Alfred Project Draft

Research and development of a communication system for the NRZs Signaling system.
Table of Contents
Table of Figures ................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 4 Definition Of Terms .............................................................................................. 5 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 8 1.0.1 1.1 1.2 The state of railway signaling in the world ........................................... 8 Background ............................................................................................. 9 Justification ........................................................................................... 10 The NRZ Signaling System Communication System ...................... 10 The siding ....................................................................................... 10 The Signaling System ........................................................................ 13
1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.3 2.0
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........................................................... 14 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 15
This project aims to achieve the following objectives:..................................... 15 3.0 3.1 3.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 16 Introduction ........................................................................................... 16 Fiber optic weighed against wireless technologies................................ 16
The OSI Reference Model.................................................................................. 19 3.2 3.3 Comparison of Wireless technologies ................................................... 22 WIMAX THE WIRELESS SOLUTION ................................................... 24 THE PHYSICAL LAYER ................................................................ 24
2.3.1
A. Channel coding .............................................................................................. 25 B. Interleaving .................................................................................................... 25 C. Modulation ..................................................................................................... 25 D. Data mapping ................................................................................................ 25 E. Space/Time Encoder (MIMO encoder) .......................................................... 27 F. Subcarrier allocation/Pilot insertion ................................................................ 27 G. IFFT and Digital-to-Analog (D/A) ................................................................... 27 Mobile WiMAX Physical layer Specification ................................................ 28 1
Frequency Band and Channel Allocation........................................................ 28 10 MHz BW / OFDMA..................................................................................... 29 TDD- Time Division Duplex ............................................................................ 29 Modulation schemes ....................................................................................... 29 3.3.2 BASIC FUNCTIONALITY OF MAC LAYER IN WIMAX .................. 30
QUALITY OF SERVICE ..................................................................................... 32 3.4 3.5 WHAT MAKES MOBILE WIMAX TICK .............................................. 35 MOBILE IP ............................................................................................ 37
Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture.................................................................. 40 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.4 DESIGN OF THE NETWORK .................................................................. 44 Abstract ................................................................................................. 44 DESIGN METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 44 THE NETWORK LAYER ....................................................................... 45 Design requirements list ................................................................. 46 Below is a layout of the proposed signaling system: ...................... 47
4.4.1 4.4.2 4.5
Simulation ............................................................................................. 48
Limitations .......................................................................................................... 49 Conclusion and Discussion ................................................................................ 50 APPENDIX A ...................................................................................................... 51 Home Agent (CTC router) Configuration ........................................................ 51 References ......................................................................................................... 53
Table of Figures
Figure 1: The devastating accident in Dete ..................................................... 9 Figure 2: DXR200 Digital Microwave backbone ............................................. 12 Figure 3: Illustration of the OSI Model............................................................ 20 Figure 4: Graphical comparison of Wireless WAN Technologies ................ 21 Figure 5: Comparison of Wireless Technologies .......................................... 21 Figure 6: Functional Stages of the MIMO enabled mobile WiMAX physical layer ................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 7: Channel Allocation in the Physical Layer ...................................... 29 Figure 8: Specified layer 2 and layer 1 sublayers.......................................... 31 Figure 9: Quality of Service in Mobile WiMAX ............................................... 34 Figure 10: Illustration of Mobile IP triangle routing....................................... 39 Figure 11: Network Reference Model ............................................................. 40 Figure 12: Logical Illustration of a Nodal Subnetwork.................................. 47 Figure 13: Packet Tracer 5.3 Illustration of the entire logical network ........ 48
Abstract
In this project, it has been undertaken, to develop a robust, reliable and real time wireless communication system for a Communication Based Train Control system for the National Railways of Zimbabwe.
An, all IP, architecture has been chosen and on it, Mobile WiMAX has been used as the backhaul and last mile access technology. This is because of its outstanding properties which have exposed in this project and found to meet the requirements of the NRZ signaling system. It is also part of the design to make the communication system, upgradable to IEEE 802.16m and integratable with useful technologies like Global Positioning System (GPS).
The network has been designed to support the following services: VOIP, real-time video streaming, file transfer and web browsing.
Security has been enabled on the network layer and every layer three device has been locked to keep the network as free as possible from hackers. The network has been isolated from the internet thereby reducing the likelihood of unauthorized access.
A simulation of this design has been incorporated in the project. 4
Definition Of Terms
