Chemistry - Chapter 5 Review Questions Properties and Changes P188 Review Questions 1) What is the difference between each

of the following terms? a. Heterogeneous (Mechanical) Mixture particles not uniformly scattered. Ex: sugar and salt, sand and water Homogeneous Mixture particles are uniformly scattered throughout at all microscopic levels. Ex: stainless steel, steel, alloys, solutions, pure substances b. Quantitative Property a characteristic of a substance that can be measured numerically. Ex: density, mass, weight Qualitative Property a characteristic of a substance that can be described but not measured. Ex: colour, physical state, texture c. Suspension particles may be seen with the naked eye or with a weak microscope. If left undisturbed, gravity will cause the suspended particles to separate. Ex: magnesia in milk Colloid appears homogeneous, but is heterogeneous, very similar to solutions. Contains very tiny particles that do not separate when undisturbed. Colloids scatter light, known as the Tyndall Effect. Ex: jelly, butter, whipped cream d. Element a pure substance made up of one type of atom. Each element has its own distinct properties and cannot be broken down, destroyed or created. Ex: hydrogen, lead, gold, iron Compound A combination of 2 or more elements in definite proportions, a compound is a pure substance. Ex: water, salt, sugar, air 4) If a substance undergoes a physical change, will there be a change in its chemical properties? If a substance undergoes a chemical change, will there be a change in its physical properties? During a physical change, there is no change in a substances chemical properties because the chemical composition of the starting substance has not changed, and no new substance has been created. During a chemical change, there will likely be a change in its physical properties because during a chemical change, a new substance is formed and its composition and arrangement of elements has changed.

8) What is the difference between a physical and chemical property? Give examples of each property to describe oxygen gas. Physical Property a property that can be observed or measured without forming a new substance. Oxygen is a gas, is colourless, has no odour, and is transparent Chemical Property a property that describes how a substance reacts with another substance when forming a new substance. Oxygen supports combustion and combines with most elements. 10) Distinguish between physical and chemical change, state indicators of chemical change. A physical change does not create a new substance and can be reversed; a chemical change creates a new substance and is very hard to reverse. Some indicators of chemical changes are: exothermic or endothermic reaction, a change in colour, a material with new properties forms, or gas bubbles from a liquid. 11) Classify as a physical or chemical change (not sure if these are right) Physical Change Chemical Change Percolating Coffee Letting Paint Dry Frying an Egg Toasting Bread Letting Cement Settle Growing a Plaint 12) Classify in the following categories Element Compound Solution Suspension Mech. Mix Colloid - Mercury - Copper - Sand - 18 karat gold - 2$ Coin - Muddy water - Egg - Compost - Hair conditioner - Fog

15) Similarities and Differences between the Particle Theory and Daltons Atomic Theory. Both are very similar, but Daltons is more in depth. Daltons atomic theory names the tiny particles atoms, and distinguishes pure substances as elements, atoms that cannot be broken down, destroyed, or split and are identical, or compounds which are a combination of elements.

Chemistry - Chapter 6 Review Questions and Notes Meet the Elements P192 Symbols for the Elements Modern Symbols invented by Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779 1848). The uses for symbols are: To be able to communicate scientifically worldwide, throughout different languages Used as a short form for writing out chemical formulas P194 Understanding Formulas for Compounds A Chemical Formula uses symbols and numerals to represent the composition of pure substances. Ex: The chemical formula for water (H2O) represents The composition of pure water wherever it is found The composition of a molecule of water A Molecule is the smallest independent unit of a compound and is generally a cluster of atoms bounded together. P203 Different Kinds of Elements Type of Element State at Room Temp. Appearance Conductivity Malleability and Ductility Examples Metals Solid (except Mercury liquid) Shiny Lustre Good conductors of heat and electricity Malleable and Ductile (can be hammered and stretched) Lithium Beryllium Gold

Silver Nonmetals Solids and Gases (except Bromine liquid) Dull, not Shiny Poor conductors of heat and electricity Brittle and Not Ductile (cant be shaped or stretched) Nitrogen Oxygen Radon Hydrogen Metalloids Solid Shiny or Dull May conduct electricity, Poor heat conductors Brittle and Not Ductile (cant be shaped or stretched) Boron Silicon Arsenic Polonium P210 The Story of Aluminum Aluminum was abundant, but was hard to use efficiently because: A coating of Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) always forms on the surface of pure Aluminum Aluminum Oxide is strongly bound and hard to decompose Electrolysis only works on liquids, either pure substances or solutions Aluminum Oxide is a Solid, melting it is impractical Does not dissolve in any common liquid In 1886, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Lois Hrolt solved the problem. They used hot, melted Cryolite (Aluminum Sodium Fluoride, Na3AlF6) as a solvent for powdered aluminum oxide, which dissolves it. Applying a strong electric current decomposes the oxide, and it can be collected at the bottom of the container. P217 Mendeleev Builds a Table Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) arranged the elements in a Periodic Table by noticing the repeating properties at set intervals. Gaps were left in the table for undiscovered elements. There were no noble gases discovered at the time. P222 Characteristics of Interesting Groups Alkali Metals - React rapidly when exposed to air and water

- Most reactive metals - Have 1 Valence Electron - Reactivity increases downwards, reactivity decreases going right Halogens - 7 Valence Electrons - Reactivity decreases downwards, reactivity increases going right - Highly Reactive Nonmetals - Chlorine and Iodine used as disinfectants that kill bacteria - Fluorine is highly reactive with glass Nobel Gases - Very Stable, rarely react with any other elements - Have maximum number of Valence Electrons - Odourless and Colourless - Emit a colour when electricity is passed through P224 Review Questions

2) What information is represented in a chemical formula? Which elements are found in the substance, to what proportions, and the number of atoms of each element present in a molecule. 4) Which elements are referred to as coinage metals? Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) are referred to as coinage metals. 5) Write the Name and Symbol of a metal and non-metal that are liquids at room temperature. Mercury (Hg) is a metal that is liquid at room temperature and Bromine (Br) is a nonmetal that is liquid at room temperature.

15) How did Mendeleev organize the elements in his periodic table? In this chapter, you learned two elements that were unknown but predicted by Mendeleev, name the two elements.

