Original article

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00324.x

Self-directed learning readiness, Internet self-efcacy and preferences towards constructivist Internet-based learning environments among higher-aged adults
R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

jcal_324

489..501

Graduate Institute of Technological and Vocational Education, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan

Abstract

This article examines several research questions to establish a theory model for explaining factors that inuence adult learners preferences for constructivist Internet-based learning environments (CILE). Data were gathered from 541 individual participants enrolled in adult education institutes in Taiwan for structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses. The research results established a 10-scale instrument for assessing adult learners preferences for CILE. Among the scales of CILE, adult students placed the highest value on relevance to life and reective thinking, and scored the lowest for critical judgement, ease of use and student negotiation. The SEM analyses revealed that compared to Internet self-efcacy (ISE), self-directed learning readiness plays a major role in predicting adults preferences for their learning environment, especially for the higher level of intellectual challenge. ISE plays a mediating role in the relationships between Internet usage and the participants preferences. This result suggests that more time spent on Internet practice may increase adult learners ISE, which may strengthen their preferences for Internet-based learning environments. adult learning, constructivism, interactive learning environments, Internet-based instruction, self-directed learning readiness.

Keywords

Introduction

In the past decade, the focus of constructivist learning environments has expanded from actual classrooms to virtual settings (Tenebaum et al. 2001; Chuang & Tsai 2005). Research results have indicated that constructivist learning can increase support to students, and help develop their critical thinking skills (Tsai 2001, 2004; Ngambi & Johnston 2006), promote meaning-oriented learning motivation and strategies (Fok & Watkins
Accepted: 6 June 2009 Correspondence: Regina Ju-chun Chu, Graduate Institute of Technological and Vocational Education, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, #43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan. Email: rchu@mail.ntust.edu.tw

2007), change students attitudes towards learning (Wolf & Fraser 2008) and enhance students epistemological awareness (Tsai 2004). However, research ndings have also suggested that students have lower awareness of constructivist learning, though their instructors and program designers assert that they design courses based on constructivist pedagogy (Tenebaum et al. 2001). Consequently, there is a need to develop better understanding of constructivist Internet-based learning environments (CILE) (Zualkernan 2006). Therefore, the key elements to dene a student-centred constructivist online learning environment have become a concern for both researchers and practitioners. The studies of CILE have been largely conducted in the setting of secondary schools and colleges
489

2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2009), 25, 489501

490

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

(Tenebaum et al. 2001; Chuang & Tsai 2005; Bronack et al. 2006). Since there are scant studies concerning adult students, especially older adults, some researchers contend that higher-aged adults are now the most disadvantaged in the digital divide (Teo 2001; Institute for Information Industry 2008); therefore, there is a need for increased attention to higher-aged adults. Higher-aged adults, in this study, include older adults over 60 years, and middle-aged adults between 45 and 59 years. Internet-based learning can help these groups of people to overcome learning participation barriers caused by physical impairments and cope with an individuals multiple roles of adulthood by providing a self-paced and self-directed learning (SDL) environment. In addition, Internet-based learning is cost effective and more convenient than traditional educational environments, as well as able to provide opportunities for more learners to continue their education (Richardson & Swan 2003; Inoue 2007). Furthermore, adult learners tend to bring abundant life experience to learning processes (Knowles 1975; Knowles et al. 2005); thus, meaningful contexts that associate with their past and present experiences are important for adults to reect on their own learning (Ermer & Newby 1993). Through Web mechanisms, the learner may actively search for and discover rich resources to solve problems related to their interests. As adult learners adjust their learning role to become more active and self-directed, a careful exploration of their preferences for learning environments can help instructors to plan and design online courses more efciently (Markel 1999; Huang 2002; Lee & Tsai 2005). Moreover, Knowles and his colleagues (Knowles 1975; Knowles et al. 2005) proposed Andragogy, an instructional methodology for adults, asserting four postulates of adult learning: self-directedness, abundant experience in the learning process, readiness to learn and problem-centred. Andragogy emphasizes that adults prefer task-oriented learning content and require quick solutions for their learning needs; otherwise, they will quit the learning activity faster than traditional students. Therefore, to understand the preferences of an adult in a constructivist online learning environment means not only providing adult learners with opportunities to experience a student-centred and more controllable learning setting, but also retaining and motivating adult learners in lifelong learning (Chu 2001; Sabry & Baldwin 2003). The most identied factor in adult learning patterns is the role of SDL (Knowles 1975). The development of

