I

N A S A TECHNICAL

TRANSLATION
*o

h
I

Y,

c c
4
c/I

HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
i\

by D. I, B ~ Z O V
Transport Press, Moscow, 1969

i
''

N A T I O N A L AERONAUTICS AND SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N

WASHINGTON,

D. C.

M A Y 1972

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

1I 11l11l1l111111 l1l111l1Ll
l1111 l1 18 l l
00b 9 2 NASA TT F-676

HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS

By D. I. Bazov

Translation of "Aerodinamika vertoletov.lr Transport Press, Moscow, 1969

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

. . .. .

For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

$3.00

ANNOTATION

P r i n c i p l e s o f h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t under v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s a r e reviewed, g i v i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of the m a i n r o t o r .

A brief history

of h e l i c o p t e r development i s p r e s e n t e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h a summary of t h e main components of a h e l i c o p t e r and a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of helicopters. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e main r o t o r and i t s o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g Also c o n s i d e r e d a u t o r o t a t i o n and d u r i n g a x i a l and o b l i q u e flow are considered.

are v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , a l t i t u d e g a i n and d e s c e n t , t a k e o f f and

l a n d i n g , e q u i l i b r i u m , s t a b i l i t y , and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r d u r i n g t h e v a r i o u s maneuvers.

iii

TABLE O CONTENTS F

/194 PAGE

CHAPTER I.

PRINCIPLES O HELICOPTER JTLIGHT F B r i e f H i s t o r y of H e l i c o p t e r Development The H e l i c o p t e r and I t s Basic Components C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of H e l i c o p t e r s

1
4
6

1. 2. 3.

F CHAPTER 11. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS O THE MAIN ROTOR

4. 5 5. 5 6. 5 7.

10
10
1
1 16
18
20
20
24
26
28
31
33
35
39
41
43
46
50
56
56
59

General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Geometric C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s B a s i c Regimes of Operation The Operating Regime C o e f f i c i e n t of t h e Main Rotor

REGIME

1 . CHAPTER 1 1 OPERATION OF THE MAIN ROTOR I N THE AXIAL FLOW

5 5 5 5

8. 9. 10. 1. 1 12. 13. 5 14.

15. 5 16.

5 17. 18.

Impulsive Theory of an I d e a l Rotor Blade Element Theory Forces R e s i s t i n g R o t a t i o n of t h e Main Rotor Power and Torque Required t o R o t a t e Main Rotor Main Rotor RPM C o n t r o l Techniques f o r C o u n t e r a c t i n g Main Rotor R e a c t i v e Torque Techniques f o r T r a n s m i t t i n g Torque From Engine t o
Main Rotor Main Rotor Power A v a i l a b l e Main Rotor T h r u s t i n Vertical Climb and V e r t i c a l
D e s cent Losses of t h e R e a l Rotor Characteristics of Operation of Coaxial System of
Two Main Rotors Programmed T e s t i n g Questions and Answers
MAIN ROTOR OPERATION I N F R A D FLIGHT OWR

CHAPTER I V .

19. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Main Rotor Operation i n Forward

Flight 20. Main Rotor T h r u s t as a Function of F l i g h t Speed

PAGE

21. 22. 23.

5 24. 25. 26.

27. 28. 29. 30.