Mendeleev organized his table in order of increasing atomic mass, and making columns of elements with similar properties, which occurred at periodic intervals. Two unknown elements predicted by Mendeleev because of examining the properties of known atoms are Gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge). No noble gases were represented in his table as they were undiscovered. 16) Why is the modern day periodic table one of the foundations of modern day chemistry? The modern day periodic table clearly shows the characteristics of all the elements. The periodic table displays which elements are alike, the order of mass of the elements, and trends of properties throughout all the elements. 23) Transportation is the single largest market for aluminum. Name several applications of aluminum in transportation, and why it is so useful in this sector. Aluminum is widely used for building cars, airplanes, and railroad cars. This is because aluminum is a very malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant, and most importantly, light weight. Aluminums light weight allows for more fuel efficient, and lightweight vehicles. It is also a very strong metal, even thought it is one third as dense as steel or copper. 24) Why is the body of a car often made using steel, which rusts, but never aluminum, which does not corrode easily? Aluminum can conduct heat and electricity easily, which is not beneficial for the outer layer of a car. This causes the surface to be very hot on sunny days, and possibly damaging to the interior. As well, aluminum reflects light very easily, which can be distracting on the road. Steel is very sturdy, and can maintain its shape for a longer period of time.

6.2 Elements on Planet Earth, p204

1) Use four physical properties to compare metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Type of Element State at Room Temp. Lustre Conductivity Malleability and Ductility Examples Metals Solid (except Mercury liquid) Shiny Lustre Good conductors of heat and electricity Malleable and Ductile (can be hammered and stretched) Lithium Beryllium Gold Silver Nonmetals Solids and Gases (except Bromine liquid) Dull, not Shiny Poor conductors of heat and electricity Brittle and Not Ductile (cant be shaped or stretched) Nitrogen Oxygen Radon Hydrogen Metalloids Solid Shiny or Dull May conduct electricity, Poor heat conductors Brittle and Not Ductile (cant be shaped or stretched) Boron Silicon Arsenic Polonium 2) Describe the cycles for oxygen and carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water. Be sure to indicate how each of these substances returns to the atmosphere. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Photosynthesis from plants takes CO2 gas, light, and water to create complex carbon compounds, and oxygen. This is how oxygen and carbon dioxide is then released back into the atmosphere. It is then used in respiration for all of the cells of all organisms, all the time. Photosynthesis then takes the CO2 and the process repeats. Nitrogen Nitrogen is present in all proteins, and is vital for life. Nitrogen then is soaked up by the roots of plants from decomposed living organisms, and released again into the atmosphere as N2 gas. Water Water in the atmosphere rises, cools, and condenses into clouds. Water droplets then

form in clouds, and precipitation occurs. H2O is then absorbed by plants, rivers, and the soil, and makes its way to large bodies of water. Water then evaporates, and returns to the atmosphere. 3) List the chemical compounds in the hydrosphere, and write a sentence that explains the role of each compound. Dissolved O2 gas Water animals such as fish depend on it to respire Dissolved CO2 gas Water plants such as sea weed use it to make food NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 These three compounds make up sea salt that came from rocks and soil that make up the continents, causes sea water to be salty

6,3 The Science and Technology of Metallic Elements (Worksheet) 1) Metallurgy The science and technology of retrieving metallic elements and making them as useful as possible 2) The three major processes of metallurgy are extraction, modification, and alloying. Term Definition Ore A body or deposit of rock, gravel, sand, or earth worth mining for the mineral or minerals it contains Mineral A natural, pure, inorganic substance with a unique chemical composition. (Ex: Silicon, Quarts, Hematite) Metal A chemical substance such as Gold, Aluminum, or Iron; metals share similar properties including a metallic lustre, malleability, ductility, and a good ability to conduct heat and electricity Modification The process of altering the properties of a pure metal without using a chemical change (Ex: By heating and sudden cooling) Alloying The process of producing an alloy by mixing a metal with one or more metals or

nonmetals (Ex: Brass is produced by alloying Copper and Zinc) Smelting The process of heating ore to obtain the metal from it Tempering A process that increases the hardness and toughness of a metal 3) 4) Extracting Metallic Elements from Ore Refer to page 205 Figure 6.12 5) Two metals that are extracted by smelting are Iron (from magnetite and hematite) and copper. 6) The mineral that contains aluminum is bauxite. Bauxite is mixed with Sodium Hydroxide to concentrate the ore and make the process of electrolysis easier. 7) Alumina or Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) contains Aluminum and Oxygen, Hematite (Fe2O3) contains Iron and Oxygen, and Magnetite (Fe3O4) also contains Iron and Oxygen. 8) Iron is less expensive than Aluminum because the process for mining iron is much quicker and less costly than the process for mining aluminum. The various problems of mining aluminum make it more costly to mine. 9) Some of the minerals that Canada exports are Aluminum, Coal, Nickel, Copper, Gold, and Uranium.

Chapter 7 Review Models of Atomic Structure Chapter 7 Review Worksheet Part A I am the device that aided in the discovery of the electron: Discharge Tube I am the scientist that shot alpha particles at a piece of gold foil: Rutherford I am the subatomic particle that resulted from this experiment: Neutron I am another name for the negatively charged electrode of a power source: Cathode

I am another name for the positively charged electrode for a power source: Anode I am the name for the 3 structures that make up an atom: Subatomic Particles I am the property of elements such as uranium that defines the emission of radiation: Radioactivity I am the +ively charged particle emitted by the nucleus of some radioactive atoms: Alpha Particle I am an electron ejected by the nucleus of some radioactive atoms: Beta Particles I am the part of the atom with the most mass and the least volume: Nucleus I am the part of the atom with the least mass and the most volume: Electron Cloud I am the subatomic particle that has a positive charge: Proton I am the subatomic particle that has a negative charge: Electron I am the subatomic particle that has no charge and so is neutral: Neutron I am the scientist that proved that cathode rays have mass and motion: William Crooks I am the scientist who developed a model of the atom that resembled a billiard ball: Dalton I am the scientist who developed a model of the atom that resembled the solar system: Bohr I am the scientist who developed a model of the atom that resembled a raisin muffin: Thompson I am the scientist that discovered radium: Marie Curie I am the scientist who included the neutron in Rutherfords model of the atom: Bohr I am the term that refers to the number of protons in an atom: Atomic Number I am the term that refers to the number of protons and neutrons in an atom: Atomic Mass I am the unit used to measure that mass of an atom and my symbol is u: Atomic Mass Units I am the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical change: Atom I am a form of element that has a different atomic mass: Isotope I am the basis in which the present day period table is organized: Atomic Mass Part B Complete the following chart on the Parts of an Atom Name Charge Mass Location Proton Positive 1 u Nucleus Electron Negative 1 / 1837 u Electron SHells Neutron Neutral 1 u Nucleus 1u = 1/12 the mass of a 126Carbon Atom