Backhaul - comprises the intermediate links between the core of the network and the small subnetworks at the "edge" of the entire hierarchical network. CBTC - Communication Based Train Control. Internet Protocol (IP) - a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork using referred to as TCP/IP. last mile - the final leg of delivering connectivity from a communications provider to a customer. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system that provides reliable location and time information in all weather and at all times and anywhere on or near the Earth when and where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP, Voice over IP) a family of the Internet Protocol Suite, also
methodologies, communication protocols, and transmission technologies for delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet. Siding a part of the railway where a rail station is located Bandwidth - is a bit rate measure of available or consumed data communication resources expressed in bits/second or multiples of it. 5
Layer 3 Switches - are basically routers that switch based on Layer 3 information, the basic difference being processing speed and/or the way they do the switching; Level 3 switches use ASICs/hardware instead of the CPU/software that a router would. Router - is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) - is a telecommunications protocol that provides fixed and fully mobile internet access. MIMO - is the use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance. It is one of several forms of smart antenna technology. WAN - wide area network is a data network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries) QoS Quality of Service refers to resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide different priority to different applications, users, or data flows, or to guarantee a certain level of performance to a data flow.
For example, a required bit rate, delay, jitter, packet dropping probability and/or bit error rate may be guaranteed. OSI Model - The Open Systems Interconnection model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers. A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it. COA - Care of Address is a temporary IP address for a mobile device. This allows a home agent to forward messages to the mobile device. As separate address is required because the IP address of the device that is used as host identification is topologically incorrect - it does not match the network of attachment. The care-of address splits the dual nature of an IP address, that is, its use is to identify the host and the location within the global IP network. Handover or Handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another.
INTRODUCTION
1.0.1 The state of railway signaling in the world
Communication-Based Train Control (CBTC) is the safe control of urban rail vehicles using data communication as the means of tracking train locations and sending speed and stopping information to trains. First generation CBTC systems used low frequency, low data rate transmission to ensure reliable information exchange. Two trends are driving the next generation of CBTC technology. First is the desire to move away from communication equipment installed between the rails to the use of radios. Second is the desire for interoperability to enable the industry to buy train and trackside equipment from different suppliers and operate that equipment seamlessly. Interoperability and high performance moving blocks are key requirements for the Asia Pacific market, particularly China. The Alcatel official website remarks in one of its white papers. The remark is a direction to show where the tide of railway technology is going. It is only wise to ride on this tide and to design systems that can be in step with the latest technological advancements. It is the scope of this project to do just that in the case our local railway.
The National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ), the sole railway operator in the nation, has had a lot of money lost and a lot of lives lost on its railway. One 8
incident that stands out is the Dete train accident in February of 2003, where two trains collided head on. This has been due to a number of causes. The main causes however, can be prevented. It is only noble that the causes that are preventable be nipped in the bud.
Figure 1: The devastating accident in Dete
1.1
Background
The Signaling and control system of the NRZ has over the years become almost defunct because of thefts, lack of maintenance and aging systems. The system has unfortunately failed when it is needed the most. This has resulted in loss of lives, goods and potential revenue due to accidents and declining confidence of the business sector in this rather wide logistics network.
In light of the unfortunate turn of events, it has become necessary and important that a solution be drawn out to provide a robust, efficient, real time communication system for the signaling system.
1.2
Justification
In this project, it is proposed that the existing communication system for the signalling system be replaced with a robust, efficient, real time communication system which is secure from vandals.
1.2.1 The NRZ Signaling System Communication System
The NRZ makes use of a DXR200 backbone microwave communication system to convey its diverse kinds of signals throughout its network. Below is an illustration of how the backbone microwave bandwidth is apportioned.
The railway network makes use of points known as sidings to do a varying number of essential operations. It is important that the general relevance of the siding be explained in order to understand the structure of the NRZ communication system.
1.2.1.1
The siding
The following are the operations of the siding:
1.
Trains stop in order to give way to the particular train which is accorded the right of way
2.
Collection and delivery of wagons is done 10
3. 4. 5. 6.
Repeaters of the backbone microwave system are located Passengers board or disembark the train The NRZ staff is based Any maintenance work is coordinated from here
It is therefore clear that siding play an important role in the communication system of NRZ. Below is a basic layout of the signaling module found on a typical siding.
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Relays
CTC Control cubicle Hotbox Axle counter UHF RADIO (for voice communication) Local dial exchange (LDE) the PABX Four Wire Card PLC Hub Router DATA CARD
Subscription Card
Track Routing
Subscription Card
Figure 2: DXR200 Digital Microwave backbone
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1.2.1.2
The Signaling System
As trains traverse a railway route they are regulated by control signals which are relayed from a central location known as the Central Train Control (CTC). In Zimbabwe, there are two main routes namely the Harare-Mutare route and the Dabuka-Harare route. The CTC for the Harare-Mutare route is located in Harare. It is also the route on which the DXR200 digital Microwave backbone is installed. The CTC for the latter is at Dabuka and it is currently using analogue backbone to convey signaling instructions.
At present, the train control signals are relayed by the Backbone microwave to the different sidings from where they are then relayed over fiber optics cable to the traffic lights which are located along the railway. When the train driver sees the signal they know how to proceed along the route.