31.
32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Blade T h r u s t and Its Azimuthal V a r i a t i o n R e s u l t a n t Flow V e l o c i t y Over Blade Element i n the Hub R o t a t i o n P l a n e V a r i a t i o n of C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and Resultant V e l o c i t i e s Along M a i n Rotor Radius Drawbacks of Main Rotor With R i g i d Blade R e t e n t i o n Purpose of Main Rotor Hub H o r i z o n t a l Hinges C o n d i t i o n s f o r Blade E q u i l i b r i u m Relative t o t h e H o r i z o n t a l Hinge Main Rotor Cone of Revolution Blade F l a p p i n g Motions Main Rotor Coning Axis T i l t Blade F l a p p i n g Motion R e s t r i c t i o n and Flapping Compensator Blade Element Angle of A t t a c k Change Owing t o Flapping Motions E f f e c t of Number of Blades on Main Rotor Aerodynamic Characterist i c s Azimuthal V a r i a t i o n of R o t a t i o n a l Resistance Forces and R e a c t i v e Torque I n e r t i a l Forces Acting on Main Rotor Blades O s c i l l a t o r y Blade Motions Damping of O s c i l l a t o r y Blade Motions P o s s i b i l i t y of Loss of Blade F l a p p i n g Motion S t a b i l i t y Programmed T e s t i n g Q u e s t i o n s and Answers HELICOPTER VERTICAL FLIGHT OPERATING REGIMES Hovering Regime. General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Diagram of Forces Acting on H e l i c o p t e r and Hovering Conditions T h r u s t and Power Required f o r Hovering Vertical Climb H e l i c o p t e r Vertical Descent With O p e r a t i n g Engine Vortex Ring Regime Programmed T e s t i n g Questions and Answers HELICOPTER HORIZONTAL FTJGHT General Characteristics of H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t T h r u s t and Power Required f o r H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c H e l i c o p t e r H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Speeds E f f e c t of H e l i c o p t e r Weight and F l i g h t A l t i t u d e on Performance F a c t o r s L i m i t i n g M a x i m a l H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Speed and Ways t o I n c r e a s e T h i s Speed H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Endurance and Range Programmed T e s t i n g Questions and A n s w e r s

62 64 66 68 71 71 74 75 78 80 83 85

1195

85
87 91 94 97 100

CHAPTER V.

107 108
109 112 119 123

38.
39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

125 126
129 129

CHAPTER V I .

44. 45. 46. 47.

131
136

138
141 144 148

48.
49.

vi

PAGE CHAPTER VII.

QLIMB A O G INCLINED TRAJECTORY LN

General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Climb Regime Along an I n c l i n e d T r a j e c t o r y T h r u s t and Power Required f o r C l i m b Vertical R a t e of Climb V a r i a t i o n o f Vertical Rate of Climb With A l t i t u d e HELICOPTER DESCENT ALONG INCLINED TRAJECTORY

152 152 153 155 156 160 160 162 164 166 171 171 176 177 182 187 191 195 197 200 202 208 208 2 13 /196

5 50.
I 51. 5 52.

5 53.

CHAF'TER V I I I .

5 54. 5 55.
5 56. CHAPTER I X .

General Characteristics of t h e Descent Regime T h r u s t and Power Required f o r H e l i c o p t e r Descent H e l i c o p t e r R a t e of Descent With O p e r a t i n g Engine Progranrmed T e s t i n g Questions and A n s w e r s HELICOPTER FLIGHT I N MAIN ROTOR AUTOROTATIVE REGIME

5 57.
5 58. 59. 60.

61. 62. 63. 5 64. 65.

Vertical Descent
Blade Aerodynamic Forces
Main Rotor A u t o r o t a t i o n Conditions and Regimes
Conditions f o r A u t o r o t a t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t Blade
Elements
Gliding
V e r t i c a l R a t e of Descent i n a G l i d e
S a f e t y Height
T r a n s i t i o n From F l i g h t With Engine O p e r a t i n g t o
F l i g h t i n t h e Main Rotor A u t o r o t a t i o n Regime
G l i d i n g Ch ar a ct eris t i cs of Dual- Ro t o r H e l i cop t ers
Programmed T e s t i n g Questions and Answers

HELICOPTER TAKEOFF AND LANDING Takeoff Landing HELICOPTER BALANCE

STABILITY AND CONTROL

CHAPTER X.

66. 67.

CHAPTER X I .

222 222 225 227 236 242 245 246

5 68. 5 69. 5 70. 71. 5 72. 5 73. 5 74. 5 75.