Unit 2 Atoms and Elements Chemistry Review Questions P288 Review Questions 3) F Alkali metals do not react with Nobel Gases 4) F A chlorine ion has 1 more electron than a chlorine atom 5) F Temper cases copper to become stronger and less malleable 6) F Not all compounds with giant structure are ionic 11) The alkali metals have one less valence electron than the alkali earth metals. 12) Elements in the same group have similar properties. 13) Matching Process involving the formation of new compounds Chemical Bonding The rearrangement of atoms into new substances Chemical Change A homogeneous mixture Solution Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons Isotopes The type of ion most commonly formed when a non-metallic elements becomes an ion Negatively Charged Ion The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus Mass Number The basis for arranging elements on the periodic table Atomic Number 20) A K+ ion has the sane number of electrons as a Cl- ion. 24) What is the difference between a mineral and an ore? Why are ores usually concentrated where they are mined? A mineral is a natural compound containing metal, while ore is large deposits of rock, sand, or earth which contain the mineral. The concentration of ore is to make sure that the remaining mixture contains as much mineral as possible, to make decomposition easier, and also to remove

unused rock. 28) Why is an atoms outermost shell of electrons important? An atoms outer shell of electrons, or Valence Electrons, are important as they determine how the atom reacts with other elements in chemical reactions, and also determines the physical properties of that element. 30) Relate the electron structure of aluminum to its position in Period 3 and Group 13 of the periodic table. Aluminum is in group 13, therefore it has 3 valence electrons. As well, it is in period 3, therefore it has 3 electron shells. 31) How do electron dot diagrams for Calcium and Argon compare with the electron dot diagrams for Strontium and Krypton? The Calcium Strontium diagrams and the Argon Krypton diagrams would be very similar, with the same number of valence electrons (dots). The only difference visible in the diagram is the name of the element itself. The differences would be the number of electron shells, and the number of protons and neutrons, although this is not represented in an electron dot diagram. Calcium and Strontium have two valence electrons, Argon and Krypton have a full shell of 8 valence electrons. 42) Number of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons for: 5626Fe3+ - Positive Iron Ion, 26 Protons, 30 Neutrons, 23 Electrons 6630Zn2+ - Positive Zinc Ion, 30 Protons, 36 Neutrons, 28 Electrons 147N3- - Negative Nitrogen Ion, 7 Protons, 7 Neutrons, 10 Electrons 12050Sn4+ - Positive Tin Ion, 50 Protons, 70 Neutrons, 46 Electrons 43) How many Oxygen Ions are in: MgO has 1 O-2 Ion, Fe2O3 has 3 O-2 Ions, and P2O3 has no O Ions. (P2O3 is a covalent bond,

so the electrons are shared and oxygen does not become an ion) 44) Write the formulas for these ionic compounds: (note that in ionic bonds, no suffixes, prefixes, or roman numerals are needed unless there are different oxidation numbers for the elements) Oxygen and Potassium makes Potassium Oxide (K2O) Sodium and Sulfur makes Sodium Sulfide (Na2S) Bromine and Magnesium makes Magnesium Bromide (MgBr2) Aluminum and Iodine makes Aluminum Iodide (AlI3) Beryllium and Oxygen makes Beryllium Oxide (BeO) 45) Which are possible and which are not? FO3 is impossible, Na2O3 is impossible, HCL is possible, Ca2Cl is impossible. 46) Cesium is: An Alkali Metal, more reactive than sodium, potassium, and rubidium, is malleable, and is a solid at room temperature. Review: Element Names and Symbols Complete the Following Chart: Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol Hydrogen H Sodium Na Beryllium Be Magnesium Mg Helium He Argon Ar Neon Ne Aluminum Al Carbon C Lithium Li Calcium Ca Sulfur S Nitrogen N Boron B Phosphorus P Chlorine Cl Oxygen O Potassium K Fluorine F Silicon Si What Element am i? Description of Element Name Symbol

I am the only gas in Group 1 Hydrogen H I am the inert gas found in Period 3 Argon Ar I am the element with an atomic mass of 16 Oxygen O I am the element that you burned in the lab that gives a purple flame Potassium K I am the element found in toothpaste to help prevent cavities Fluorine F I am the element that combines with chlorine to make table salt Sodium Na I am the element that has an atomic number of 4 Beryllium Be I am the element that if you inhale me you will sound like Donald Duck Helium He I am the element that is present in your pencils Carbon C I am the element that is found in fertilizers that makes grass greener Nitrogen N I am the element needed for strong bones and teeth Calcium Ca I am the element that is used to keep swimming pools clean Chlorine Cl I am the element that is in the 3rd Period and the 2nd Group Magnesium Mg I am the element in the 1st Group that has two energy levels Hydrogen H I am the most abundant element on the Earths crust Oxygen O I am the element that combines with oxygen to make sand Silicon Si I am the element that exists as a diatomic molecule and supports combustion Oxygen O I am the element with an atomic mass of 31 Phosphorus P I am the first element on the metallic staircase Boron B Classify the first 20 elements into one of the following categories: (elements can fit into more than one category. Metals Nonmetals Metalloids Diatomic Molecules Inert Gasses Lithium Beryllium Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Potassium Calcium Helium Carbon Nitrogen

Oxygen Fluoride Neon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Boron Silicon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Helium Neon Argon

Isotopes (Note) - Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but with a different atomic mass - Same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons - The atomic mass listed for an atom is really an average of the mass of all of its isotopes. This is why it is a decimal Periodic Table Families I. Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) - high chemical reactivity, most reactive metals, react vigorously with water - reactivity of metals increases as we go down a column of the periodic table - hardness and melting point decrease as you go down II. Alkaline Earth Metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) - reactive chemically, not as much as alkali metals - some are non-soluble in water - mostly found in the earth, hence Earth Metals

Transition Elements - they back fill, and likely have more than one oxidation number

Inner Transition Elements - the two long rows of elements below the table (Lanthanide and Actinide Series) XVII. Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) - nonmetallic group, highly reactive - reactivity decreases as we go down the table - opposite trend as metallic elements XVIII. Nobel Gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) - very limited degree of chemical reactivity - heavier elements have smaller reactivity Compounds and Bonds - The smallest unit of a compound is a molecule - We often give names to compounds instead of using the full scientific name Molecular Bonds (Covalent) - electrons are shared so that each atom has a full octet - often form between two nonmetals - both atoms acquire enough valence electrons to have a full octet like the nearest noble gas - covalent bonds form when there is not a great difference in electronegativity - there can be single, double, or triple bonds Eg: There are two Oxygen Atoms. Each has 6 valence electrons, thus they need two more to have a full octet. (that means its oxidation number is -2). The result is a double bond. The oxygen atoms share their two unpaired electrons. Water, H2O Carbon Dioxide, CO2 Methane, CH4 Propane, C3H8 Glucose, C6H12O6