SDL may help learners adapt to changing environments and enhance their creativity (Ramsey & Couch 1994). On the other hand, Internet-based learning usually makes the implicit assumption that learners can apply a high level of SDL to assimilate the training content and a self-regulated learning strategy can achieve better e-learning outcomes (Rager 2003; Santhanam et al. 2008). Internet-based learning and SDL could be seen as highly correlated with a higher degree of SDL and a better performance in Internet-based learning (Ng & Gunstone 2002). Therefore, this study attempts to explore the patterns of these non-traditional students in terms of their preferences for Internet learning environments, as based on the observation of adults SDL readiness. With the cognitive development of higher aged adults, they could be more adapted to a constructivist learning setting such as online learning; however, higher-aged adults are reported as being less condent in Internet-based activities (White & Weatherall 2000; Vandenbroeck et al. 2008). Age is not considered as a factor affecting access to online information; however, as age increases, frustration with experiences on the Internet also increases (Ybarra & Suman 2006). Selfefcacy refers to the degree to which an individual is condent that they can perform a specic task or accomplish a specic goal (Bandura 1997). Self-efcacy is domain specic (Bandura 1997; Joo et al. 2000), and it is more predictive to use application-specic selfefcacy to discuss students learning outcomes and sustained learning activities. Consequently, the Internet self-efcacy (ISE) of adults could predict their learning outcomes and sustain their online learning activities (Thompson et al. 2002; Torkzadeh & Van Dyke 2002; Derrick 2003). ISE refers to an individuals ability to self-evaluate their Internet usage and independently accomplish Internet tasks (Torkzadeh & Van Dyke 2002; Tsai & Tsai 2003; Tsai & Lin 2004). Furthermore, more positive attitudes (Joo et al. 2000; Karavidas et al. 2005) and better searching strategies (Wu & Tsai 2006) can be developed and predicted by higher ISE. Therefore, this study also attempts to explore the role of ISE along with SDL in predicting higher aged adults preferences for Internet-based learning environments. Moreover, students demographic backgrounds and personal qualities may cause preference differences for Internet-based learning environments. The effects of gender, the year at college and Internet usage on stu 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Aged adults preference for CILE

491

Fig 1 Path model depicting the relationships of Internet usage, Internet selfefcacy, self-directed learning and the constructivist Internet-based learning environment scale (CILES).

dents preferences for learning environment have been examined (Chuang & Tsai 2005; Liang & Tsai 2008). However, the results regarding gender vary across studies. In the study of high school students, gender makes no difference to preferences, whereas in a study of college students, male students demonstrated higher preferences (Chuang & Tsai 2005). Studies also reveal that male students seem to benet more from inquiry actions and enjoy negotiation and reective thought more than females (Chuang et al. 2008; Wolf & Fraser 2008). On the other hand, Chuang and Tsai (2005) conducted research to test the effect of Internet usage on the preferences of individuals for CILE, with the results indicating that the more experience on the Internet, the higher the preference for cognitive and metacognitive learning environments. Nevertheless, a recent study applied structural modelling to examine the causal effects of Internet usage on preferences for Internet-based learning environments, and found that usage may not in fact impact preferences (Liang & Tsai 2008). In addition, research has suggested that frequency of Internet usage and relevant training positively relate to Internet and computer self-efcacy (Durndell & Hagg 2002; Tsai & Tsai 2003; Liang & Tsai 2008). Therefore, this study tests the relationships of Internet usage, ISE and preferences for learning environments, and proposes an assumption of the mediation role of ISE. This study also examines the gender role of higher-aged adults in their preference for Internet learning environments. The research model is illustrated in the path diagram in Fig 1. In sum, the purposes of this study are: 1 To establish an instrument for assessing adult learners preferences for CILE. 2 To examine gender differences and identify the most and least preferred scales of constructivist Internetbased learning environment scale (CILES) for higher-aged adults.
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

3 To explore, using the structural equation modelling (SEM) method, the relationships of adults ISE along with Internet usage and SDL readiness with their preferences for CILES. 4 To test the mediating effect of ISE on the relationship of Internet usage and preferences for CILES.
Method Participants

The participants were 541 adult students attending introductory and basic computer application classes from 26 community colleges and senior activity centres in Taiwan. The students included 178 (33%) men and 363 (67%) women. With ages ranging from 32 to 87 years, and a mean age of 50.67 years [standard deviation (sd) = 9.78], 124 (23%) were over age 60, 342 (63%) were aged from 45 to 59, and 75 (14%) were aged below 45. Most (95.7%) of the participants had a computer at home and were able to log onto the Internet, which is consistent with the national survey of the digital divide in Taiwan (Institute for Information Industry 2008). A total of 184 (34%) adults responded as using the Internet less than 6 h a week, 138 (25.5%) between 6 and 12 h a week, while 128 (23.7%) respondents said that they use the Internet over 24 h a week.

Procedure

A paper survey instrument containing measures of CILES, ISE and SDL was administered to adult students taking introductory computer and related courses. The questionnaires were distributed to all class students. The researchers went into the classrooms to obtain a higher survey return rate. To avoid sampling bias, Web-based survey techniques were not used to collect data, and thus, the returns represent adult learners who have not yet mastered Internet skills. The

492

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

survey also asked respondents about their age, computer facilities in the home and their Internet usage time. This study obtained high returns of adult learners from the formal survey; 85.8% of 650 distributed questionnaires were responded to. Deducting the returns with missing demographic data and incomplete responses, a total of 541 valid returns were obtained. This sample was considered large enough to conrm the measures and examine the research purposes using the SEM method.
Measures