H e l i c o p t e r C e n t e r of G r a v i t y and Balance
General A n a l y s i s of H e l i c o p t e r E q u i l i b r i u m
H e l i c o p t e r E q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e Hovering Regime
Helicopter S t a t i c S t a b i l i t y
H e l i c o p t e r Dynamic S t a b i l i t y
Concept o f H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l
Change of Main Rotor C o l l e c t i v e and C y c l i c P i t c h
Purpose and P r i n c i p l e of t h e Main Rotor T i l t C o n t r o l
System

24 7

vi i

PAGE

76. 5 77. 78.

Single-Rotor H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l P r i n c i p l e s Dual-Rotor H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l P r i n c i p l e s Concept of H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y HELICOPTER VIBRATIONS General A n a l y s i s of V i b r a t i o n s H e l i c o p t e r Forced V i b r a t i o n s Self-Excited Vibrations Bending and Bending-Torsion V i b r a t i o n s of R i g i d l y
R e s t r a i n e d Blade
SYMBOL L I S T

252
254
257
262
262
26 4
267
271
28 1
284
285

CHAPTER X I I .

79.

80. 81.
82.

APPENDIX I. APPENDIX 11.

REFERENCES

P O R M E TESTING ANSWERS R GA MD

viii

CHAPTER I

PRINCIPLES O F HELICOPTER FLIGHT

5 1. B r i e f H i s t o r y

e H-elicopter Development f

The i d e a of c r e a t i n g a f l y i n g a p p a r a t u s w i t h a n a e r i a l screw, which c r e a t e d a l i f t i n g f o r c e , w a s suggested f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n 1475 by Leonard0 d e Vinci. T h i s i d e a w a s t o o premature owing t o t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of t e c h n i c a l The i d e a w a s
A s k e t c h and d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s f l y i n g a p p a r a t u s w a s

12.

r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t and o p p o s i t i o n by r e l i g i o u s o p P n i o n s . buried i n t h e archives.

d i s p l a y e d i n t h e Milan l i b r a r y and p u b l i s h e d a t t h e end of t h e l g t h c e n t u r y . I n 1754, M. V. Lomonosov s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g a h e a v i e r t h a n a i r f l y i n g a p p a r a t u s and b u i l t a model of a d u a l r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h t h e r o t o r s arranged c o a x i a l l y . I n t h e l g t h c e n t u r y many Russian s c i e n t i s t s and e n g i n e e r s developed p r o j e c t s f o r f l y i n g machines w i t h main r o t o r s . I n 1869, e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r
A. N. Lodygin proposed a p r o j e c t e d h e l i c o p t e r powered by a n e l e c t r i c motor.

I n 1870 t h e w e l l known s c i e n t i s t M. A . Rykachev w a s engaged i n t h e develop ment of p r o p e l l e r s . M e t a l l u r g i s t - s c i e n t i s t D. K. Chernov devised a h e l i c o p t e r scheme w i t h l o n g i t u d i n a l , t r a n s v e r s e , and c o a x i a l l y arranged r o t o r s .
__

*Numbers

i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e i g n text.

A t t h e end of t h e l g t h c e n t u r y , t h e development of f l y i n g machines engaged

t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d Russian s c i e n t i s t s D. I. Mendeleyev, K. E. T s i o l k o v s k i y , N. Ye.Zhukovskiy and S. A. Chaplygin.

A period of indepth

s c i e n t i f i c s u b s t a n t i a t i o n of t h e i d e a o f f l i g h t w i t h h e a v i e r t h a n a i r f l y i n g machines began.