Ammonia, NH3 Sucrose, C12H22O11 Hydrogen Peroxide, H2O2 The above are some special names given to specific covalent compounds. We use the Prefix System when naming covalent bonds. (Only the prefix system is used for naming covalent bonds, nothing else) The number of each element is indicated by a Prefix: 1 (Mono) 2 (Di) 3 (Tri) 4 (Tetra) 5 (Penta) 6 (Hexa) etc. - If there is only one of the first atom, no prefix - The second element ends with ide. - named from left to right on periodic table (in order of electronegativity) (Prefix + Element), (Prefix + Element + IDE) Eg: P2O3 Diphosphorus Trioxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide N2O3 Dinitrogen Trioxide Ionic Bonds - electrons are given or taken so that each atom becomes like its nearest noble gas - often form between a metal and a non metal Eg: There is one sodium atom and one chlorine atom. The sodium atom wants to lose one electron, while the chlorine atom wants to gain one (in order for them both to have a full octet and become like the nearest noble gas). The result is that the sodium will give its extra electron to the chlorine, resulting in an ionic bond. Sodium Chloride (Salt), NaCl Iron Oxide (Rust), Fe2O3 Calcium Sulfide, CaS

There are three ways to naming an ionic bond. 1) For Regular Ionic Bonds with One Oxidation Number Nothing Special - Merely add an IDE to the end of the second element and youre done. It doesnt matter how many of each there are. The metal always goes before the nonmetal. Eg: Al2O3 Aluminum Oxide (Aluminum wants to lose 3 electrons even though it is near the right) 2) For Ionic Bonds involving an element with Two or More Oxidation Numbers: i) Stock System (Roman Numerals): A roman numeral is put after the first element to represent its oxidation number. Eg: CuCl is Copper (I) Chloride, but CuCl2 is Copper (II) Chloride. ii) Classical Method (Prefix System): For the lower oxidation number, the suffix OUS is applied after the first element. For the higher oxidation number, the suffix IC is applied after the first element. The latin name for the metal is used instead of the modern name. Eg: CuF is Cuprous Floride, but CuF2 is Cupric Floride. (Oxidation numbers of Copper are +1 and +2, and the latin name is Cuprum).

Ionic Compounds Molecular Compounds - high melting and boiling points - hard - good electrical conductors in liquid state - non-conductor in solid state - no noticeable odour - generally soluble in water - low melting and boiling points - soft - poor electrical conductors even in liquid state - non-conductor in solid state - volatile odour - generally insoluble in water

Diatomic Molecules These are molecules made of two atoms of the same element Oxygen - O2 Hydrogen - H2 Fluorine - F2 Nitrogen - N2 Chlorine - Cl2 What parts of Daltons Atomic Theory are now thought to be wrong? Explain why. - Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided: presently, we know that there are subatomic particles within atoms which means they can be divided (protons, neutrons, electrons). As well, using nuclear technology, we can bombard an atom with electrons to split it - All atoms of the same element are identical in mass and size: We now know that there are such things as Isotopes, which are atoms of the same elements with different masses due to their number of neutrons. Trends in the Periodic Table Metallic Properties - Metallic Properties decrease left to right across a period - Metallic Properties increase down a group Reactivity - Metals o Reactivity increases down a group o Reactivity decreases left to right across a period - Nonmetals o Reactivity decreases down a group o Reactivity increases left to right across a period (excluding noble gases) Atomic Radius

Definition: the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the atom to the outermost occupied energy level - Atomic Radius decreases left to right across a period o As we go left to right, the number of positive charges in the nucleus increases (more protons), therefore they attract the electrons more and thus decreasing the radius. As well, there is an increase of electrons - Atomic Radius increases down a group o As we go down, another electron shell is added, therefore the radius is larger Ionization Energy (IE) Definition: the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the outermost occupied shell of an atom - IE increases left to right across a period o As we go right, the Atomic Radius decreases, therefore the electrostatic forces between the protons and electrons has increased, thus Ionization Energy increases as well because it is harder to remove an electron - IE decreases down a group o As the Atomic Radius increases, the negative electrons are further from the nucleus, where the positive protons are. Therefore there is less attraction holding the electrons in, and they can be taken away easier. Electron Affinity Definition: the amount of energy that is released when an electron is gained by an atom. (As an electron slows down, it releases more energy) - Electron Affinity increases left to right across a period, except for noble gases which have an Electron Affinity of 0 o Elements with the greater ability to form ionic bonds have a higher Electron Affinity. (ie. Halogens). - Electron affinity decreases down a group o The further the electrons are from the nucleus, the faster the electrons are going, meaning lower Electron Affinity. The smaller the atom receiving the electron, the greater the energy required, therefore the higher electron affinity. Electronegativity (EN)

Definition: a relative measure of an atoms ability to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond - EN increases left to right across a period o Electrons to the right of the periodic table have a greater want to become stable by gaining electrons, so they have a greater ability to attract electrons. - EN decreases down a group o Since the atom has a larger Atomic Radius, the valence shell which attracts the shared electron is further from the nucleus and has less positive attractive forces The difference in electronegativity between two elements when they form a chemical bond is what determines if they form a covalent, polar covalent, or ionic bond. - If the EN is the same for both the elements, the electrons will be shared equally which results in a covalent bond. Notice how the non-metals have similar ENs, as they are in the same region of the period table. This is why they form covalent bonds. - If the EN is almost the same for both the elements, the electrons will be shared slightly unequally resulting in a polar covalent bond - If there is a huge difference in EN between the two elements, the element with the higher EN will take the electron forming an ionic bond. Notice how ionic bonds usually form between a metal and a non metal. They are on opposite sides of the periodic table, meaning they have great This is almost all of it, the rest is in the textbook. Exploration of the Universe Exam Revision Notes Science Ch 13 The Changing View from Earth (p428) Key Terms Celestial Bodies the collective term for the Sun Moon, stars, planets, natural satellites, and comets Asterism a distinctive star pattern Constellation a group of stars that form a pattern