Constructivist Internet-based learning environment scale (CILES) The questionnaire used for assessing the students preferences for CILE was a theoretical, expended, and detailed version in terms of both cognitive and metacognitive aspects, developed from past studies (Chuang & Tsai 2005; Chuang et al. 2008). Based on the ve aspects asserted by Chuang and Tsai (2005): technical, content, cognitive, metacognitive and epistemological, this research proposed a 10-scale measure to assess the preferences of adult learners at higher ages. Among the 10 scales, ease of use belongs to the technical aspect; relevance to life, multiple sources and interpretations and challenge represent the content aspect; student negotiation, cognitive apprenticeship and inquiry learning relate to the cognitive aspect; reective thinking and critical judgement associate with the metacognitive aspect; and nally, epistemological awareness reects the epistemological aspect of the original CILES. Each scale included ve items, presented in a 5-point Likerttype scale, ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). The Cronbachs alpha coefcient of this new scale is 0.98, indicating good internal consistency. Conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) results are presented in the results section. The denitions of the scales are described as follows: 1 Ease of use (EU): measuring perceptions of the extent to which students prefer that Internet-based learning environments be easy to use, e.g. When navigating in Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that they are easy to use. 2 Relevance to life (RE): assessing perceptions of the extent to which students prefer that Internet-based learning environments are authentic and represent

real life situations, e.g. When navigating in Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that they present realistic tasks. Multiple sources and interpretation (MS): exploring perceptions of the extent to which students prefer that Internet-based learning environments contain various information sources and interpretations, e.g. When navigating in Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that they can provide a variety of relevant Web links. Challenge (CH): measuring perceptions of the extent to which students prefer that Internet-based learning environments be challenging, but helpful in problem solving, e.g. When navigating in Internetbased learning environments, I prefer that they help me to generate new ideas. Student negotiation (SN): assessing perceptions of the extent to which students prefer to have opportunities to explain their ideas to other students and modify them accordingly in Internet-based learning environments, e.g. In Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that I can get the chance to talk to other students. Inquiry learning (IL): measuring perceptions of the extent to which students have the opportunity to engage in inquiry activities in Internet-based learning environments, e.g. In Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that I can carry out investigations to test my own ideas. Cognitive apprenticeship (CA): exploring perceptions of the extent to which students prefer to have opportunities to acquire helpful and timely guidance provided by Internet-based learning environments, e.g. When navigating in Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that they can provide useful feedback to guide learning. Reective thinking (RT): measuring perceptions of the extent to which students prefer to have opportunities to promote self-analysis in Internet-based learning environments, e.g. In Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that I can think deeply about how I learn. Critical judgement (CJ): assessing perceptions of the extent to which students prefer to have opportunities to critically evaluate information in Internetbased learning environments, e.g. In Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that I can evaluate the features of various information sources.
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Aged adults preference for CILE

493

10 Epistemological awareness (EW): assessing perceptions of the extent to which students prefer to have opportunities to explore the value, source, merit or nature of knowledge in Internet-based learning environments, e.g. When navigating in Internet-based learning environments, I prefer that they can explore deeply about the nature of knowledge. Self-directed learning readiness (SDLR) Self-directed learning emphasizes autonomy, personal motivation, personalization, self-discipline and critical reection, and may help learners become more focused, directed and successful (Ausburn 2002). Based on Chang (2006) and Guglielmino (1977), this study designed a six-item questionnaire to assess adult learners beliefs about the level of their SDL abilities. Questions are based on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Sample questions are: When I decide to investigate some topics, I would just do it., Compared to my peers, I can do better in self-learning., I am good at providing new ways of doing things. and Learning is interesting. The Cronbachs alpha is 0.88, indicating a good internal consistency of items. Internet self-efcacy (ISE) Based on the Internet Self-Efcacy Scale (ISES) developed by Tsai and Tsai (2003), this study modied the questionnaire to a seven-item 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 5 (very condent) to 1 (very uncondent) for adult learners. Four of these items measured general Internet self-efcacy (GISE), which is related to a respondents condence about their basic skills in operating Internet functions [e.g. I am condent in handling a web browser like Internet Explorer (IE) or Netscape.]. Another three items asked about communicative Internet self-efcacy (CISE), assessing learners condence in communicating with others over the Internet (e.g. I know how to post messages in chat rooms.). The original ISES produced an adequate internal consistency reliability estimate (a = 0.92); this sample presented a coefcient alpha of 0.92, and the GISE and CISE alpha coefcients were 0.92 and 0.96, respectively.
Analysis

cedures of lisrel 8.8 (Scientic Software International, Lincolnwood, IL, USA), and spss 12.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) to analyse the descriptive statistics, the bivariate correlation coefcients and the internal consistency. Measurement model The manifest variables of the constructs of the measurement model were examined for goodness of t by CFA. In this study, composite latent-variable reliability for each latent variable should be greater than 0.7 (Hair et al. 1998); the value of standardized factor loadings should be signicant (P < 0.05) and greater than 0.5; the correlations between latent constructs should be less than 0.85; and the condence intervals should not include 1.0 (Kline 1998). Overall measurement of model t was assessed using ve indices: chi-square (c2) statistics; chi-squaredegrees of freedom ratio (c2/ df); the comparative t index (CFI); the root-meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA); and the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR). The value of c2 is contingent on the sample size, and an insignicant c2 or c2/df value of less than 5 indicates a good t (Bollen 1990). A CFI value greater than 0.9 (Vandenberg & Lance 2000), an RMSEA value less than 0.08 and an SRMR less than 0.05 may be taken as indicators of a good model t (Hu & Bentler 1995). Structural model A structural model was used for research purposes 3 and 4. Overall structural model t was assessed by seven indices: c2, CFI, RMSEA, SRMR, c2/df, the Non-Norm Fit Index (NNFI) and the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI). The NNFI (also called the Tucker Lewis Index, TLI) and GFI were not affected by model complexity, and had an index greater than 0.9 (Vandenberg & Lance 2000).
Results