A c l o s e a s s o c i a t e o f N. Ye.Zhukovskiy,

B. N. Yur'yev,

i n 1 9 1 1 proposed

a well-developed s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r p r o j e c t w i t h a p r o p e l l e r f o r d i r e c
t i o n a l c o n t r o l and a l s o a fundamental arrangement f o r h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l , t h a t of a u t o m a t i c a l l y warping t h e main r o t o r . A f t e r t h e Great October S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n , when o u r c o u n t r y began t o develop i t s own a v i a t i o n i n d u s t r y , work on t h e c r e a t i o n o f a h e l i c o p t e r w a s c o n t i n u e d . I n 1925, i n TSAGI, a n e x p e r i m e n t a l group f o r s p e c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s w a s o r g a n i z e d under t h e l e a d e r s h i p of B. N.Yur'yev. development of a h e l i c o p t e r . I n 1930 t h e f i r s t S o v i e t h e l i c o p t e r w a s b u i l t , t h e TSAGI 1-EA ( F i g u r e 1 ) . T h i s h e l i c o p t e r w a s t e s t e d by t h e e n g i n e e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n , Aleksey Mikhaylovich Cheremyukhin. Cheremyukhinset a world r e c o r d a l t i t u d e T h i s group w a s engaged i n t h e

/4

of 605 m i n t h i s h e l i c o p t e r .

F i g u r e 1. TSAGI 1-EA H e l i c o p t e r .
2

I n 1948 t h e s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s M i - 1 and Yak-100 w e r e b u i l t . f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i t w a s a c c e p t e d f o r m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .

As a

r e s u l t of t h e S t a t e t r i a l s , t h e h e l i c o p t e r M i - 1 proved t o have t h e most satis

I n 1952 t h e h e l i c o p t e r Mi-4 w a s b u i l t , which, f o r t h a t t i m e , had a v e r y l a r g e u s e f u l load. The same y e a r s a w t h e completion and f i r s t f l i g h t of t h e "Flying Wagon" designed tandem arrangement d u a l r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r , t h e Yak-24, by A. S. Yakovlev ( F i g u r e 2 ) .

F i g u r e 2.

Yak-24 H e l i c o p t e r .

I n 1958 t h e heavy h e l i c o p t e r Mi-6 was c o n s t r u c t e d which, up t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , h a s no e q u a l abroad. I n 1961 t h e h e l i c o p t e r s Mi-2 and M i - 8 engines, w e r e b u i l t . ( F i g u r e 3 ) , which have gas t u r b i n e

I5

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e they are i n mass p r o d u c t i o n and

t h e y w i l l g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s . The a b i l i t y of a h e l i c o p t e r t o f l y v e r t i c a l l y , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of motion i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n , makes t h e b e l i c o p t e r a v e r y maneuverable f l y i n g machine,and s i n c e i t c a n o p e r a t e independent of a i r f i e l d s i t s boundaries o f u t i l i z a t i o n are c o n s i d e r a b l y widened.

Figure 3.

Mi-8 single rotor helicopter.

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e h e l i c o p t e r s are found i n more and more wider a p p l i c a

t i o n i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy. They appear as a b a s i c means of conveyance i n

l o c a t i o n s where i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o u t i l i z e ground t r a n s p o r t o r f i x e d wing airplanes. H e l i c o p t e r s are u t i l i z e d i n c i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n work and t o r e s c u e Lately helicopters From t h e examples g i v e n , i t :

people and p r o p e r t y a t t i m e s o f v a r i o u s n a t u r a l calamities. a r e b e i n g w i d e l y used i n t h e r u r a l economy.

can b e s e e n t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of u t i l i z i n g h e l i c o p t e r s as f l y i n g machines are f a r from exhausted.

S 2.

The H e l i c o p t e r and i t s Basic Components

A h e l i c o p t e r i s a h e a v i e r t h a n a i r f l y i n g machine t h a t h a s a l i f t i n g
f o r c e c r e a t e d by a main r o t o r a c c o r d i n g t o aerodynamic p r i n c i p l e s .

The b a s i c components of a h e l i c o p t e r are as f o l l o w s :

Main r o t o r . Fuselage. cargo.

P u t i n motion by t h e power p l a n t ( e n g i n e ) . I n t e n d e d f o r accomodation of c r e w , p a s s e n g e r s , equipment and

Landing g e a r , t h a t is, arrangement intended f o r movement over t h e ground o r f o r parking.