Planet a celestial body that orbits a star and does not produce its own light Retrograde Motion in a celestial bodys orbit, an actual or apparent movement opposite to that of the usual east-to-west direction Geocentric Model Earth-centered model of the solar system Heliocentric Model Sun-centered model of the solar system Celestial Sphere an imaginary sphere once thought to enclose the universe and in which the plants and stars seem to be fastened Epicycle a small circle whose centre rolls around the circumference of a larger circle Solar Plane an imaginary, flat disk extending out from the Suns equator on all sides, along which our solar systems plants (except Pluto) orbit the Sun Solar System the family of the Sun and all the plants and other celestial bodies that revolve around it Solar Prominence a large eruption of glowing gas that starts on the Sun and rises high above it Sun Spot a region on the Sun that is cooler and therefore looks darker than its surroundings Solar Flare near sun spots, a high-temperature eruption of gases on the Sun; solar flares usually cause radio and magnetic disturbances on Earth Solar Wind streams of electrically charged protons and electrons discharged by the Sun, often associated with sun spots and solar flares Photosphere around the Sun, the region from which the Suns light originates Corona an irregularly shaped halo around the Sun Inner Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. Also known as the terrestrial planets, because of their rocky composition Outer Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Are similar because of their gaseous composition Astronomical Unit (AU) one astronomical unit is equal to the distance from the centre of Earth to the centre of the Sun (149 599 000 km) Asteroid any of the millions of small planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter Comet a small celestial body that orbits the Sun and has a bright nucleus and a fainter tail, which always point away from the Sun Meteor a solid body that enters Earths atmosphere from outer space, becoming hot and bright because of friction with the atmosphere Meteorite the remnant of a meteor that does not burn up completely in Earths atmosphere; it falls to Earth as a solid body made up mainly of stone or iron

Celestial Motion in the Early Days (p430) Sailors used the stars to navigate and guide their boats Farmers planted and harvested crops according to the patterns Political and religious leaders often made decisions based on the information received from those who studied the sky People believed their destinies could be foretold by the stars Celestial Patterns (p430-433) Moon: The moon rises in the east and sets in the west A full moon rises exactly at sunset The moon rises one hour later than the night before The phases of the moon are always changing Sun: The sun rises in the east and sets in the west The sun rises earlier and farther north each morning and sets later each day from late December to late June From late June until late December the sun rises later and sets earlier further South Stars, Constellations and Asterisms Most follow the same pattern of the Sun and Moon Stars reveal a seasonal pattern One notable star that never rises or sets is Polaris (North Star), around which all the other stars appear to be revolving Planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn show patterns in the sky Venus and Mercury seem to stay near the Sun and while they are visible they can be seen in the early evening or morning Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have a retrograde motion which means to loop back briefly before continuing eastward Miscellaneous Facts The Earth revolves around the Sun once very 365 days, which causes the 4 seasons The Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours, which causes day and night

 The moon revolves around the Earth every 28 days (a month) Geocentric Model Earth Centered Model (p435-436) Early astronomers believed that the Earth was the center of the universe They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and stars revolved around the stationary Earth The idea arose from the apparent motion of objects in the sky (rose in the east, set in the west) It is based on ideas of Greek philosopher Aristotle Hipparcus was the first to offer detailed explanation of how objects move through the solar system The diagram consisted of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the Earth in the center Epicycles were small secondary orbits that accounted for the periods when planets appeared to move backwards (retrograde motion) with respect to the Earth Heliocentric Model Sun Centered Model (p436) In 1507, astronomer Nicholas Copernicus proposed that the Sun was at the center He also suggested that Earth was a relatively small and unimportant component of the universe He was troubled by the movement of the planets, to account for their positions relative to the Earth. For example, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (not Mercury and Venus at the time) were said to move in reverse direction from time to time This movement was an illusion that occurs because of the different lengths of the planets orbit Rotation vs. Revolution (see notes) Rotation is the spinning of an object around its axis, revolution is the movement of one object traveling around another One rotation of the Earth takes 24 hours, one revolution takes 365 days Rotation causes most stars to appear to rise in the east and set in the west, revolution allows us to view different stars and constellations during different seasons

Retrograde Motion (see notes) The apparent change in the direction of travel of the planets against the background of stars over

a period of many nights Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are said to move in reverse direction from time to time The backward motion is merely an illusion because of the different lengths of the planets orbits These 3 planets are father from the Sun, so their orbit is longer than that of the Earth Earth overtakes the other planets as it circles the Sun it its shorter path. The Sun (see notes) Average sized, middle aged star Huge globe made of mostly hydrogen ( hydrogen, helium) 1.4 million km in diameter-110X the diameter of Earth So HOT it glows! 15000000 C (core region) Light speeds through space Hot enough to allow fusion Nuclear fusion Joins the nuclei of atoms to produce different atoms Atoms of hydrogen fuse to form helium Huge amount of energy is released by this reaction The energy released works its way to the photosphere regions the Suns light originates Regions of the Sun Corona The outmost layer of the Sun that is visible during an eclipse. Its gases can reach up to 1 million C! Photosphere Suns surface, temperatures can be 6000 C Chromosphere inner layer of the Sun, has a pinkish colour from the light produced by hydrogen gas The Active Sun * see key terms for definitions But the sun produces... Auroras (Aurora Borealis in the North Pole, Aurora Australanis in the South Pole) Visible effects Caused by interaction of solar wind and Earths magnetic field

 Plasma approaches Earth, and ions are drawn toward the north and south magnetic poles Plasma breaks apart O2 and N2 in Earths atmosphere, causing it to glow Our Planets Mercury Closest planet to the sun About the same size as the Moon Extremely hot during the day, but extremely cold during the night Has no real atmosphere Venus 2nd planet from the Sun Closest in size to the Earth Sometimes referred to as the evening star Brightest planet. The brightness comes from its toxic atmosphere Has permanent volcanoes No chance for human life to exist on Venus Has retrograde motion Earth 3rd planet from the Sun Only known planet with life Very few have seen it from space 4 billion years ago, it was similar to Venus Has large percent of oxygen in its atmosphere Has a moon which orbits Earth in one month. It also makes a complete rotation on its side Mars 4th planet from the Sun Known as the red planet Most likely place of life, many alien stories Many probes sent there

 Red colour comes from rust Only other planet for possible habitation Temporarily good for life A space probe once sent back to Earth images of dust storms from the surface Jupiter 5th planet from the Sun Known as a gas giant Biggest planet in our solar system Has 39 moons Big eye source of massive hurricane Has a Great/Giant Red Spot Mass is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets combined Has a moon with a possible ocean of water under a crust of ice Saturn 6th planet from the Sun Has visible rings composed of ice-covered rock fragments and dust Colours are yellow and white Rings are most visible compared to other planets Has a moon with an atmosphere (Titan) Planet could float in a tub Uranus 7th planet from the Sun Movement caused by another body Featureless Rotates on axis on 90 degrees (rolls on its equator) Only planet where Sun isnt directly over its equator Neptune 8th planet from the Sun Blue colour comes from methane gas