To address the primary research purposes, this research tested the t of data to the model by using the SEM pro 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The data were screened for outliers and variable irregularities prior to data analyses, as they may bias t indices, standard error estimates and factor loading in SEM analyses (Weston & Gore 2006). First, outliers in the sample were deleted to avoid the distortion of the normal distribution test. This research excluded the samples with observed variable values that fell three sds from the mean. Samples that were missing demographic data (3% of the returned questionnaires) were deleted,

494

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

and missing responses for other items were replaced with the variable means to avoid the ination of collinearity. Before the estimation of the latent structural models, the normality of the univariate and multivariate distributions of the measured indicators were examined. The distributions of the variables were normal for the CILES, ISE and SDLR variables, skew ranges from -0.96 to -0.63, kurtosis ranges from 0.26 to 3.10 [Kline (1998) suggested that only a skew value >3 and a kurtosis value >10 would inuence the results] and the KolmogorovSmirnov test from 0.064 to 0.218 all presented as signicant, with the QQ plot close to a line. Therefore, a maximum likelihood estimation procedure, an estimation method robust to the violation of the multivariate normal distribution assumption, was used for the parameter estimation in the SEM analysis. The two-step SEM process, as suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), was followed, in which the rst step conrmatory factor analyses explored the measurement model by examining the t of the indicators to their latent constructs. In the second step, the measurement model was used to determine the relationships among the latent constructs in the structural model. This study further conducted a validation test of CILES and the combination of the other two factors: ISE and SDLR.
Measurement model

ronments that provide opportunities for them to think more deeply about their learning, and thus become better learners. In this sample, the students scored lowest on the CJ scale, indicating that when compared to other CILES scales such as IL and RT, adult students relatively less expect or prefer Internet learning environments that stimulate them to re-evaluate information posted on the Web. Table 3 shows the gender effects on the CILES means. As can be seen, there was no signicant difference between male and female adult students regarding their preferences for CILES.
Structural model

The measurement model analysis included all 50 items yielding to 10 constructs of CILES. The model t indices suggested that the CILES obtained a good t (c2 = 3818.69, P < 0.01, df = 1130, c2/df = 3.38, RMSEA was 0.077, CFI = 0.99 and SRMR = 0.041), conrming the CILES validity for this sample of adult learners. The overall reliability of CILES is 0.98, obtaining good composite reliability. The factor loading, reliability, mean and sd are as shown in Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and correlations

The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations of the study variables are presented in Table 2, indicating that among the 10 scales of CILES, the adult students scored highest on the RE scale (with an average of 4.10 on a 5-point Likert-type scale). This suggests that adult students prefer to navigate information and knowledge that connect to their real life and which they can apply to complex reality. A relatively high score on the RT scale showed that adult learners prefer Internet learning envi-

The two factors of ISE (i.e., GISE and CISE), SDLR and Internet usage were used as exogenous variables to predict the participants responses on the CILES 10 scales of Internet-based learning environment preferences. The relationships between latent constructs depicted in the model (Fig 1) were examined. Grewal et al. (2004) indicated that multiple collinearity results in Type II errors in 5080% of simulated models. Strategies to remedy multiple collinearity include removing collinear variables, or combining them into a higher order factor (Weston & Gore 2006). To avoid the effect of strong correlation between items, rather than removing items, this study examined the structural model by averaging every scale as an analysis unit to reduce error terms. The results of model t were also supported by c2 = 206.53, df = 54, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.072, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.023, GFI = 0.95 and c2/df = 3.82. The intercorrelation of variables ranged from 0.30 to 0.79, all less than 0.85, indicating good convergent and discriminant validity. The percentages of explained variance for all the CILES scales were 77, 67, 87, 67, 71, 68, 71, 63, 89 and 73%, respectively, and the percentage of usage explained that GISE and CISE were 81 and 89%, respectively. These results reveal that all of the exogenous variables are powerful in predicting the learners preference for CILES. Higher SDLR may lead to higher preferences on every scale in a constructivist Internet environment. The paths indicate that SDLR plays a major role in explaining higher-aged adult learners preferences for their learning environment, especially their preference for the higher level of intellectual challenge. Finally, Internet usage, according to the mediating tests of this study, has been suggested to have an indirect impact on preferences, which means the preferred
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Aged adults preference for CILE

495

Table 1. Instrument validity and reliability.1

Scale Item Factor loading 0.78 0.91 0.88 0.89 0.79 0.83 0.90 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.70 0.73 0.91 0.87 0.87 0.89 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.86 0.84 0.90 0.91 0.86 0.88 0.89 0.83 0.90 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.76 0.77 0.85 0.90 0.92 0.83 0.91 0.95 0.90 0.87 t-value AVE2 CR3 Cronbachs a

