  A pyroclastic flow is caused by a collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and rocks from a volcanic explosion that moves rapidly down an erupting volcano. [edit]Landslide prediction mapping

          

The Goldau on September 2, 1806 The Cap Diamant Qubec rockslide on September 19, 1889 Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta, Canada, on 29 April 1903 Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet Union, on July 10, 1949 Monte Toc landslide (260 millions cubic metres) falling into the Vajont Dam basin in Italy, causing a megatsunami and about 2000 casualties, on October 9, 1963 Hope Slide landslide (46 million cubic metres) near Hope, British [16] Columbia on January 9, 1965. The 1966 Aberfan disaster Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden on November 30, 1977. The 1979 Abbotsford landslip, Dunedin, New Zealand on August 8, 1979. Val Pola landslide during Valtellina disaster (1987) Italy Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July 1997, destroyed hostel.

Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for catastrophic loss reduction, and assist in the development of guidelines for sustainable land use planning. The analysis is used to identify the factors that are related to landslides, estimate the relative contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation between the factors and landslides, and to predict [6] the landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship. The factors that have been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped

      

Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains in Vargas State, Venezuela, on December, 1999, causing tens of thousands of casualties. 2007 Chittagong mudslide, in Chittagong, Bangladesh, on June 11, 2007. 2008 Cairo landslide on September 6, 2008. The 2010 Uganda landslide caused over 100 deaths following heavy rain in Bududa region. Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu, China on August 8, 2010. Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in San Mateo County, California
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* interference with, or changes to, natural drainage; * leaking pipes such as water and sewer reticulation; * modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways, buildings, etc; * overloading slopes; * mining and quarrying activities; * vibrations from heavy traffic, blasting, etc; and * excavation or displacement of rocks. It is important for engineers and geologists to evaluate slope stability and any landslide threat during development assessments so that effective and timely remedial measures can be implemented. 11 Facts About Landslides 1. 2. 3. Debris flows, sometimes referred to as mudslides, mudflows, lahars, or debris avalanches, are common types of fast-moving landslides. These flows generally occur during periods of intense rainfall or rapid snow melt. They usually start on steep hillsides as shallow landslides that liquefy and accelerate to speeds that are typically about 10 miles per hour, but can exceed 35 miles per hour. The consistency of debris flows ranges from watery mud to thick, rocky mud that can carry large items such as boulders, trees, and cars. When the flows reach flatter ground, the debris spreads over a broad area, sometimes accumulating in thick deposits that can wreak havoc in developed areas. Every year, landslides in the United States cause approximately $3.5 billion in damage, and kill between 25 and 50 people. Casualties in the United States are primarily caused by rockfalls, rock slides, and debris flows. Landslides often accompany earthquakes, floods, storm surges, hurricanes, wildfires, or volcanic activity. They are often more damaging and deadly than the triggering event The May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens caused the largest landslide in history a rock slide-debris avalanche large enough to fill 250 million dump trucks to the brim traveled about 14 miles, destroying nine highway bridges, numerous private and public buildings, and many miles of highways, roads, and railroads. The debris avalanche also formed several new lakes by damming the North Fork Toutle River and its tributaries. In July 1994, a severe wildfire swept Storm King Mountain, Colorado, denuding the slopes of vegetation. Heavy rains on the Storm King Mtn. in September of 94 resulted in numerous debris flows, one of which blocked Interstate 70 and threatened to dam the Colorado River. Landslides and Water Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides. This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, and water-level changes along coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers. Landsliding and flooding are closely allied because both are related to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water. In addition, debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep stream channels and often are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two events often occur simultaneously in the same area. Landslides can cause flooding by forming landslide dams that block valleys and stream channels, allowing large amounts of water to back up. This causes backwater flooding and, if the dam fails, subsequent downstream flooding. Also, solid landslide debris can "bulk" or add volume and density to otherwise normal streamflow or cause channel blockages and diversions creating flood conditions or localized erosion. Landslides can also cause overtopping of reservoirs and/or reduced capacity of reservoirs to store water. Landslides and Seismic Activity Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides have also experienced at least moderate rates of earthquake occurrence in recorded times. The occurrence of earthquakes in steep landslide-prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides will occur, due to ground shaking alone or shakingcaused dilation of soil materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. The 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake caused widespread landsliding and other ground failure, which caused most of the monetary loss due to the earthquake. Other areas of the United States, such as California and the Puget Sound region in Washington, have experienced slides, lateral spreading, and other types of ground failure due to moderate to large earthquakes. Widespread rockfalls also are caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking. Worldwide, landslides caused by earthquakes kill people and damage structures at higher rates than in the United States. Landslides and Volcanic Activity Landslides due to volcanic activity are some of the most devastating types. Volcanic lava may melt snow at a rapid rate, causing a deluge of rock, soil, ash, and water that accelerates rapidly on the steep slopes of volcanoes, devastating anything in its path. These volcanic debris flows (also known as lahars) reach great distances, once they leave the flanks of the volcano, and can damage structures in flat areas surrounding the volcanoes. The 1980 eruption of Mount