The control signals can tell the driver to slow down, to proceed or to stop depending on the color of the traffic light signal. This system has its disadvantages, which are the following: It is one way communication and the driver cannot acknowledge receipt of the signal. The CTC terminal cannot monitor the behaviour of the train driver, that is, whether they are following instructions or not.
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The system cannot offer real time updates to CTC terminal of position, speed, direction and condition of a train on the track. Lack of such information increases the risk of accidents of the rail. The traffic lights are on a small section of he rail and hence if the driver lapse concentration, they cannot revisit the signal again as they would have passed it, there by making traversing the railway network more risky.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The NRZs signaling communication system is not real time in nature and is being vandalized and hence signals are no longer being relayed to the respective traffic lights along the railway effectively.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
This project aims to achieve the following objectives:
1. To develop a communication system which offer two way communication between the central train control (CTC) terminal and any train on the network 2. To enable real time communication between the CTC terminal and any particular train. 3. To make the communication system modules securable by making them less bulky. 4. To offer bandwidth that does not bottle neck the throughput of the communication system 5. To make modify the existing backbone to offer more bandwidth hence more communication services. 6. 7. To provide a reasonably cost effective network To provide for future expansion and integration with other futuristic technology 8. To make the network easy to troubleshoot and maintain
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3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1
Introduction
In this chapter, fiber optic is analyzed and weighed with wireless technologies. The wireless technology of choice, Mobile WiMAX, is then carefully singled out on the basis of relevancy to the problem statement. The technology of choice is then analyzed to show how it is structured and its key features are explained.
3.2
Fiber optic weighed against wireless technologies
It will be unjust to simply discredit the application of optical fiber without making a full analysis of its merits and demerits. The following is a look into the importance of Optical fiber: An optical fiber has very clear cut advantages over wire and formerly, radio, and this is why in the telecommunications industries copper has significantly been replaced by fiber optic systems.
The following are the main advantages of optical fibers 1. Attenuation in fiber is markedly lower than that of coaxial cable of twisted pair and is constant over a very wide range so transmission within wide range of distance is possible without repeaters.
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2.
Smaller size and lighter weight. Optical fibers are considerably thinner than coaxial cable or bundled twisted pair cable. So they occupy much less space.
3.
Electromagnetic isolation. Electromagnetic waves generated from electrical disturbances or electrical noises do not interfere with light signals as a result, the system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise or crosstalk.
4.
No physical electrical connection is required between the sender and the receiver.
5.
The fiber is much more reliable, because it can better with stand environmental conditions such as pollution radiation and salt which produce corrosion. Moreover it is nominally affected by nuclear radiation. Its life is longer than that of copper wire.
6.
Almost there is no crosstalk in optical fibers and have transmission is more secure and private as it is very difficult to tap into a fiber.
7.
Greater bandwidth. Bandwidth of the optical fiber is higher than that of an equivalent wire transmission line.
8.
Fibers are very good dielectrics, hence isolation coating is not required.
9.
Data rate is much high in a fiber and hence much more information can be carried by each fiber than by equivalent copper cables.
10.
Cost per channel is lower than that of an equivalent wire cable system. 17
11.
Due to non inductive and non conductive nature of a fiber, there is no radiation and interference on other circuits and systems.
12.
Greater Repeater spacing. Fiber optic systems can achieve a data rate of 5Gbps over a distance of 111km without repeaters.
13.
The raw material is available in plenty.
The disadvantages of fiber optics are as follows: 1. Installation technicians must protect their eyes. The densities of optical energy emitted by the light sources and by the extremity of the fibre are sufficient to damage the retina permanently before the victim notices. 2. Damage at any point along the laid fiber optic impairs further down stream transmission. 3. Installing and repairing a fiber optic cable is labour intensive and in most cases includes excavation or working close to high voltage cables. 4. Since considerable amounts of vandalisms occur in the dark, fiber optic cables can be mistaken for, the much sort after, copper cables and a subsequently liable to vandalism. 5. Fiber optic does not support last mile mobile communication hence can only be used for fixed point to point communication. 6. Expensive initial installation cost.
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These few disadvantages listed above make fiber optics a lesser option as compared to the latest wireless LAN technologies, when considering the problem at hand. The wireless LAN technologies have the following advantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No cable laying cost No significant cable requirements Ease to install , maintain and repair Provide real time access and communication. The installable units are not bulky and are not recyclable hence do not attract much attention from vandals. 6. A wireless system can be troubleshot from a remote location hence whenever a problem occurs at any unit it is quickly identified and corrected quickly Wireless LAN/WAN technologies have Internet Protocol (IP) based architecture. This architecture is described in a hierarchical layered network architecture which has set protocols for every layer, Open Systems Interconnections (ISO) Reference Model.
The OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model is a set of guidelines that application developers can use to create and implement applications that run on a network. It also creates a
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framework for creating and implementing networking standards, devices, and internetworking schemes. It has 7 different layers, divided into two groups. 1. The top 3 layers define how the application within the end stations will communicate with each other and with users. 2. The bottom 4 layers define how data is transmitted end to end. The diagram below shows the layout of the Model. Wireless LAN/WAN technologies differ in the way they specify the bottom 3 layers, giving them properties which vary as we move from one technology to the other.
Figure 3: Illustration of the OSI Model
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In this project, the communication subnet is the area of interest as the upper 4 layers are the same for all IP based devices and are relevant to the end devices only.
Figure 4: Graphical comparison of Wireless WAN Technologies