Ease of use

Relevance

Multiple sources

Challenge

Student negotiation

Inquiry learning

Cognitive apprenticeship

Reective thinking

Critical judgement

Epistemological awareness

EU1 EU2 EU3 EU4 EU5 RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4 RE5 MS1 MS2 MS3 MS4 MS5 CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 SN1 SN2 SN3 SN4 SN5 IL1 IL2 IL3 IL4 IL5 CA1 CA2 CA3 CA4 CA5 RT1 RT2 RT3 RT4 RT5 CJ1 CJ2 CJ3 CJ4 CJ5 EW1 EW2 EW3 EW4 EW5

19.96* 25.03* 24.02* 24.10* 20.29* 21.95* 24.80* 25.79* 24.92* 24.39* 25.68* 26.76* 26.58* 26.65* 23.30* 21.03* 16.90* 17.88* 25.07* 23.59* 23.54* 24.73* 26.78* 26.86* 26.57* 24.10* 25.07* 25.39* 23.25* 22.11* 24.76* 25.48* 23.20* 24.22* 24.68* 21.88* 25.02* 23.53* 24.08* 24.10* 19.12* 19.60* 23.12* 24.78* 25.52* 24.74* 25.61* 27.26* 24.72* 23.44*

0.73

0.77

0.93

0.79

0.87

0.95

0.84

0.89

0.96

0.65

0.74

0.90

0.84

0.90

0.96

0.78

0.85

0.94

0.79

0.86

0.95

0.77

0.87

0.94

0.71

0.79

0.93

0.79

0.86

0.96

Instrument reliability: 0.98. AVE represents average variance extracted, recommended value >0.50. 3 CR represents composite reliability, recommended value >0.70 (Hair et al. 1998). *P < 0.05. EU1EU5, 5 items assessed on Ease of Use; RE1RE5, 5 items assessed as Relevance; MS1MS5, 5 items assessed as Multiple Sources; CH1CH5, 5 items assessed as a Challenge; SN1SN5, 5 items assessed as Student Negotiation; IL1IL5, 5 items assessed as Cognitive Apprenticeship; RT1RT5, 5 items assessed as Critical Judgment; EW1EW5, 5 items assessed as Epistemological Awareness.
2

2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

496

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

**P < 0.01. CA, cognitive apprenticeship; CH, challenge; CISE, communicative Internet self-efcacy; CJ, critical judgement; EU, ease of use; EW, epistemological awareness; GISE, general Internet self-efcacy; IL, inquiry learning; MS, multiple sources and interpretation; RT, reective thinking; RE, relevance to life; SDL, self-directed learning; SN, student negotiation.

1 0.59** 0.36** 0.35** 0.43** 0.20**

environment scales are inuenced by the time adults spend on the Internet through the increase of ISE. GISE is signicant in predicting adults preferences for EU, RE, MS, CH, IL, CA and RT in a constructivist learning environment. This implies that the more time adult learners spend on the Internet, the higher general ISE they attain, which leads to higher interest in a constructivist Internet-based learning environment. On the other hand, CISE has positive associations with EU, CH, SN, CJ and EW, and mediates the effects of Internet usage. This result reveals that more time spent on the Internet by adult learners would increase CISE, which then inuences their preferences for CILES. To offer a clear presentation, only the signicant paths are shown in Fig 2.
Discussion and implications

14

1 0.44** 0.36** 0.53** 0.26**

10

1 0.59** 0.35** 0.47**

11

1 0.46** 0.38**

12

1 0.24**

13

First, consistent with the study ndings of high school students (Chuang & Tsai 2005), gender has no effect on adult students preference for CILES. The research sample was mostly mature, implying that personal cognitive development has achieved a stable stage, and abundant life experience may reduce the limitations caused by social constraints for women. Moreover, Internet environments are new to this population, and thus, gender effects related to previous training were kept to a minimum. Interestingly, both females and males value the CILES factors in a very similar way. They all prefer RE and RT the most, while CJ, EU and SN are least preferred by both men and women. EU was not scored high by higher-aged adult students. This might come from the fact that the sample included mature adults, who tend to be more task-oriented, and might view learning as a ready-to-use tool for dealing with their everyday life issues. The foci then turned to the other aspects, such as content, cognitive and metacognitive functions, rather than more technical concerns. Though in the model of this study adults with higher SDLR, which is reected in the intellectual developmental stage (Kasworm 1983), presented preferences for critiquing what they had learned, a noteworthy nding of the lowest scored CJ preference in the constructivist learning setting raised the attention of the researchers. The explanation may be that since these e-learning settings were guided by community college teachers, and the teachers may play a role in presenting learning materials on the Web, adult students may not question the information arranged by the instructors. On
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Table 2. Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and intercorrelations among study variables.