T a i l rotor.

/6

P r o v i d e s d i r e c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m and d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l of

the helicopter. P r o p u l s i o n system which sets i n motion t h e l i f t i n g and t a i l r o t o r s and a u x i l i a r y systems. Transmission t r a n s f e r s t h e t o r q u e from t h e power p l a n t t o t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s .

All components of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e f u s e l a g e o r are

set i n it. F l i g h t i s p o s s i b l e f o r a f l y i n g machine i f t h e r e i s a l i f t i n g f o r c e c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g i t s weight. a t t h e main r o t o r . The l i f t i n g f o r c e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o r i g i n a t e s I f t h e main The By t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r i n t h e a i r a t h r u s t

f o r c e i s developed p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

r o t o r r o t a t e s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l plane, then i t s t h r u s t f o r c e T is d i r e c t e d v e r t i c a l l y upwards ( F i g u r e 4 a ) , t h a t i s , v e r t i c a l f l i g h t i s p o s s i b l e . f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r and t h e weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f l i g h t depend on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e t h r u s t

I f the t h r u s t force

e q u a l s t h e weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , t h e n i t w i l l remain m o t i o n l e s s i n t h e

air.

I f , though, t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e w e i g h t , t h e n t h e If the

h e l i c o p t e r w i l l p a s s from b e i n g m o t i o n l e s s i n t o a v e r t i c a l climb.

t h r u s t f o r c e i s less t h a n t h e weight, a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t w i l l r e s u l t . The p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e ground can b e i n c l i n e d i n any d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 4b, c ) . h o r i z o n t a l component P I n t h i s case t h e r o t o r w i l l f u l f i l l

a two-fold f u n c t i o n ; i t s v e r t i c a l component Y w i l l b e t h e l i f t f o r c e and t h e

- the

propulsive force.

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of 5

.-

F i g u r e 4. P r i n c i p l e of f l i g h t c o n t r o l s of a h e l i c o p t e r . a - v e r t i c a l f l i g h t ; b - h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t forwards; c - h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t backwards. t h i s f o r c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r moves forward i n f l i g h t .

I f t h e p l a n e of t h e main r o t o r i s i n c l i n e d backwards, t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l move backwards. ( F i g u r e 4 c ) . The i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n t o t h e

r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t c a u s e s motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g direction.

5 3.

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of H e l.- c- -_- s . i optgr

The b a s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h e l i c o p t e r t y p e s i s t h a t of t h e number o f main r o t o r s and t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n . According t o t h e number o f main r o t o r s ,

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c l a s s i f y h e l i c o p t e r s as s i n g l e r o t o r , d u a l r o t o r and m u l t i

r o t o r types. S i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s appear i n many varieties. Figure 3 ) .

H e l i c o p t e r s of t h e

s i n g l e r o t o r scheme have a main r o t o r , mounted on t h e main f u s e l a g e and a t a i l r o t o r mounted on t h e t a i l s t r u c t u r e ( s e e T h i s arrangement, which

w a s developed by B. N. Yur'yev i n 1911, p r o v i d e s a name f o r one c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

The b a s i c m e r i t o f s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s i s t h e s i m p l i c i t y of con s t r u c t i o n and t h e c o n t r o l system. The class of s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s Some of t h e d e f i c i e n i n c l u d e s t h e v e r y l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s ( f l i g h t weight about 500 k g f ) , and v e r y heavy h e l i c o p t e r s ( f l i g h t weight g r e a t e r t h a n 40 t o n s ) .

c i e s of t h e s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r are:
Large f u s e l a g e l e n g t h ;

A s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s o f power due t o t h e t a i l r o t o r drive t r a i n (7 of t h e f u l l power of t h e e n g i n e ) ; A l i m i t e d range of permissible centering;

10%

A h i g h e r level o f v i b r a t i o n ( t h e l o n g t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s , e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e t a i l s t r u c t u r e , are a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f s p r i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s ) .
Dual r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s appear i n s e v e r a l arrangements. Rotors a r r a n g e d i n tandem; t h i s i s t h e most p r e v a l e n t arrangement ( F i g u r e 5 4 R o t o r s i n a t r a n s v e r s e arrangement ( F i g u r e 5b);
A c r o s s connected r o t o r scheme ( F i g u r e 5 c ) ;
A c o a x i a l r o t o r arrangement ( F i g u r e 5d).