 Has a big dark spot Named after the Roman god The last gas giant Discovered through knowledge of Newtons law of gravitation Plutos orbit crosses inside Neptunes orbit Pluto 9th planet from the Sun As of 2007, it is no longer a planet Cold because its the farthest from the Sun Smallest planet Neither an inner planet or a gas giant (outer planet) Has elliptical orbit and retrograde rotation Our Solar System (p445) Galileos Support for the Copernican Heliocentric Model (p437) Galileo found persuasive evidence that supported the model Technology was a big part Using an early telescope, he made several discoveries Venus exhibited phases just as the Moon did He also saw spots on the surface of the Sun, mountains on the Moons surface, rings around Saturn, and four moons orbiting Jupiter Planisphere, Astrolabe, And How to Use Them (see notes) A planisphere is a polar projection of half or more of the celestial sphere on a chart equipped with an adjustable overlay to show the stars visible at a particular time and place. It is used by rotating the discs to your desired date and time and the stars that you should see at that time will look the same in the night sky An astrolabe is a medieval instrument, now replaced by the sextant, which was once used to determine the altitude of the sun or other celestial. It is used by aligning the special attachment with the straw and pointing at an object, and then putting down the protractor part until the base is parallel with the ground. Whatever angle your attachment is pointing at is the altitude of the object

Asteroids, Comets, Meteorites, and Meteors (p454) Asteroids Small relatively small chunks matter (minor planets) Shine like dots of light but orbit the Sun Made of carbon-rich rock; iron or nickel; other elements Irregular in shape and size-vary in size from 1000 km to less than 1 km Located in belts that lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter 5000 asteroids have been tracked and documented but we believe that millions exist Meteors & Meteorites Meteors (shooting stars) are small particles of dust left behind by a comets tail Appear as sparks that vaporize and fizzle in the sky Meteor showers occur when the earth passes through the orbit of a comet or debris left by a comet; January 1-4, April 19-23, August 12-14, October 18-23, November 14-20, and December 10-15 Meteorites are larger chunks of rock, metal, or both that break off an asteroid or comet and crash down onto Earth-vary in size (ex. 2000 years ago, meteorite landed in Arizona creating a crater 1.2 km wide and 174 m deep Comets dirty snowballs; clumps of rocky material dust and frozen methane, ammonia and water Starlike consisting of a nucleus, a head and a gaseous tail Tail (always point away from the Sun) formed when the comet melts as it nears the Sun Orbit the Sun in elliptical paths Trillions of inactive comets lie on the outskirts of the solar system (one light year from earth) in an Oort cloud until a passing gas cloud or star jolts a comet into orbit Haileys comet (next pass in 2062) Phases of the Moon (see notes) Waxing the lunar phase when the moon is getting larger (nearing the full moon) Waning the lunar phase when the moon is getting smaller (more crescent-like) Gibbous A shape similar to the Moon when it is more than half lit but less than a full Crescent Any shape resembling the curved shape of the moon in its first or last quarters The moons phases take up 29.5 days

 During the first 15 days of the cycle, the new moon turns into a full moon, and in the second 15 days of the cycle the full moon turns back into new moon 2-7 days after the new moon waxing crescent 8th day after the new moon first quarter 9-15 days after the new moon waxing gibbous 16th day after the new moon full 17-22 days after the new moon waning gibbous 23rd day after the new moon third quarter 24-29 days after the new moon waning crescent 29.5-30th day after the new moon new Ch 14 The Lives of Stars (p460) Key Terms Electromagnetic Spectrum the arrangement by wavelength of the different forms of electromagnetic radiation Luminosity a measure of the total amount of energy a star radiates per second Binary Stars two single stars orbiting one another Solar Mass the basis of comparison for measuring star mass; the Sun has a solar mass of one Red Dwarf a small, cool star that is not very bright Main Sequence on the Hertsprung-Russell diagram, a narrow band of stars into which fall most stars including our Sun White Dwarf a small, hot star that is not very bright Red Giant a large, bright star that is not very hot Supergiant an extremely large red giant (star) Nebula a vast cloud of gas and dust, which may be the birth place of a star (plural: nebulae) Fusion - the transformation of hydrogen into helium. Occurs in the core of stars and involves the creation of new elements because nuclei combine Planetary Nebula a fuzzy object that is not a planet but that, through a telescope, resembles a planet such as Neptune Black Dwarf the final phase of a white dwarf (star) Supernova a huge explosion constituting the death of a star Neutron Star a small super-dense star thought to be the crushed remnant of a large star that has

exploded as a supernova Black Hole in space, an object having such strong gravity that nothing, not even light, can escape it Inter-stellar Medium the space between the stars and the material it contains Solar Nebula Theory the hypothesis that many astronomers currently hold about how our solar system developed Extra-solar Planet a planet that orbits a star other than the Sun The Electromagnetic Spectrum (p462) Is the arrangement of electromagnetic radiation Human eye can only perceive a tiny portion that hits Earth Visible light is the light that human eye can detect Visible light is a form of energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves

(read from right to left for order from longest-shortest wavelength) Properties of Stars (p462) There are 11 properties of stars that astronomers can measure: Distance, Luminosity, Brightness, Colour, Temperature, Composition, Rotation, Direct & Speed of Motion, Circumstellar Matter, Diameter, and Mass The Brightness of Stars (p463) Luminosity is a measure of the total amount of energy a star radiates per second Surface temperature and mass are two factors that affect the luminosity of stars To compare luminosity of stars we use our Sun as the reference because it is the closest The range for luminosity is 10,000<Sun 30,000>Sun The Temperature and Composition of Stars (p463) Scientists use the colour of stars to infer its surface temperature Star colour also tells us about a stars composition The instrument used to study colour is a spectroscope, which separates light into a spectrum Spectral patterns, star colour and temperature can be used to classify stars

Colour Blue Bluish White White Yellowish White Yellow Orange Red Temperature C (1000) 25-50 11-25 7.5-11 6-7.5 5-6 3.5-5 2-3.5 Examples Zeta Orionis Rigel Spica Vega Sirius Polaris Sun Alpha Arcturus Befelgeuse The Size and Mass of Stars (p466) When scientists know the luminosity of a star they can calculate the size/radius Luminosity can be measured with an instrument much like the photometer (distance meter) The range of star sizes is from 0.10 of the radius of the Sun to 1000x the Suns radius A binary star is two single stars orbiting one another Astronomers determine the mass of each binary star by knowing the size of the orbit of a binary pair, and the time the two stars take to complete one orbit Star mass is expressed in terms of solar mass (Sun=1) with a range of 0.08 solar mass to over 100 solar masses The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram (p466-467) From the HR diagram, astronomers discovered that there are several different types of stars The diagram shows that there is a relationship among star colour, temperature, luminosity, and mass 90% of stars are located in the main sequence A cooler star might appear to be brighter than a hotter star because it could be closer to the observer, or larger in diameter