Variable

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

EU RE MS CH SN IL CA RT CJ EW GISE CISE SDL Usage

3.90 4.10 4.04 4.00 3.91 4.02 4.02 4.09 3.68 4.00 3.82 2.78 3.90 2.30

0.77 0.67 0.74 0.66 0.71 0.68 0.71 0.62 0.73 0.73 0.95 1.24 0.48 1.17

SD

1 0.77** 0.57** 0.60** 0.52** 0.60** 0.61** 0.60** 0.46** 0.50** 0.58** 0.42** 0.49** 0.35**

1 0.68** 0.67** 0.60** 0.70** 0.73** 0.68** 0.50** 0.59** 0.53** 0.36** 0.46** 0.31**

1 0.66** 0.60** 0.64** 0.67** 0.60** 0.43** 0.55** 0.47** 0.32** 0.42** 0.31**

1 0.74** 0.79** 0.75** 0.70** 0.51** 0.69** 0.50** 0.31** 0.56** 0.28**

1 0.74** 0.73** 0.67** 0.51** 0.65** 0.40** 0.32** 0.49** 0.21**

1 0.82** 0.77** 0.55** 0.72** 0.52** 0.37** 0.50** 0.28**

1 0.75** 0.55** 0.67** 0.49** 0.35** 0.47** 0.34**

1 0.52** 0.75** 0.47** 0.30** 0.53** 0.30**

Aged adults preference for CILE

497

Table 3. Gender differences on the CILES. Scale Male M(SD) (n = 178) Ease of use Relevance Multiple sources and interpretation Challenge Student negotiation Cognitive apprenticeship Inquiry learning Reective thinking Critical thinking Epistemology 3.86(0.77) 4.04(0.63) 4.02(0.66) 4.00(0.61) 3.90(0.66) 4.01(0.66) 4.03(0.67) 4.06(0.61) 3.76(0.65) 3.96(0.67) Female M(SD) (n = 363) 3.91(0.077) 4.13(0.69) 4.03(0.77) 3.99(0.69) 3.91(0.73) 4.03(0.69) 4.01(0.71) 4.11(0.63) 3.75(0.74) 4.02(0.76) -0.72 -1.51 -0.15 0.09 -0.21 -0.22 0.32 -0.75 0.24 -0.86 t

CILES, constructivist Internet-based learning environment scale; M, mean; SD, standard deviation.

Fig 2 Standard parameter estimates for the model. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01. CA, cognitive apprenticeship; CH, challenge; CISE, communicative Internet selfefcacy; CJ, critical judgement; EU, ease of use; EW, epistemological awareness; GISE, general Internet self-efcacy; IL, inquiry learning; MS, multiple sources and interpretation; RT, reective thinking; RE, relevance to life; SDLR, self-directed learning readiness; SN, student negotiation.

the other hand, cultural issues could be a good explanation for this phenomenon. As previous studies have indicated, critical reection is more common in Western cultures and less portrayed in East Asian cultures (Nisbett 2003; Mezirow 2004). Therefore, CJ of the
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

information posted on the Web was the least preferred by higher-aged adults. The studies of adult Internet learning, especially for older adults, have indicated that the Internet can increase connectivity and social supports, and thus,

498

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

improve life satisfaction (Adams et al. 2005; Russell et al. 2008). Studies of Internet-based learning environments, however, come to some contrary results, in that SNs and CJs are presented as being of low preference in different age and cultural samples, which may reect the purpose of adult learning participation. For adults, exchanging ideas with peers may not be a major focus in learning, unless the peer possesses a role as supporter associated with the learning task; social and emotional interaction may be reected as a secondary gain when they participate in a learning activity (Kim & Merriam 2004; Knowles et al. 2005). However, this needs to be viewed cautiously as it does not necessarily mean that the SN function is least needed in an Internet-based learning environment, as previous research data were collected from students of traditional classroom settings. Currently, Internet-based learning programs are often provided by traditional class teachers, and are blended with actual learning of the course content. Similar to this study, personal connectivity and dialectical needs may be satised by face-to-face interactions with classmates (Selwyn 2004). If research was conducted on subjects purely from an Internet learning community, the results might be different. On the other hand, for this adult sample, CISE scored low, which may be the result of hesitation to participate in negotiations, as the adult learners were not accustomed to Internet-based collaborative learning (Michinov & Michinov 2008). SDLR, in the research sample, played a key determinant in the participants preferences. The results indicate that the better the readiness for SDL, the higher the need for them to construct their own ideas, solve problems and come up with creative ways to do activities over the Internet, which is consistent with the central concepts of SDL. Moreover, this study further conrmed the mediation role of ISE between Internet usage and preferences. Previous studies have revealed that, the more experience on the Internet, the higher the scores attained on RE, MS, RT and epistemological thinking (Tsai & Chuang 2005). However, along with the consideration of ISE, Liang and Tsai (2008) found that Internet usage became unpredictive for preferences of Internetbased learning environments, and that CISE had a minimal negative impact on the IL scale. Their ndings were questioned by this study. The results of this study reveal the mediation role of ISE, especially that of CISE. It also answers the question raised by Liang and