Burst Speed GPRS EDGE UMTS 53 Kbps 200 Kbps 384 Kbps Average Throughput 30-40 Kbps 100 - 130 Kbps 220 - 320 Kbps User Capacity Other Features
Double that of GPRS Increased over EDGE for high bandwidth
UMTS - HSDPA CDMA2000 1XRTT CDMA2000 1XEV-DO
2 to 3 Mbps 144 Kbps 800 Kbps
550 - 1100 Kbps 50 - 70 Kbps 300 - 500 Kbps
2.5 to 3.5 times over WCDMA
Backward compatible with GPRS Simultaneous voice and data operation enhanced security, QoS, multimedia support, and reduced latency Backward compatible with WCDMA
Optimized for data, VoIP in development

20% higher than HSDPA or EV-DO
VOIP, conferencing Video
Mobile WiMAX IEEE 802.16e
8 Mbps IN 5 MHz
1 Mbps+ in 5 MHz channel
Figure 5: Comparison of Wireless Technologies
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3.2
Comparison of Wireless technologies
It is imperative to highlight the expectation of the wireless technology of choice before picking one suitable for the situation at hand. The following are the expectation of the wireless technology: y y It should be able to offer non line of sight coverage of its cell. It should be able to offer bandwidth higher than 2Mbps in order to avoid bottlenecking of the communication system. y It should offer the required bandwidth with mobility at distances of at least a kilometer from the base station. y y It should support an IP based mesh network. the technology should be compatible with the handset devises on the market. y y Relatively cheap to deploy Futuristic that is, can remain compatible with future technologies for the longest period. With this criterion in mind, the most probable technology is WiMAX and more specifically mobile WiMAX IEEE 802.16e. Mobile WiMAX, built from the onset to fulfill requirements for mobile broadband applications, presents the following advantages over all other mobile and broadband technologies: Mobile IP (MIP) algorithms at its core include elements such as home agents that allow seamless handover of services when a subscriber moves from one 22
coverage area to another. With a complete set of IP functions and interfaces as part of the standard, Mobile WiMAX enables the delivery of IP based services, while maintaining end-to-end quality of service (QoS). Core networks based on IP routers and switches are lower cost and easier to install and operate than other alternatives. As todays multimedia services are IP based, all IP networks can easily support the provisioning and QoS for the different services. Scalable Transmission Coding by offering several options for each device, mobile WiMAX maximizes the performance, service availability and quality. Each device can communicate with the closest base station using one of various transmission coding schemes depending on signal quality, interference, its internal processing capabilities, and many other parameters. The coding also adapts periodically to match the current status of the device. Spectral Efficiency combining the latest transmission coding schemes with several channel size options (up to and including 20 MHz) and the ability to group sub-carriers allows operators to use their available spectrum in the most efficient manner. Advanced over-the-air QoS offering multimedia services, which combine voice, data, and video in a single air link to numerous users means that QoS is critical for the proper operation of the network. As WiMAX is all IP, QoS correlation between the IP network and broadband services, most of which are IP based, is straightforward. QoS over-the-air is part of the mobile WiMAX standard in which a design transmission scheduler is used to ensure proper QoS for each and every service. 23
Non line-of-sight (NLOS) and Smart Antennas enabling communication through walls and other physical obstacles in both urban and rural environments, mobile WiMAX is a true NLOS technology. Mobile WiMAX maximizes the number of services delivered and their quality regardless of operating environment by employing smart antenna technology including beam forming capabilities, power control and other standard-defined parameters.
3.3
WIMAX THE WIRELESS SOLUTION
Due to its long-range and high-bandwidth transmission, IEEE 802.16 has also been considered in areas where it can serve as the backbone network with long separation among the infrastructure nodes. 2.3.1 THE PHYSICAL LAYER
Figure 6: Functional Stages of the MIMO enabled mobile WiMAX physical layer
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A. Channel coding
The channel coding stage includes randomization, coding and puncturing. Initially the input data is randomized in order to avoid long runs of ones and zeros. The output of the data randomizer is encoded with a convolutional encoder whose constraint length is 7, and the native code rate is 1/2. The puncturing block punctures the output of the convolutional encoder to produce higher code rates.
B. Interleaving
The interleaving stage uses a block interleaver to interleave the encoded bits. This maps adjacent encoded bits onto separated subcarriers, thus minimizing the impact of burst errors caused by spectral nulls (interestingly, such interleaving is not present in the 802.11a/g standard).
C. Modulation
The modulation block converts a sequence of interleaved bits into a sequence of complex symbols depending on the chosen modulation scheme (QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM).
D. Data mapping
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In order to understand the operation of the data mapping block, it is necessary to explain OFDMA system and a number of its specific terms.
Slot: This is the minimum possible data allocation unit in the OFDMA PHY. For DL PUSC, one slot represents one subchannel over two OFDMA symbols. For UL PUSC, one slot represents one subchannel over three OFDMA symbols Data region (or data burst): a data region of a user is a two dimensional allocation of a group of contiguous logical subchannels (which will later be physically distributed when the distributed permutation is chosen), in a group of contiguous slots. The size of the data region will depend on the number of subchannels allocated to each user and the user packet size. Values of 4 (UL) and 5 (DL) are used for the allocated subchannels, and a user packet size of 120 bytes is assumed. The first step in the data mapping process is to segment the sequence of modulation symbols into a sequence of slots. Each slot contains a number of modulation symbols. For example, in DL PUSC each slot contains 48 symbols. The second step is to map the slots into a data region, so that the lowest numbered slot occupies the lowest numbered subchannel among the allocated subchannels. The mapping of slots continues vertically to the edge of the data region, and then moves to the next available OFDMA slot.
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E. Space/Time Encoder (MIMO encoder)

The Space/Time Encoder stage converts one single input data stream into multiple output data streams. How the output streams are formatted depends on the type of MIMO method employed.
F. Subcarrier allocation/Pilot insertion

At this stage all data symbols are mapped to a data region and assigned to their corresponding logical subcarriers. The next step is to allocate the logical subcarriers to physical subcarriers using a specific subcarrier permutation; pilots are also inserted at this point.
G. IFFT and Digital-to-Analog (D/A)

