Physical Principles of Ultrasound

Grateful appreciation to Richard A. Lopchinsky, MD, FACS and Nancy H. Van Name, RDMS, RTR, and Marlene Kattaron, RDMS

2000 UIC All Rights Reserved.

Course Objectives
Identify history & define ultrasound Define piezoelectric effect Define frequency & wavelength; identify their relationship Define bandwidth Define attenuation; identify relationship to frequency Define resolution & its components; identify relationship to frequency Identify basic transducer types Define electronic array Differentiate between sector & linear array Identify types of image display Identify artifacts useful to diagnosis Discuss safety of medical ultrasound

History of Ultrasound
Piezoelectricity discovered by the Curies in 1880 using natural quartz SONAR was first used in 1940s war-time Diagnostic Medical applications in use since late 1950s

Ultrasound: Physical Definition

Sound waves greater than 20,000 Hertz or cycles per second

Infrasound <20 Hz

Ultrasound >20,000 Hz

Ultrasound: Medical Definition

Diagnostic Medical Ultrasound is the use of high frequency sound to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. Frequency ranges used in medical ultrasound imaging are 2 - 15 MHz

Piezoelectric Effect
Definition: The principle of converting energy by applying pressure to a crystal.

The reverse of the piezoelectric effect converts the energy back to its original form.

Piezoelectric Effect and Ultrasound Transducers

A transducer converts one type of energy into another. Based upon the pulse-echo principle occurring with ultrasound piezoelectric crystals, ultrasound transducers convert:
Electricity into sound = pulse Sound into electricity = echo

Pulse
Pulse of sound is sent to soft tissues Sound interaction with soft tissue = bioeffects Pulsing is determined by the transducer or probe crystal(s) and is not operator controlled

Echo
Echo produced by soft tissues Tissue interaction with sound = acoustic propagation properties Echoes are received by the transducer crystals Echoes are interpreted and processed by the ultrasound machine

Frequency
Number of complete cycles per unit of time Man-made transducer frequency is predetermined by design Ultrasound transducers are referred to by the operating, resonant or main frequency

Frequency Units
One cycle per second = one Hertz (Hz) One thousand Hertz = One kilohertz (KHz) One million Hertz = One megahertz (MHz)

Example: a 7.5 MHz transducer operates at 7,500,000 cycles per second

Wavelength
Definition: The distance between consecutive cycles of sound. Transducer frequency Transducer wavelength

Transducer Frequencies
2.5 MHz 3.5MHz 5.0 MHz 7.5 MHz 10.0 MHz Deep abdomen, OB/Gyn General abdomen, OB/Gyn Vascular, Breast, Gyn Breast, Thyroid Breast, Thyroid, Superficial veins, Superficial masses

Bandwidth
All ultrasound transducers contain a range of frequencies, termed bandwidth Broad bandwidth technology produces medical transducers that contain more than one operating frequency, for example:
2.5 - 3.5 MHz for general abdominal imaging 5.0 - 7.5 MHz for superficial imaging

Attenuation
Definition: The reduction in power and intensity as sound travels through a medium. Transducer frequency Depth of penetration Higher frequencies attenuate, or are absorbed, faster than lower frequencies

Attenuation

Time Gain Compensation

Operator controlled adjustment to compensate for the attenuation of sound as it travels into the tissue Must be adjusted manually for each tissue type examined and may be manipulated throughout an exam to optimize the image

RESOLUTION
The ability to differentiate between structures that are closely related, both in terms of space and echo amplitude Wavelength (frequency) dependent
Gray Scale Resolution Axial Resolution Lateral Resolution

Frequency vs. Resolution

Transducer frequency Resolution and image detail Higher frequency transducers provide better image resolution
better gray scale resolution improved ability to distinguish fine detail

Frequency and Resolution

3.5 MHz 7.5 MHz

Gray Scale Resolution

Adequate gray scale resolution allows for the differentiation of subtle changes in the tissues Dynamic Range determines how many shades of gray are demonstrated on an image

Dynamic Range
Decreased DR Increased DR

Axial & Lateral Resolution

Spatial Resolution describes how physically close two objects can be and displayed separately.
Axial: along the beam path Lateral: perpendicular to beam path

All current equipment has an overall spatial resolution of 1.0 mm or less.

Frequency Summary
High frequency
improved resolution depth of penetration loss higher frequency transducers for superficial uses

Low frequency
poorer resolution

full depth of penetration lower frequency transducers for general abdominopelvic uses

Machine Components
Transducer Beam Former Receiver Memory Display

Transducer Types
Mechanical
Oscillating Rotating

Electronic
Linear Arrays Curved Arrays Phased Arrays

Electronic Arrays
Groups of piezoelectric material working singly or in groups
Transducer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 126

Electronic Transducers
Sector Array
crystals are placed parallel or in concentric rings transducer face is curved produces sector or pie-shaped image

Linear Array
crystals are placed parallel transducer face is flat produces rectangular image

Display Field of View

Field Of View -- the display of the echo amplitudes shape dependent on transducer type and function

Field of View Shapes

SECTOR FOV produced by oscillating rotating curved arrays phased arrays typically used in abdominal application LINEAR FOV produced by linear arrays

typically used in superficial application

Sector

Linear

Display Modes
B Mode B Color M Mode D Mode or Doppler
spectral audio color

Color/Doppler/PowerAngio -- slow flow

B-Mode

M-Mode

Color Doppler

Power Doppler

Duplex and Triplex Imaging

Artifacts
Portions of the display which are not a true representation of the tissue imaged Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound imaging utilizes certain artifacts to characterize tissue

Artifacts
The ability to differentiate solid vs. cystic tissue is the hallmark of ultrasound imaging Acoustic Shadowing and Acoustic Enhancement are the two artifacts that provide the most useful diagnostic information

Shadowing
Diminished sound or loss of sound posterior to a strongly reflecting or strongly attenuating structure
Strong reflectors
large calcifications, bone

Strong attenuators
solid tissue, significantly dense or malignant masses

Shadowing

Enhancement
Increased through transmission of the sound wave posterior to a weakly attenuating structure Gain curve expected a certain loss or attenuation with depth of travel
Occurs posterior to
simple cysts or weakly attenuating masses

Enhancement

Bioeffects
Prudent use assures patient safety Effects at intensities higher than those used in diagnostic medical ultrasound include: cavitation sister chromatid exchange

AIUM Statement
No confirmed biological effects on patients or operators caused by exposure at intensities typical of diagnostic ultrasound ...current data indicate that the benefits outweigh the risks.

Summary
Ultrasound > 20,000 Hz Piezoelectric Effect = pulse-echo principle Frequency & wavelength are inversely proportional Broad bandwidth enables multihertz probes Attenuation & frequency are inversely related Resolution determines image clarity Electronic Arrays may be sector or linear Display mode chosen determines how image is registered Shadowing & Enhancement are the artifacts most used in ultrasound diagnosis Diagnostic Medical Ultrasound is safe!