The b a s i c m e r i t s of h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a tandem r o t o r arrangement are:

Wider r a n g e of p e r m i s s i b l e c e n t e r i n g ;
Large f u s e l a g e volume; which a l l o w s i t t o c o n t a i n l a r g e - s i z e d l o a d s ;
Increased l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y ;
Large weight c o e f f i c i e n t .
H e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a tandem arrangement of r o t o r s can have one o r two e n g i n e s , which are l o c a t e d i n t h e forward o r a f t p a r t s of t h e f u s e l a g e . h e l i c o p t e r s have t h e f o l l o w i n g s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s : These

F i g u r e 5.

Dual r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s .

A complicated system of t r a n s m i s s i o n and c o n t r o l ;

Adverse mutual i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e main r o t o r s which c a u s e s , i n a d d i t i o n , a l o s s of power; Complicated l a n d i n g t e c h n i q u e s are r e q u i r e d i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime of main r o t o r s . The f o l l o w i n g advantages are a t t r i b u t e d t o h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a t r a n s v e r s e arrangement of r o t o r s : Convenient u t i l i z a t i o n of a l l p a r t s o f t h e f u s e l a g e f o r c r e w and p a s s e n g e r s , s i n c e t h e e n g i n e s are l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e f u s e l a g e ; Absence of harmful i n t e r a c t i o n of one r o t o r w i t h t h e o t h e r ; Higher l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; The p r e s e n c e of a n a u x i l i a r y wing, where t h e e n g i n e s and main r o t o r s are l o c a t e d , a l l o w s t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o develop a h i g h speed.

D e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r s are as f o l l o w s :

A complicated system of c o n t r o l and t r a n s m i s s i o n ;

An i n c r e a s e i n s i z e and s t r u c t u r e weight due t o t h e presence of t h e a u x i l i a r y wing. Dual r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h c r o s s connected r o t o r s have a c o n s i d e r a b l e advantage over h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h transverse r o t o r s ; they do n o t have a n a u x i l i a r y wing, which r e d u c e s t h e s i z e and s t r u c t u r e weight. w i t h t h e s e advantages t h e r e i s a d e f i c i e n c y , and c o n t r o l system. These h e l i c o p t e r s are n o t produced i n t h e S o v i e t Union. countered, on o c c a s i o n , abroad. The b a s i c advantage of d u a l r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h c o a x i a l r o t o r s i s t h e i r small s i z e . Their disadvantages: They are en But, a t t h e s a m e t i m e ,

-a

complicated t r a n s m i s s i o n

/9

Complicated s t r u c t u r e ;
Deficient d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y ;
Danger of c o l l i s i o n of t h e r o t o r b l a d e s ;
Considerable v i b r a t i o n .
I n t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e r e are o n l y l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h t h i s r o t o r arrangement. M u l t i - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s a r e n o t widely used i n view o f t h e i r complex construction. I n a l l d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e main r o t o r s r o t a t e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c tions. reduced. I n t h i s way t h e mutual reactive moments are balanced, and t h e n e c e s s i t y Thus t h e power l o s s from t h e e n g i n e i s of having a t a i l r o t o r i s e l i m i n a t e d .

CHAPTER 11
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN ROTOR

5 4.

General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The main r o t o r (MR) is a b a s i c component of a h e l i c o p t e r .