The Evolution of Stars: The Star Cycle (p468-473) Stage 1: NEBULA The birthplace of stars is known as a nebula The raw materials of stars are interstellar gas and dust

Stage 2: MAIN SEQUENCE STAR The star turns on when nuclear fusion begins to transform hydrogen gas into helium at a temperature of about 10,000,000 C The time that the star remains in this stable state depends on its initial mass The fate of this star after this point is different depending on its initial mass and the rate that it consumes its hydrogen fuel Stage 3a: LOW MASS STAR Very low mass stars, called red dwarfs, consume their hydrogen slowly and essentially evaporate, eventually forming a very faint dwarf The white dwarf eventually enters a final stage where it is nothing more than a dark cinder called a black dwarf Stage 3b: INTERMEDIATE MASS STAR During this stage, hydrogen is used up in the core and helium begins to become involved in nuclear fusion to form carbon The core of the star collapses and the outer layers expand. The star is now called a red giant As the star expands the stellar wind peels away most of the outer gases revealing the hot inner region of the star; this star is now called a planetary nebula Over time, the planetary nebula disperses into space; its remains cool and become a white dwarf The white dwarf eventually becomes a black dwarf Stage 3c: MASSIVE STARS High mass stars consume their hydrogen very quickly and their cores get so hot that helium can fuse into heavier elements The star swells to form a supergiant and when the core collapses a massive amount of energy bursts from the stars surface causing a huge explosion called a supernova After going super nova, the star has four possible fates If the remaining core is less than one solar mass the star may become a white dwarf If the remaining core is between one and three solar masses the core may have enough gravity to become a very dense neutron star (1967-astronomers used radio telescopes to detect radio pulses from rapidly rotating objects called pulsars, turned out to be neutrons stars whose existence had been predicted)

 If the remaining core is larger than 3 solar masses, the gravity may be strong enough to produce a black hole, an object so compact and dense that even light may not escape. Alternatively, the core may be completely destroyed and a new nebula may be formed

Solar Nebula Theory (p478-479) Interstellar medium-space is not empty but filled with huge quantities of gas/dust, composed mainly of hydrogen, helium, and other trace elements Formation Of Solar System Formed by a solar nebula During Formation 1. Gravitational forces between materials triggered shockwaves causing the nebula to collapse in on itself {Nebula starts contracting} 2. Nebula contracted, spun, leading to frequent collisions of material {Nebula begins to spin faster} 3. Grains stuck together to form larger objects-pebbles/rocks/boulders {Nebula flattens} 4. Eventually gave way to early stage of planets (protoplanets/planetesimals) {Hydrogen fusion starts} 5. Nebula condenses so core temperature rises-star is formed {Centre reaches 10,000,000 C} 6. Bodies father away from core become planets {Radiation from the sun blasts the rest of the gas and dust out of the inner solar system} Inner planets-blasted by radiation from the Sun and not much gravity to hold hot atmosphere, therefore it became rocky Outer planets-farther from intense heat and were able to keep their gas It is believed that: 1) Sun is 5 billion years old. 2) Our planets are 4.6 billion years old. the proof is the geological evidence of rocks age A theory predicts that planets are common byproducts of star formation: 1) Infrared, radio, and optical telescopes have recorded 100+ examples of young stars embedded in disks of dust and gas. 2) They detected a dozen extra-solar planets (planets that orbit other stars) Seasonal Calendars: The Earths Orbit around the Sun (see notes)

Reasons Earths axis not perpendicular to the suns direction but pointed to Polaris Suns rays hitting the Earths surface changes Differences in the angles of the Suns rays cause regular changes in average temperature know as the season Summer Solstice June 21, North Pole leans toward the Sun Rays shine from a high angle and light up more than half of the northern hemisphere Temperature is moderate, days are long and nights are short Winter Solstice December 22, North Pole leans away from the Sun Rays shine from a low angle and light up less than half of the northern hemisphere Sun is low, temperatures are low, days are short and nights are long Equinox March 22 and September 23 Rays shine on exactly half of the northern hemisphere Daylight and darkness are equal hours Temperatures lie between those of summer and winter

Ch 15 Exploring The Cosmos (p486) Key Terms Triangulation a method of indirectly measuring distance by creating an imaginary triangle between an observer and an object whose distance is to be estimated Parallax the apparent shift in position of a nearby object against a distant background when it is viewed from two different points Light-year the distance that a beam of light travels in a vacuum in one year; about 63,240 Aus, or 9.46 trillion km Cepheid variable a star that pulses, changing its brightness in a regular cycle

Milky Way the galaxy that includes our Sun and Earth; appears as a hazy white band in the night sky. It contains 4 billions stars, and is invisible because our solar system is on its edge Galaxy a huge accumulation of stars, gas, and dust held together by gravity Open Cluster a collection of 50 to 1,000 stars that appear dispersed along the main band of the Milky Way Globular Cluster a collection of 100,000 to a million stars arranged in a distinctive spherical shape and not appearing along the band of the Milky Way Doppler Effect the apparent change in frequency of sound, light, and other waves due to relative motion between, the observer and the wave source Red-shifted a shifting of light from an object toward the red (longer wavelength) end of the spectrum as the object moves away from Earth Hubbles Law a law stating that galaxies are moving apart at rates that increase in direct proportion to the distance between them Big Band Theory scientific explanation for the origin of the universe; according to this theory, the universe and everything in it began in an instantaneous event that occurred between 15 and 20 million years ago Quasar a celestial object that looks like a star but emits much more energy; quasars are thought to be the explosively erupting cores of colliding galaxies. They are believed to be very distant at the edges of observable galaxies Gamma ray burst a powerful pulse of gamma rays that can come from anywhere in the sky, lasts 100-120 seconds. Two hypothesis about what causes them are: 1) Two giant stars collide, and form a black hole. 2) A star collapses Neutrino an elementary particle that carries no electric charge. Studied by many scientist because it is believed that they may hold the secret of the universes missing mass

The Discovery of the Galaxies (p495-502) Solar System the family of the Sun and all the planets and other celestial bodies that revolve around it Galaxy: *see chapter key terms Milky Way: *see chapter key terms The discovery of distant galaxies tell us that the universe is much larger and more populated with stars than we had ever expected and that our solar system is very small