The final stage is to convert the data into analogue form (in the time-domain) for use in the radio front end. A guard interval is also inserted at this stage. A linkspeed is defined as a combination of a modulation scheme and a coding rate. The peak data rate D is calculated as below: D=NDNbRFECRSTC/Ts where ND, Nb, RFEC, RSTC,, and Ts denote the number of assigned data subcarriers to each user, the bits per sub-carrier, the FEC coding rate, the spacetime coding rate, and the OFDMA symbol duration respectively. On the UL, more subchannels are used for control purposes, and more pilots are assigned to a subchannel. 27
Mobile WiMAX Physical layer Specification Frequency Band : 2.3GHz Channel Bandwidth: 9MHz Duplex: TDD / 5msec frame Multiple Access: 10 MHz BW / OFDMA Modulation: QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM Channel Coding : CTC (Convolutional Turbo Codes) Cell Coverage : ~1km Maximum Data Rate Sector throughput : DL : 18 Mbps, UL : 6 Mbps User throughput : DL : 3 Mbps, UL :1 Mbps MIMO adaptive beam foaming antenna
Frequency Band and Channel Allocation
Frequency bands for the Mobile WiMAX network: 2.3GHz ~ 2.4GHz Divided into three bands for service provision (SP) A channel bandwidth is 9MHz and guard band between service provision is 4.5MHz
Channel allocation in the Mobile WiMAX network
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Figure 7: Channel Allocation in the Physical Layer
10 MHz BW / OFDMA It Minimizes multi-path interference to increase spectral efficiency It is Robust against multipath delay spread It has No intra-cell interference (orthogonal multiple access) It offers High degree of freedom in resource allocation
TDD- Time Division Duplex It is a better choice than FDD in that: It is not sensitive to the Doppler Effect It minimizes guard band to increase spectral efficiency There is no need for pair bands It has flexible Downlink and Uplink resource allocation (time zone) according to traffic request This (TDD/OFDMA) provides high spectral efficiency support
Modulation schemes Hierarchical modulation is implemented to make the signal more rugged to fading QPSK (Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying) 29
16QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) 64QAM CTC (Convolutional Turbo Code) This maximizes data rate
3.3.2 BASIC FUNCTIONALITY OF MAC LAYER IN WIMAX
The MAC layer consists of three sublayers: 1) the service-specific convergence sublayer (CS) 2) MAC common part sublayer (MAC CPS) 3) Security sublayer. 1) The main functionality of the CS is to transform or map external data from the upper layers into appropriate MAC service data units (SDUs) for the MAC CPS. This includes classification of external data with the proper MAC service flow identifier (SFID) and connection identifier (CID). An SDU is the basic data unit exchanged between two adjacent protocol layers. 2) The MAC CPS provides the core functionality for system access, allocation of bandwidth, and connection establishment and maintenance. This sublayer also handles the QoS aspect of data transmission. 3) The security sublayer provides functionalities such as authentication, secure key exchange, and encryption. 30
For the PHY layer, the standard supports multiple PHY specifications, each handling a particular frequency range.
Figure 8: Specified layer 2 and layer 1 sublayers
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QUALITY OF SERVICE
QoS provisioning is one of the essential features in IEEE 802.16. However, there are differences in the standard specifications, specifically, in IEEE 802.16-2004 and IEEE 802.16e.
A service flow is defined as a one-way flow of MAC SDUs on a connection associated with specific QoS parameters such as latency, jitter, and throughput. These QoS parameters are used for transmission and scheduling. Service flows are typically identified by SSs and BSs based on their SFID. There are three basic types of service flows: provisioned service flows, admitted service flows, and active service flows. A provisioned service flow is defined in the system with an SFID, but it might not have any traffic presence. It may be waiting to be activated for usage. An admitted service flow undergoes the process of activation. In response to an external request for a specific service flow, the BS/SS will check for available resources based on the QoS parameters to see if it can support the request. If there are sufficient resources, the service flow will be deemed admitted. The resources assigned to this service flow may still be used by other services.
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A service flow will be active when all checks are completed and the resources are allocated. Packets will flow through the connection allocated to the service flow. The use of service flows is the main mechanism used in QoS provisioning. Packets traversing the MAC sublayer are associated with service flows as identified by the CID when QoS is required.
Bandwidth grant services define bandwidth allocation based on the QoS parameters associated with a connection. In downlink transmissions a BS has sufficient information to perform scheduling, but in uplink transmissions a BS performs the scheduling of various service transmissions based on information gathered from SSs. In such cases an SS will request uplink bandwidth from the BS, and the BS will allocate bandwidth on an as needed basis. For proper allocation of bandwidth, five services are defined to support different types of data flows:
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QoS Category
UGS Unsolicited Grant Service
Applications
VOIP
QoS specifications
y y y y y y y Maximum Sustained rate Maximum Latency Tolerance Jitter Tolerance Minimum Reserved Rate Maximum Sustained Rate Maximum Latency Tolerance Traffic Priority Minimum Reserved Rate Maximum Sustained Rate Maximum Latency Tolerance Jitter Tolerance Traffic Priority Minimum Reserved Rate Maximum Sustained Rate Traffic Priority Maximum Sustained Rate Traffic Priority
rtPS Real-Time Polling Service
Streaming audio or Video
ErtPS Voice with Activity Detection Extended real time Polling (VOIP) service
y y y y y
NrtPS Non real time Polling Service
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
y y y
BE Best Effort
Data Transfer, Web Browsing, etc
y y
Figure 9: Quality of Service in Mobile WiMAX
Unsolicited grant service (UGS) is designed to support real-time constant bit rate (CBR) traffic such as VoIP; this provides fixed size transmission opportunities at regular time interval without the need for requests or polls.
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Real-time polling service (rtPS) is designed to support variable bit rate (VBR) traffic such as MPEG video. In this service the BS offers the SS periodic request opportunities to indicate the required bandwidth.
Non-real-time polling service (nrtPS) is for delay-tolerant data service with a minimum data rate, such as FTP. This service allows an SS to use contention request and unicast request opportunities for bandwidth request. Unicast request opportunities are offered regularly in order to ensure that the SS has a chance to request bandwidth even in a congested network environment.
Best effort (BE) service does not specify any service related requirements. Similar to nrtPS, it provides contention request and unicast request opportunities, but it does not provide bandwidth reservation or regular unicast polls. 3.4 WHAT MAKES MOBILE WIMAX TICK
Mobile WiMAX standard offers scalability in both radio access technology and network architecture; thus, it provides flexibility in network deployment and service offerings. There are several key features supported by mobile WiMAX:
QoS in that it defines service flow to enable end-to-end IP-based service mapping and also provides mechanisms for optimal scheduling on a frame-byframe basis
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Flexible spectrum allocation in that it is scaled to work in different channelization from 1.25 to 20 MHz complying with diverse requirement in different countries Enhanced security in that new authentication was added
High data rate with the MIMO antenna techniques and flexible sub channelization schemes, which can support peak rates of 63 Mb/s in downlink and 28 Mb/s uplink per sector Power consumption and handoff are two critical issues for mobile applications. Mobile WiMAX provides two modes for power efficient operation, sleep mode and idle mode. Sleep mode aims to minimize a mobile users power consumption and also provide flexibility that allows a mobile user to scan BSs to collect handoff related information. In idle mode a mobile user can traverse multiple BSs and periodically capture downlink broadcast messages without registration to any specific BS. This eliminates the need for an inactive mobile user to hand off. Mobile WiMAX provides three handoff mechanisms: hard handoff (HHO), fast base station switching (FBSS), and macro-diversity handover (MDHO). HHO is mandatory, while FBSS and MDHO are optional. In both FBSS and MDHO, a mobile user and BS maintain a so called active set, a list of BSs involved with the mobile users handoff. An anchor BS is defined from the active set. In FBSS a mobile user only communicates with the anchor BS, and the handoff involves the transition to a new anchor BS. In MDHO a mobile user communicates with all BSs in the active set, and different