2011 Rio de Janeiro landslide in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on January 11, [18] 2011, causing 610 casualties so far. [edit]Extraterrestrial landslides

Evidence of past landslides has been detected on many bodies in the solar system, but since most observations are made by probes that only observe for a limited time and most bodies in the solar system appear to be geologically inactive not many landslides are known to have happened in recent times. Both Venus and Mars have been subject to long-term mapping by orbiting satellites, and examples of landslides have been observed on both.

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6. HOW DO LANDSLIDES AFFECT SOCIETY? The Thistle landslide (pictured on the right) was the most costly single landslide event in U.S. history with costs exceeding $400 million. Land began shifting in Thistle, Utah in 1983 because of groundwater buildup from heavy rains during the previous fall and the melting of deep snowpack from the winter. Within a few weeks, the landslide dammed the Spanish Fork River, destroying U.S. Highway 6 and the main line of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. The landslide dam caused flood waters to rise which in turn led to lead the inundation of the surrounding area. The town of Thistle was completely obliterated.[1] Landslides occur in all 50 states and claim 25 - 50 lives a year. The U.S. National Research Council (Committee on Ground Failure Hazards, 1985) estimated that landslides cause between $1.6 billion and $3.2 billion in damage (rates adjusted for inflation) in the U.S. each year.[2] Direct losses include: repair, rebuilding or replacement public and private property. According to the USGS, indirect costs of landslides include: 7. 8.

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Reduced real estate values and property tax revenues in areas threatened or affected by landslides. Loss of industrial and agricultural productivity, tourism caused by damage to land or transportation systems. Loss of human and domestic animal productivity due to death, injury or psychological trauma.

Expected Accomplishments:

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Development of a process-based understanding of landslide causes Quantification of the land surface rate of change Quantification of the causes, development, and magnitude of landslides

Practical Benefit to Society:

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Real-time prediction of the progression of landslides Assessment of susceptibility to damage by landslides Definition of the human role in aggravating landslide hazards Quantification of hydrology and landscape response

Natural causes of landslide include: * Elevation of pore water pressure by saturation of slope material from either intense or prolonged rainfall and seepage; * vibrations caused by earthquakes; * undercutting of cliffs and banks by waves or river erosion; and * volcanic eruptions. Human causes include: * removal of vegetation;

St. Helens, in Washington triggered a massive landslide on the north flank of the volcano, the largest landslide in recorded times.

Landslide Mitigation How to reduce the effect of landslides Vulnerability to landslide hazards is a function of location, type of human activity, use, and frequency of landslide events. The effects of landslides on people and structures can be lessened by total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by restricting, prohibiting, or imposing conditions on hazard-zone activity. Local governments can reduce landslide effects through land-use policies and regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure to hazards by educating themselves on the past hazard history of a site and by making inquiries to planning and engineering departments of local governments. They can also obtain the professional services of an engineering geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or a civil engineer, who can properly evaluate the hazard potential of a site, built or unbuilt. The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding construction on steep slopes and existing landslides, or by stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water is prevented from rising in the landslide mass by (1) covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane, (2) directing surface water away from the landslide, (3) draining ground water away from the landslide, and (4) minimizing surface irrigation. Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/or the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the slope.