Tsai (2008) that CISE should have had a relationship with SN, which was not supported in their study. It is reasonable that the condence or skills possessed by the individual in terms of the Internet would inuence the perceived features of the learning program. The more sophisticated skills they have, the higher the standards required for online learning. In the SEM analysis, most variances in learning environment preference were explained by SDLR, followed by GISE, which were enhanced by experience on the Internet. Thus, the present ndings add to the literature that has examined ISE and preferences for Internetbased learning environments. Another noteworthy nding of this study is that SN, CJ and EW can be successfully determined by higher CISE, whereas GISE has no signicant impact. This implies that improving adults Internet communication skills may be a good approach to motivating their higher cognition level learning interests. To summarize, this study examined gender, SDLR, ISE and Internet usage effects on adult learners preferences for Internet-based learning environments. Furthermore, this research revealed the mediation role of ISE between Internet usage and individuals preferences. Educators should pay more attention to giving enough practice time for adult learners to motivate them to engage in Internet activities that could enhance their condence in utilizing technical learning tools. For program designers, the content provided is especially critical for adult learners, which should reect and connect to their everyday life, and offer resourceful links for them to construct their own knowledge base. Adult practitioners and educators also need to realize the importance of identifying adult learners development of self-directedness. Research has indicated that not all adults develop good SDL skills as age increases (Merriam 2004), so these skills should be developed during traditional education and lifelong learning (Tagawa 2008). When selecting and designing teaching media, practitioners must consider the differences in the SDLR of their students, because it determines their preferences. Further studies may pay more attention to the personal qualities of the learners, such as adults attitude towards the Internet, motivation to participate in continuous learning, social presence and the key to develop SDL, and thus, provide an Internet-based learning environment that meets adult students needs.
2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Aged adults preference for CILE

499

Acknowledgements

Funding of this research work was supported by National Science Council, Taiwan, under grant number NSC96-2511-S-011-002-MY3.
References
Adams N., Stubbs D. & Woods V. (2005) Psychological barriers to Internet usage among older adults in the UK. Medical Informatics and the Internet in Medicine 30, 317. Anderson J.C. & Gerbing D.W. (1988) Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin 103, 411423. Ausburn L.J. (2002) The freedom versus focus dilemma in a customized self-directed learning environment: a comparison of the perceptions of adult and younger students. Community College Journal of Research and Practice 26, 225235. Bandura A. (1997) Self-efcacy: The Exercise of Control. Freeman, New York. Bollen K.A. (1990) Overall t in covariance structure models: two types of size effects. Psychological Bulletin 107, 256 259. Bronack S., Riedl R. & Tashner J. (2006) Learning in the zone: a social constructivist framework for distance education in a 3-dimensional virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments 14, 219232. Chang C.C. (2006) Development of competency-based web learning material and effect evaluation of self-directed learning aptitudes on learning achievement. Interactive Learning Environments 14, 265286. Chu J. (2001) Class size effects on the adult student learning social environment. Asia Pacic Adult Education 1, 161 201. Chuang S-C. & Tsai C-C. (2005) Preferences toward the constructivist Internet-based learning environments among high school students in Taiwan. Computers in Human Behavior 21, 255272. Chuang S-C., Huang F-K. & Tsai C-C. (2008) Students perceptions of constructivist Internet learning environments by a physics virtual laboratory: the gap between ideal and reality and gender differences. Cyberpsychology and Behavior 11, 150156. Derrick M.G. (2003) Creating environments conducive for lifelong learning. New Direction of Adult and Continuing Education 100, 518. Durndell A. & Haag Z. (2002) Computer self efcacy, computer anxiety, attitude towards the Internet and reported experience with the Internet, by gender, in an East European sample. Computers in Human Behavior 18, 521535.

Ermer P.A. & Newby T.J. (1993) Behavirorism, cognitivism, constructivism: comparing from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly 6, 5072. Fok A. & Watkins D. (2007) Does a critical constructivist learning environment encourage a deeper approach to learning? Asia-Pacic Education Researcher 16 (1), 110. Grewal R., Cote J.A. & Baumgartner H. (2004) Multicollinearity and measurement error in structural equation models: implications for theory testing. Marketing Science 23, 519529. Guglielmino L.M. (1977) Development of the self-directed learning readiness scale (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Georgia). Dissertation Abstracts International 38, 6467A. Hair J.F., Anderson R.E., Tatham R.L. & Black W.C. (1998) Multivariate Data Analysis, 5th edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Hu L.T. & Bentler P.M. (1995) Evaluating model t. In Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues and Applications (ed. R.H. Hoyle), pp. 7699. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Huang H-M. (2002) Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology 33, 2737. Inoue Y. (2007) Online Education for Lifelong Learning. Information Science Publication, Hershey, PA. Institute for Information Industry (2008) National Consensus Report for Digital Divide. Institute for Information Industry Government Document, Taipei, Taiwan. Joo Y., Bong M. & Choi H. (2000) Self-efcacy for selfregulated learning, academic self-efcacy, and Internet self-efcacy in web-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 48, 517. Karavidas M., Lim N.K. & Katsikas S.L. (2005) The effects of computers on older adult users. Computers in Human Behavior 21, 697711. Kasworm C.E. (1983) Toward a paradigm of developmental levels of self-directed learning. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, 1115 April 1983, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. [ERIC Document ED 230 705]. Kim A. & Merriam S.B. (2004) Motivations for learning among older adults in a Learning in Retirement institute. Educational Gerontology 30, 441455. Kline R.B. (1998) Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling: Methodology in the Social Science. Guilford Press, New York. Knowles M.S. (1975) Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Leaders and Teachers. Cambridge Association Press, New York.