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operations are defined for uplink and downlink transmission during handoff. Multicast and broadcast services (MBS) are supported in Mobile WiMAX.
3.5
MOBILE IP
IP (i.e., Mobile IPv4) was designed to provide a way to support host mobility. A standard Mobile IP proposed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) over IP version 4 (IPv4) consists of the following functional entities: Mobile node (MN): A host or router that can travel around the Internet while maintaining any ongoing communication session. Home agent (HA): A router that maintains a list of registered MNs. It is used to forward MN-addressed packets to the appropriate visiting network when MNs are away from home. Foreign agent (FA): A router with an interface in an MNs visiting network, which assists the MN in informing its HA of its current care-of address. Care-of address (CoA): A local IP address that identifies the MNs current location. Collocated CoA: An externally obtained local IP address temporarily assigned to the MN. Correspondent node (CN): A peer host with which an MN communicates. Home address: A permanent IP address that is assigned to an MN. Tunnel: The path taken by an encapsulated data packet. It leads packets from the HA to the FA.
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Mobile IP uses two IP addresses: the fixed (permanent) home address and the CoA for the mobility of an MN. The operation of Mobile IP is based on the cooperation of the three major processes: agent discovery, registration, and tunneling. 1. Agent discovery: A process by which an MN determines its new
attachment point or IP address as it moves within the wireless/IP network. When an MN is connected to its home network, it works exactly as a traditional node in a fixed place. When an MN detects its movement to a foreign network, it obtains a CoA by directly reading it from an agent advertisement from its associated FA or a collocated CoA by contacting Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) on the local network. 2. Registration: A process performed as an MN enters and remains in a
foreign network. This process involves requesting services for the MN from the associated FA and informing the associated HA of its new CoA. The MN informs the HA directly if it obtains a new collocated CoA. Registration consists of an exchange of two messages, a registration request and a registration reply, between the MN and its HA. This process enables the HA to associate each new CoA to the MNs home address. This process is also called binding update. 3. Tunneling: A process by which Mobile IP tunnels data packets, whether it
is away from its home network or not. In the tunneling process, the HA encapsulates the data packets by using an IP-within-IP approach. In the IPwithin-IP approach, the HA inserts a new IP header, the MNs CoA, in front of the IP header of a data packet addressed to the MNs home address. When using an 38
FA CoA, when an FA receives the encapsulated data packet, it merely has to eliminate the tunnel header and deliver the rest to the MN. If a collocated CoA is used, the HA sends the encapsulated data packet to the MN directly, and the MN does the decapsulation itself.
Figure 10: Illustration of Mobile IP triangle routing
Mobile IP uses triangle routing (i.e., tunnel) as shown in the diagram above. In triangle routing, data packets sent from the CN (a fixed terminal) to the MN is sent to the MNs HA first using standard IP routing. The HA encapsulates the data packets and tunnels the data packets to the MNs CoA. At the associated FA, the data packets are detunneled and sent to the MN. Although triangle routing is simple and easy to use, it is inefficient since it takes a route from a CN to an HA and then to an MN. The overhead of the HA could be a system performance bottleneck due to large data traffic passing through. Optimized routing is proposed to solve the performance problem with triangle routing in Mobile IP. In optimized routing, the MN informs the CN of its CoA that 39
has been tunneled to the MN directly without any assistance from the HA. Mobile IP with optimized routing allows every CN to cache and use binding copies between the associated HA and the MN.
Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture
Figure 11: Network Reference Model
The network reference model (NRM), identifies key functional entities and reference points over which the network interoperability specifications are defined. The WiMAX NRM differentiates between network access providers (NAPs) and network service providers (NSPs). The NAP is an entity that provides 40
WiMAX radio access infrastructure, while the NSP is the entity that provides IP connectivity and WiMAX services to WiMAX subscribers according to some negotiated service level agreements (SLAs) with one or more NAPs. The network architecture allows one NSP to have a relationship with multiple NAPs in one or different geographical locations. It also enables NAP sharing by multiple NSPs.
The WiMAX NRM, as illustrated above, consists of several logical network entities: MSs, an access service network (ASN), and a connectivity service network (CSN), and their interactions through reference points R1R8. Each MS, ASN, and CSN represents a logical grouping of functions as described in the following:
Mobile station (MS): generalized user equipment set providing wireless connectivity between a single or multiple hosts and the WiMAX network. In this context the term MS is used more generically to refer to both mobile and fixed device terminals.
Access service network (ASN): represents a complete set of network functions required to provide radio access to the MS. These functions include layer 2 connectivity with the MS according to IEEE 802.16 standards and WiMAX system profile, transfer of authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) messages to the home NSP (HNSP), preferred NSP discovery and selection, relay functionality for establishing layer 3 (L3) connectivity with MS (i.e., IP 41
address allocation), as well as radio resource management. To enable mobility, the ASN may also support ASN and CSN anchored mobility, paging and location management, and ASN-CSN tunnelling.
Connectivity service network (CSN): a set of network functions that provide IP connectivity services to WiMAX subscriber(s). The CSN may further comprises network elements such as routers, AAA proxy/ servers, home agent, and user databases as well as interworking gateways or enhanced broadcast services and location-based services.
A CSN may be deployed as part of a green field WiMAX NSP or part of an incumbent WiMAX NSP. The following are some of the key functions of the CSN:IP address managementAAA proxy or serverQoS policy and admission control based on user subscription profilesASN-CSN tunnelling support Subscriber billing and interoperator settlementInter-CSN tunnelling for roaming CSN-anchored inter-ASN mobilityConnectivity to Internet and managed WiMAX services such as IP multimedia services (IMS), location-based services, peer-topeer services, and broadcast and multicast services Over-the-air activation and provisioning of WiMAX devices
Base station (BS): a logical network entity that primarily consists of the radio related functions of an ASN interfacing with an MS over-the-air link according to MAC and PHY specifications in IEEE 802.16 specifications subject to applicable 42
interpretations and parameters defined in the WiMAX Forum system profile. In this definition each BS is associated with one sector with one frequency assignment but may incorporate additional implementation-specific functions such as a DL and UL scheduler.
ASN gateway (ASN-GW): a logical entity that represents an aggregation of centralized functions related to QoS, security, and mobility management for all the data connections served by its association with BSs through R6t. The ASNGW also hosts functions related to IP layer interactions with the CSN through R3 as well as interactions with other ASNs through R4 in support of mobility.
Typically multiple BSs may be logically associated with an ASN. Also, a BS may be logically connected to more than one ASN-GW to allow load balancing and redundancy options. The WiMAX network specification defines a single decomposed ASN profile (ASN C) with an open R6 interface as well as an alternative ASN profile B that may be implemented as an integrated or a decomposed ASN in which R6 is proprietary or not exposed.
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4.0 DESIGN OF THE NETWORK