Star Clusters Type # of Stars Location Example Open clusters 50-1,000 Along the main band of the Milky Way Pleiades Globular clusters 100,000-1,000,000 Southern regions of the sky Hercules The diameter of the Milky Way is 75,000 light-years The Sun is located in the outer edge of the Milky Way (25,000 light-years away from centre) Scientists use infrared telescopes to help see through the inter-stellar material The Milky Way galaxy is an immense disk shape with a halo of globular clusters surrounding its centre In 1925, Edward Hubble discovered Andromeda, nearest galaxy to Milky Way. This discovery lead scientists to the realization that the universe is far larger than we ever imagined Galaxies Type Shape Composition Example Elliptical Shape similar to football Old dust with very little inter-stellar gas/dust. -Most common M32 Spiral Flat pinwheels with arms spiraling out from centre Lots of dust and gas with young blue stars -Lots of star formation Milky Way, Andromeda Irregular No particular shape, smaller than above two Mix of young and old stars embedded in gas and dust Large/Small Magellanic Cloud Galaxies slowly rotate, their stars circulating the galaxy centre. The Sun takes 200 million years to complete one revolution The name given to the cluster of galaxies to which the Milky Way and Andromeda belong is The Local Group The Expanding Universe (p503-506) Doppler Effect: *see chapter key terms Policemen use the Doppler Effect to catch speeders. The radar gun sends a radio signal of known wavelength. The returning wavelength has a different wavelength if the car is moving. The size of the change in wavelength shows how fast the car is moving

 The Doppler Effect can be used to measure the speed and direction of light-emitting objects such as stars Light waves from moving objects differ in colour. If a stars approaching the observer, spectral lines are blue-shifted If a stars going away from the observer, spectral lines will be red-shifted

Hubbles Law: *see chapter key terms The raisin bread model is a model that shows how our universe is expanding. The bread dough represents the universe and raisins represent the galaxies. As the dough rises (the universe expanding), the distance between each raisin (galaxy) increases. This demonstrates that galaxies do not move freely through space. Rather, space is expanding, taking the galaxies with it The BIG BANG Theory (p507-512) How It Happened 1. The universe consists entirely of light energy 2. Quarks and leptons (particles that make up electrons) form 3. Quarks combine to form neutral atoms 4. Protons and neutrons form helium nuclei 5. Helium stops forming 6. Electrons combine with nuclei to form neutral atoms 7. Galaxies form According to the Big Band Theory, the universe began between 15-20 billion years ago Evidence That Reinforces the Big Bang Theory Penzias and Wilsons discovery of microwave background radiation provided evidence because they detected background static in the sky, and they were unsuccessful to their efforts to silence it. They concluded that they picked up faint remnants of the radiation given off by the original Big Bang event In the 30s, Georges Lematre used Hubbles Law to conclude that the universe must therefore have started out very small and dense

Ch 16 Earth and Space 9 (p516)

Key Terms Greenhouse Effect a natural process in the atmosphere that traps some of the Suns heat near the Earths surface Global Warming an increase in worldwide temperatures attributed to the trapping of heat in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases Ozone (O3) a form of oxygen that absorbs much of the Suns ultraviolet light Magnetosphere the space surrounding a celestial body, such as the Earth, in which that bodys magnetic field exists Aurora Borealis shifting patterns of coloured light that appear in the night sky in northern latitudes; caused by collision between charged particles and molecules in the upper atmosphere Aurora Australanis the same as aurora borealis but in southern latitudes Geomagnetic storm a cascade of particles sent into space during solar flares and drawn towards Earth by its magnetic field Satellite a small body that orbits a larger one; it may be a natural satellite such as the Earths Moon, or an artificial satellite sent into orbit for communications or research Geosynchronous satellite a satellite orbiting in synchrony with Earths rotation so it remains above the same spot on Earths equator Global Positioning System (GPS) a network of artificial satellites revolving around Earth, sending out continuous location and time signals Extra-terrestrial life life other than that on Earth SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Life) collective term for a group of programs under way to search the universe for radio signals from intelligent life Microgravity the condition in which objects in orbit seem to be weightless; in fact, gravity is acting on them, but its effects are greatly reduced

The Effect of Celestial Bodies on Earth (p518-526) Celestial Body Effect on Earth Sun -Its heat gives warmth -Helps for photosynthesis -Helps all water exist -UV light affects all organisms -Solar wind affects communications Moon -predict high and low tides (gravity on oceans) Planets and Distant Stars -Astrology -Believed to influence human affairs -Believed to reveal character and destiny Space Debris -Meteorites (craters -Ice Age -Shooting Stars Greenhouse effect: *see chapter key terms The connection between the greenhouse effect and global warming is that global warming occurs because of the greenhouse effect. Although it is a natural process, human activities accelerate this process too fast, which is the reason of global warming The ozone is an important part of the Earths atmosphere because it protects us from most of the UV rays emitted by the Sun The Use of Space (p527-535) The Different Ways Satellites Are Used Communication Mapping GPS (works by triangulation after user sends signal to determine exact location) Space Photography

 Space Travel Millitary Navigation Exploring The Satellites Used Today Geosynchronous satellites LANDSAT-used for land use interpretation and planning RADARSAT-transmits and receives signals through darkness and clouds using a powerful microwave Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) NAVSTAR-used for navigation satellite tracking and ranging The International Space Station A joint project from the US, Europe, Canada, Russia, and Japan The purpose of it is using it for long-term experiments, spacecraft construction and launching. The ISS started in 1999 Space Careers (p541-544) Astronaut: The ultimate space-related career, involves being a scientist and requires good physical condition to perform demanding tasks in small quarters of a spacecraft Satellite technologist: involves construction of the satellites and the development of software to manage the satellites and interpret the data Aerospace industry careers: involves designing and building the spacecraft that explore the solar system and the rockets that lift them off the earth Astronomer: involves teaching the subject and to carry out research Careers in microgravity research: involves researching microgravity and understanding its longterm effects on the human body, as well as the spacecraft itself Various Moons in out Solar System (see notes) Neptunes Moon is Triton. The temperature is -400 F. If youre not wearing a spacesuit on Triton, your head will explode within 3 seconds and your body will freeze Io is one of Jupiters many moons. Io is the hottest moon in our solar system. It also has the largest volcano is our system. Risks involved when visiting Io are radiation showers, and poison gas. Your best bet would be to stay underground.

 On the moon of Saturn, you could do snowboarding and jet skiing On the moon of Jupiter, you could do scuba diving Features that make Phobo (Mars moon) easier and safer to travel to than Mars are that its cheaper, safer, easier, and it has lower gravity. We would move on Phobo by floating, because there is very low gravity and deep dust The theory for the formation of our moon is that an object the size of Mars hit Earth, and the remaining debris made the moon Saturns rings are thought to be a moo