2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

500

R. J-C. Chu & C-C. Tsai

Knowles M., Holton E. III & Swanson R. (2005) The Adult Learner, 6th edition. Elsevier, San Diego, CA. Lee M-H. & Tsai C-C. (2005) Exploring high school students and teachers preferences toward the constructivist Internet-based learning environments in Taiwan. Educational Studies 31, 149167. Liang J-C. & Tsai C-C. (2008) Internet self-efcacy and preferences toward constructivist Internet-based learning environments: a study of pre-school teachers in Taiwan. Educational Technology and Society 11 (1), 226237. Markel M. (1999) Distance education and the myth of the new pedagogy. Journal of Business and Technical Communication 13, 208223. Merriam S.B. (2004) The role of cognitive development in Mezirows transformational learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly 55, 6068. Mezirow J. (2004) Forum comment on Sharan Merriams The role of cognitive development in Mezirows transformational learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly 55, 6970. Michinov N. & Michinov E. (2008) Face-to-face contact at the midpoint of an online collaboration: its impact on the patterns of participation, interaction, affect, and behavior over time. Computers and Education 50, 15401557. Ng W. & Gunstone R. (2002) Students perceptions of the effectiveness of the World Wide Web as a research and teaching tool in science learning. Research in Science Education 32, 489510. Ngambi D. & Johnston K. (2006) An ICT-mediated constructivist approach for increasing academic support and teaching critical thinking skills. Educational Technology and Society 9, 244253. Nisbett R. (2003) Tlze Geograply of Thiouglht. Free Press, New York. Rager K.B. (2003) Adult learning, cancer, emotional response, females, information sources, learning processes. Adult Education Quarterly 53, 7793. Ramsey V. & Couch P. (1994) Beyond self-directed learning: a partnership model of teaching and learning. Journal of Management Education 18, 1520. Richardson J.C. & Swan K. (2003) Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students perceived learning and satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 7, 6888. Russell C., Campbell A. & Hughes I. (2008) Aging, social capital and the Internet: ndings from an exploratory study of Australian silver surfers. Australasian Journal on Ageing 27, 7882. Sabry K. & Baldwin L. (2003) Web-based learning interaction and learning styles. British Journal of Educational Technology 34, 443454.

Santhanam R., Sasidharan S. & Webster J. (2008) Using selfregulatory learning to enhance e-learning-based information technology training. Information Systems Research 19, 2647. Selwyn N. (2004) The information aged: a qualitative study of older adults use of information and communication technology. Journal of Aging Studies 18, 369384. Tagawa M. (2008) Physician self-directed learning and education. Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences 24, 380385. Tenebaum G., Naidu S., Jegede O. & Austin J. (2001) Constructivist pedagogy in conventional on-campus and distance learning practice: an exploratory investigation. Learning and Instruction 11, 87111. Teo T. (2001) Demographic and motivation variables associated with Internet usage activities. Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy 11, 125 137. Thompson L.F., Meriac J.P. & Cope J.G. (2002) Motivating online performance: the inuences of goal setting and Internet self-efcacy. Social Science Computer Review 20, 149159. Torkzadeh G. & Van Dyke T.P. (2002) Effects of training on Internet self-efcacy and computer user attitudes. Computers in Human Behavior 18, 479494. Tsai C-C. (2001) A review and discussion of epistemological commitments, metacognition, and critical thinking with suggestions on their enhancement in Internet-assisted chemistry classrooms. Journal of Chemical Education 78, 970974. Tsai C-C. (2004) Beyond cognitive and metacognitive tools: the use of the Internet as an epistemological tool for instruction. British Journal of Educational Technology 35, 525536. Tsai C-C. & Chuang S-C. (2005) The correlation between epistemological beliefs and preferences toward Internetbased learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology 36, 97100. Tsai C-C. & Lin C-C. (2004) Taiwanese adolescents perceptions and attitudes regarding the Internet: exploring gender differences. Adolescence 39, 725734. Tsai M-J. & Tsai C-C. (2003) Information searching strategies in web-based science learning: the role of Internet selfefcacy. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 40, 4350. Vandenberg R.J. & Lance C.E. (2000) A review and synthesis of the measurement in variance literature: suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Method 3, 370. Vandenbroeck M., Verschelden G. & Boonaert T. (2008) E-learning in a low-status female profession: the role of

2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Aged adults preference for CILE

501

motivation, anxiety and social support in the learning divide. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 24, 181 190. Weston R. & Gore P. (2006) A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist 34, 684 718. White J. & Weatherall A. (2000) A grounded theory analysis of older adults and information technology. Educational Gerontology 26, 371386. Wolf S.J. & Fraser B.J. (2008) Learning environment, attitudes and achievement among middle-school science

students using inquiry-based laboratory activities. Research in Science Education 38, 321341. Wu Y-T. & Tsai C-C. (2006) University students Internet attitudes and Internet self-efcacy: a study at three universities in Taiwan. CyberPsychology and Behavior 9, 441450. Ybarra M. & Suman M. (2006) Reasons, assessments and actions taken: sex and age differences in use of Internet health information. Health Education 23, 512521. Zualkernan I.A. (2006) A framework and a methodology for developing authentic constructivist e-learning environments. Educational Technology and Society 9, 198212.

2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd