GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Outline

This lecture has the following structure: Theory Instrument characteristics Data interpretation Applications
Source: GSSI (www.geophysical.com)

Introduction

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is one of the most commonly used geophysical techniques in high resolution studies of the shallow subsurface.

THEORY

Theory

Ground penetrating radar operates by transmitting a short electromagnetic pulse into the subsurface and then recording the reflected energy.

transmitter

receiver

Theory

Ground penetrating RADAR comes from Radio Detection and Ranging: radar waves are transmitted in the radio range of the electromagnetic spectrum

Theory

GPR can operate with several antennas, which transmit signals of frequencies ranging from 10 MHz to ~ 5GHz. The higher the frequency of the antenna, the shorter the wavelength
Increasing frequency

Theory

Wavelength and frequency are related by: V = f where V = velocity (m/s), = wavelength (m), and f = frequency (Hz) The higher the frequency, the higher the resolution of the radar output (or the more details are visible).
Increasing frequency

Theory

This can be understood by thinking of waves in the ocean. A thin stick (small object compared to wavelength) will not affect the wave; however a large pillar (large object compared to wavelength) will break/reflect the wave.

Source: University of Cambridge; http://www-diva.eng.cam.ac.uk/fluids/hydrodynamics.html

Theory

Not only does a higher frequency result in a higher resolution, it also results in a shallower penetration of the subsurface. At higher frequencies, the wavelengths are shorter in the subsurface they encounter many small reflectors they are reflected before they can penetrate any deeper.

Theory

To summarize:

Frequency

+ -

Resolution

+ -

Penetration depth

Theory

Three properties of the subsurface control the propagation and reflection of the radar waves: 1. 2. 3. Dielectric constant Magnetic permeability Conductivity

Theory

Dielectric constant / Relative static permittivity is a measure for the amount of electric and magnetic energy a material can store, relative to the energy in a vacuum. Or in other words: Dielectric constant / Relative static permittivity (r): the ratio between electric permittivity of the medium () to the electric permittivity of a vacuum (0) r = /0

Theory

The relative permittivity (r) is related to the velocity of radar waves (V) in earth materials by: V = C/(rr)
Where C (= 3*108 m/s) is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space; r = / 0 the relative magnetic permeability of the medium; and r = /0 the dielectric constant.

This is a theoretic relationship which is only valid in earth materials with zero conductivity!

Theory

V = C/(rr) As the relative magnetic permeability (r) is close to unity (1) in earth materials, the velocity of radar waves is mainly controlled by the dielectric constant. That means that contrasts in the reflected signal are caused by differences in radar wave velocity!

Theory

Some common dielectric constants

Material Air Dry sand/gravel Wet sand/gravel Dry clay/silt Wet clay/silt Granite Limestone Dry salt Permafrost Glacier ice Fresh water r 1 4-10 10-20 3-6 7-40 4-9 4-8 5-6 4-5 3.5 81

Theory

Signal reflection on materials with different dielectric constants (r ):

transmitter receiver Received signal
Transition in dielectric constant

=3 =5 =7 = 20
No changes in dielectric constant

Theory

The relationship V = C/(rr) is valid in an environment without conductivity. However, earth materials are always conductive. In conductive environments, electromagnetic waves are attenuated (= gradually loosing intensity)

Theory

To determine at which depth the radar waves have lost all energy, or in other words, to determine the maximum penetration depth, the C in the formula must be replaced by (2/): = (2/)/(rr)
Where = penetration depth, and = conductivity (mS/m)

Theory

In words: the depth of penetration is controlled by the conductivity, the dielectric constant and the magnetic permeability. As the magnetic permeability is almost unity and the dielectric constant doesnt vary more than a factor 10, the conductivity is the controlling parameter for the penetration depth! The conductivity can vary several orders of magnitude!!!

Theory

In summary: The propagation of radar waves is controlled by conductivity, dielectric constant and magnetic permeability Penetration depth is mainly determined by conductivity Changes in received signal are mostly caused by changes in dielectric constant Magnetic permeability has almost no influence (is close to unity).

INSTRUMENT

Instrument

The GPR consists of the following essential parts:

1. 2. 3. Signal transmitter Receiver Recording unit (laptop)

1&2

Instrument

The transmitter and receiver can be integrated in one antenna or separate in two antennas Common frequencies of antennas :
Frequency (MHz) 100 200 400 900 1600 2600 Penetration depth (m) (depending on soil type) 0 25 09 0-4 0-1 0 0.5 0 0.4
Source: GSSI (www.geophysical.com)

Instrument

The antenna is connected via a fiber optic cable to the recording unit.
Recording unit (laptop)

Fiber optic cable

Source: GSSI (www.geophysical.com)

Instrument

The received signal is instantly visible on the screen of the laptop Measurement settings can also be adjusted instantly, so that the result of the adjustment is immediately visible.

Example of screen output (source: RADAN manual, GSSI (www.geophysical.com))

Instrument

The following parameters should be known before measurements are made: What are the characteristics of the earth material? How deep should the radar waves penetrate? Which antenna is going to be used? Once the output is visible on the recording unit: should the signal be enhanced or filtered?

Instrument

What are the characteristics of the earth material? It is important to know at least the range of dielectric constant (D.C.) to avoid measuring in material that is less appropriate for GPR (for example, peat) In most GPR systems, an estimate of the D.C. can be entered in the settings. The true D.C. can be adjusted later during analysis.

Instrument

With deeper penetration, the signal is attenuated. If the object of interest is deeper than the maximum penetration depth of a certain antenna, an antenna with lower frequency should be chosen. (Remember: higher frequency antenna results in shallower measurements with higher resolution)

Instrument

Sometimes the object of interest is at a depth at which the signal has weakened significantly. To better distinguish the object from the background, the signal can be enhanced using gain. Usually a positive gain is applied to the deeper part of the signal (signal strength is enhanced), while a negative gain is applied to the shallow part of the signal (signal strength is reduced).

Instrument

Normal signal

Gain +

Enhanced signal

Gain +

Gain = 0

Negative gain in upper part, positive gain in lower part of signal

Instrument

Background noise can be removed from the signal using filters Most commonly used filters are: Low pass filters (filter out high frequencies) High pass filters (filter out low frequencies) Background removal filters (filter out low frequencies) Stacking (filter out high frequencies)

Instrument

GPR can make point measurements and continuous measurements. For continuous measurements, the distance that the GPR has covered should be known. The distance can be measured in two ways: By using an additional measuring wheel, By using GPS. GPS should be used when there are no clear reference points in the landscape or on the map

INTERPRETATION

Interpretation

The time slice (display of a 2D image of the subsurface) is called a radargram.

Time range (nanoseconds)

Time slice of subsurface

Objects

Distance (meters)

Interpretation

Example of properties of radargram

Information about the properties of the signal and the number of measured signals per second / meter Dielectric constant. D.C. can still be changed during analysis. Gain. In this case there are 5 breakpoints, where gain is ranging from -8.0 to +35.0

Time range, number of nanoseconds that the signal is received. These numbers are used for time-depth conversion (will be explained in the next slides)

Interpretation

What we see is a time slice of the subsurface. How can this be translated to depth? The easiest way is to derive the depth from the velocity of the signal. Typical velocities are given in the table on the next slide (from Davis & Annan, 1989)

Interpretation

Davis, J. L. and A. P. Annan (1989). "Ground-penetrating radar for high-resolution mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy." Geophysical Prospecting 37: 531-551.

Interpretation

Beware that the time display in the time slice is the two-way travel time, or in other words the time for the signal to travel to the object and back to the receiver.

Example: calculate the depth to the first signal in the figure to the right. The material is clayey. Answer: the two-way travel time is 8 ns the time for the signal to reach the object is 4 ns. Assuming a velocity of the signal in clay of 0.06 m/ns the distance to the first signal is (4 * 0.06) = 0.24 m

Interpretation

As an additional verification of the time-depth conversion, an object of known depth should be included in the survey. The real velocity can be determined when the depth of an object is known From the velocity, the dielectric constant of the material can be determined (V = C/(rr)) Adjusting the dielectric constant in the analysis improves the depth estimation from objects at unknown depth.

Interpretation

A typical feature of a radargram is that objects look like parabolas. In the image below three parabolas are visible:

Interpretation

Parabolas in the image are caused by the fact that the signal is already reflected by the object before the antenna is directly above it. At locations 1&3 the travel time to the object is longer than at location 2 (directly above the object), resulting in a deeper reflection. The real depth of an object is therefore at the top of the parabola. 1 2 3 1 2 3

Object

Interpretation

Deriving the location of an object from a parabola is done by the migration module in analysis software.

Before

After migration

Interpretation

Another typical feature of the GPR output is the direct wave. This is the wave which travels straight from the transmitter to the receiver without traveling through the subsurface. The first strong reflector is the transition between air and earth surface immediately below the antenna.

Direct/air wave

Interpretation

Filtering can be done when the features of interest are not well visible:

Enhancement of image features

Background noise filtering

Interpretation

When measurements were made in a raster, a 3D image of the subsurface can be created:

2D

3D

Source: www.copijn.nl

Source: www.copijn.nl

APPLICATIONS

Applications

GPR studies include the following fields: Geological Glaciological Environmental Engineering and construction Archaeology Forensic science

Applications

Examples of geological applications: Detection of natural cavities and fissures Subsidence mapping Mapping of superficial deposits Soil stratigraphy mapping Geological structure mapping Mapping of faults, dykes, coal seams Lake and riverbed sediment mapping Mineral exploration and resource evaluation Depth to water table

Applications

Structural mapping

Applications

Subsidence of a road at the surface can sometimes be explained by the structures in the subsurface:

Subsidence

Applications

Glacial ice thickness measurements

One of the first applications of GPR was measuring glacial ice thickness. The story goes that an airplane using GPR on board was trying to land on an ice sheet. Unfortunately, the pilot interpreted the transition between the ice and the subsurface as being the surface on which he could land, not knowing that GPR signal went right through the ice sheet. The airplane crashed on the ice sheet, but this event marked the beginning of glacial ice thickness measurements.

Applications

Glacial ice thickness measurements

(making use of large contrasts in dielectric constants between ice (low) and wet sediments (high))

Applications

Environmental applications: Pollution plume detection Landfill cover thickness measurements

http://landfill.files.wordpress.com/2008

Source: Geofox-Lexmond b.v. (www.geofox-lexmond.nl)

Applications

Environmental applications: Seepage (of water, hydrocarbons) detection Salt intrusion

Applications

Engineering and construction

Road pavement analysis Void detection Location of reinforcement (rebars) in concrete Location of public utilities (pipes, cables, etc) Testing integrity of building materials Concrete testing

Applications

Engineering and construction

Road subsidence

Rebar location

Applications

Archaeology Locating burial mounds Locating ancient settlements Foundation research of historic churches Forensic research Locating buried corpses Locating (mass) graves

Foundation of historic church Source: University of Arkansas, www.cast.uark.edu