4.1 Abstract
In this section the knowledge that has been explained in the previous chapter is applied to a theoretical network of 5 sidings and one Central Train Control Station to meet the objectives of the project.
4.2
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
This project aims at solving the problem by replacing the traffic light system, with a robust and efficient Communication based train control (CBTC) system which is secure from vandalism and can convey the signal in real time.
Wireless technology has been preferred because of the ease associated in setting it up as well as that it is less prone to vandalism and it is not bulky. It is also a state of the art wireless technology 4G. It is in the designers best interest to make the modification to the existing NRZ communication system as little as possible at the same time maintaining a high level of relevancy to the problem at hand. It is therefore sensible to modify the signaling module at the siding by replacing the hub, CTC cubicle and the relay with a switch, DHCP server and a WiMAX Base Station. The Backhaul of the network has also had to be replaced with a Mobile WiMAX one. This has not in any way put a requirement on the
44
construction of new infrastructure to house the new technology but the technology can be comfortably installed on the existing infrastructure In this modification much effort has been put in making the IP mobility possible, making the network secure from unauthorized access, Introducing a full coverage of radius 3 kilometers and enabling downlink and uplink of signals by a train while in motion. It is however imperative to note that the mobile WiMAX Standard IEEE802.16m, which is in its Final stages of refining, will increase radius of coverage to 50Km thereby decreasing the number of base stations while increasing coverage. In integrating this technology it is the base station Modules only which will need to be upgraded keeping the rest of the design unchanged
4.4
THE NETWORK LAYER
The objective is to come up with a network which dynamically assigns IP addresses to trains and communicates with them in real time. As stated earlier, there are three important components of the railway communication system. These are: 1. The locomotive 2. The central train control 3. The siding
45
4.4.1 Design requirements list 1. A locomotive must communicate directly with the Central train control at all times in real time without loss of signal 2. A locomotive must communicate directly with the sidings bound the route it is travelling on in real time 3. A locomotive must transmit data on the its condition and of the train in real time to Central train control without fail. 4. The Central Train Control should be able to send in real time broadcasts and multicasts when necessary. 5. In the event of simultaneous communication to one terminal, both sessions should be upheld. 6. The communication with Central Train Control should have first preference in the event of congestion 7. The siding must communicate with CTC in real time all the time. 8. Have a Backhaul which supports the Bandwidth requirements of the services offered After coming up with the network requirements, the next stage is the design of the network in accordance with the network requirements.
46
4.4.2 Below is a layout of the proposed signaling system: Below is the layout of a nodal subnetwork Signal from microwave backbone Loco 1 in
Siding Base Station Switch
WiMAX base station Locomotive on rail
Loco 2 out
Figure 12: Logical Illustration of a Nodal Subnetwork
A nodal *subnet should be allowed 10 host addresses and these are allocated as follows: y y y y 6 hosts for rail vehicles i.e. delivery trains and in transit trains. 1 host for the *subnet DHCP Server 1 host for the sidings 2 hosts for maintenance personnel on the rail
The routers in the illustration below represent a backhaul network which has a Fixed WiMAX (IEEE802.16d) Point to point link. The link in question supports 63Mb/s downlink and 28Mb/s for uplink. 47
4.5
Simulation
Below is an illustration of the logical network
Figure 13: Packet Tracer 5.3 Illustration of the entire logical network
Please see the configuration file for the above, in the Appendices
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Limitations
This System has been simulated in software only because of the prohibitive cost of buying the equipment for pilot uses. However, this system is in use over different applications in many countries. Therefore conclusions to its
effectiveness have been drawn from similar networks.
With the availability of state of the art Microwave laboratories more test on the spectral efficiency of WiMAX in this situation could have been included in this project. Nevertheless, basing on the systems digital nature, it can be safely concluded that if it operates in one country, it can operate in another
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Conclusion and Discussion
The use of Communication Based Train Control with the Fourth Generation Radio Access is a very useful advancement. This is so because the high data rates achievable with this technology enable expansion in the services that can be taken advantage of by the NRZ to making their rail both safer and more profitable. A service such as CCTV can be comfortably incorporated on the network without requiring further upgrades in the communication system. Some communication based control systems can also be added on to the network as well thereby becoming a source of revenue since these other control systems can belong to other companies.
With an efficient Communication System, More trains can traverse the railway per given time thereby increase the capacity of the parastatal to generate revenue. At the evaluation of this system, it is true to say, it meets the demands of the problem statement. It provides a solution which is robust, efficient, real time and safe from vandalism.
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APPENDIX A
Home Agent (CTC router) Configuration
en config t hostname Home_Agent Banner motd # You have reached A restricted resource. NO unauthorized access!!!# enable secret nrzrouter1 line con 0 password nrz1 login exec-timeout 0 exit int f0/0 desc gateway of Foreign_Network_1 ip address 192.168.0.14 255.255.255.0 no shut router mobile exit ip mobile home agent router eigrp 1986 network 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.0 51
network 10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0
redistribute mobile ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.0.17 192.168.0.31 ip dhcp pool FN_POOL_3 default-router 192.168.0.31 exit exit
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References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. The NRZ Eastern region, signalling department Cisco Broadband Wireless Gateway Release 2.0 for Cisco IOS Release 12.4(24)YG Cisco IOS IP Configuration Guide Broadband For All by WiMAX Technology: Amit Kumar, M.Phil.*; Jyotsna Sengupta, Ph.D.; and Yunfei Liu, Ph.D. Enhanced Mobility Support for Roaming Users: Extending the IEEE 802.21 Information Service; Karl Andersson1, Andrea G. Forte2, and Henning Schulzrinne2 Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems, IEEE STD 802.16 2004, October, 2004. Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems, IEEE P802.16e/D12, February, 2005. Hassan Yagoobi, Scalable OFDMA Physical Layer in IEEE 802.16 WirelessMAN , Intel Technology Journal, Vol 08, August 2004. WiMAX End-to-End Network Systems Architecture - Stage 2: Architecture Tenets, Reference Model and Reference Points, WiMAX Forum, December, 2005. Mobile WiMAX Part II: A Comparative Analysis , WiMAX Forum, 2006; L.J. Cimini, Analysis and Simulation of a Digital Mobile Channel Using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, IEEE Trans. Comm., vol. COM-33, no. 7, pp 665-675, June 1985. 7 Richard Van Nee and Ramjee Prasad, OFDM for Wireless Multimedia Communications, Artech House,2000. J. Andrews, A. Ghosh, R. Muhamed, Fundamentals of WiMAX. Prentice Hall, 1st Edition, 2007. 802.16e Mobile WiMAX MAC IP CORE www.seasolve.com
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13.
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Research and development of a communication system for the NRZs Signaling system.

1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.3 2.0

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........................................................... 14 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 15

4.4.1 4.4.2 4.5

A simulation of this design has been incorporated in the project. 4

Figure 1: The devastating accident in Dete

1.2.1 The NRZ Signaling System Communication System

The following are the operations of the siding:

Collection and delivery of wagons is done 10

Figure 2: DXR200 Digital Microwave backbone

The Signaling System

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Fiber optic weighed against wireless technologies

The raw material is available in plenty.

The OSI Reference Model

Figure 3: Illustration of the OSI Model

Figure 4: Graphical comparison of Wireless WAN Technologies

Double that of GPRS Increased over EDGE for high bandwidth

UMTS - HSDPA CDMA2000 1XRTT CDMA2000 1XEV-DO

2 to 3 Mbps 144 Kbps 800 Kbps

550 - 1100 Kbps 50 - 70 Kbps 300 - 500 Kbps

2.5 to 3.5 times over WCDMA

Optimized for data, VoIP in development

Mobile WiMAX IEEE 802.16e

1 Mbps+ in 5 MHz channel

Figure 5: Comparison of Wireless Technologies

Comparison of Wireless technologies

WIMAX THE WIRELESS SOLUTION

E. Space/Time Encoder (MIMO encoder)

F. Subcarrier allocation/Pilot insertion

G. IFFT and Digital-to-Analog (D/A)

Frequency Band and Channel Allocation

Channel allocation in the Mobile WiMAX network

Figure 7: Channel Allocation in the Physical Layer

3.3.2 BASIC FUNCTIONALITY OF MAC LAYER IN WIMAX

Figure 8: Specified layer 2 and layer 1 sublayers

rtPS Real-Time Polling Service

Streaming audio or Video

NrtPS Non real time Polling Service

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Data Transfer, Web Browsing, etc

Figure 9: Quality of Service in Mobile WiMAX

Figure 10: Illustration of Mobile IP triangle routing

Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture

Figure 11: Network Reference Model

4.0 DESIGN OF THE NETWORK

THE NETWORK LAYER

Siding Base Station Switch

WiMAX base station Locomotive on rail

Figure 12: Logical Illustration of a Nodal Subnetwork

Below is an illustration of the logical network

effectiveness have been drawn from similar networks.

Conclusion and Discussion

network 10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0

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