It i s u t i l i z e d

t o create t h e l i f t and motive f o r c e and t o c o n t r o l t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

The b a s i c p a r t s of t h e main r o t o r are t h e hub and t h e b l a d e s . The b l a d e s create t h e t h r u s t f o r c e t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r f l i g h t .

The

hub connects a l l t h e b l a d e s and serves t o f a s t e n t h e main r o t o r t o t h e d r i v e shaft. The d r i v e s h a f t c a u s e s t h e r o t o r t o r o t a t e .

I t is p o s s i b l e t o s u b d i v i d e main r o t o r s i n t o t h r e e t y p e s depending on
t h e s t r u c t u r a l arrangement: Those w i t h r i g i d l y f a s t e n e d b l a d e s ;
Those w i t h f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d b l a d e s ;
Those w i t h a s e m i - r i g i d ( f l a p p i n g ) arrangement.

A main r o t o r w i t h r i g i d l y f a s t e n e d b l a d e s ( F i g u r e 6 ) h a s t h e s i m p l e s t
c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h i s i s i t s main advantage. But t h i s r o t o r h a s i n h e r e n t and Therefore, t h i s s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e s , which w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I V . type of r o t o r i s n o t u t i l i z e d i n contemporary h e l i c o p t e r s .

A t p r e s e n t , on

some l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s , as f o r example t h e American h e l i c o p t e r s , Hughes UH-6A,

H i l l e r EH-1100 and o t h e r s , main r o t o r s w i t h s p r i n g f a s t e n e d b l a d e s are used.

These r o t o r s can b e c o n s i d e r e d as a v a r i e t y of r o t o r w i t h r i g i d b l a d e s .

/0 1

10

The hub o f a main r o t o r w i t h r i g i d b l a d e s h a s axial h i n g e s , which a l l o w t h e b l a d e s t o swing

relative t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis as
i s n e c e s s a r y f o r c o n t r o l of t h e
'.

rotor.

A main r o t o r w i t h f u l l y a r t i c u
F i g u r e 6. Main r o t o r w i t h r i g i d l y fastened blades. rotor shaft; 2 blade; 3 - hub; 4 - a x i a l hinge; 5 b l a d e b a l a n c e weight. l a t e d b l a d e s a p p e a r s t h e most o f t e n ( F i g u r e 7).

- Main

I t s hub h a s t h r e e axial, h o r i
The main r o t o r

h i n g e s f o r each b l a d e : z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l . r a r e l y used.

o f t h e semi-rigid arrangement i s
It i s not considered
I .

i n t h i s book. The hubs of main r o t o r s a r e made of s t e e l a l l o y . construction. The b l a d e s can be m e t a l l i c , wooden, o r o f composite They can a l s o be made

F i g u r e 7. Main r o t o r w i t h f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d blades.

of s y n t h e t i c materials.

1 - Hub; 2 a x i a l hinge; 3 h o r i z o n t a l hinge; 4 - v e r t i c a l hinge.

by d e f i n i t e geometric parameters: and t h e s o l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t .

5.

Geometric C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

A main r o t o r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

d i a m e t e r , b l a d e planform shape, b l a d e pro-

f i l e shape, b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e , t h e r e f e r e n c e area, s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g

The d i a m e t e r o f t h e r o t o r i s t h e diameter of t h e c i r c l e swept o u t by t h e blade t i p s .

I t i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e l e t t e r D and t h e r a d i u s R.

The r a d i u s

of a b l a d e element i s d e s i g n a t e d r ( F i g u r e 8 a ) .

The r a t i o of t h e r a d i u s o f

a b l a d e element t o t h e r a d i u s o f t h e r o t o r i s t e r m e d t h e r e l a t i v e r a d i u s

11

....

.. ., . .. ..

. ...

which g i v e s r = r R

The b l a d e planform shape can be r e c t a n g u l a r , t r a p e z o i d a l o r a combination ( F i g u r e 8b).

I n form, t h e b l a d e resembles t h e wing of a n a i r p l a n e .

The forward edge

of t h e b l a d e i s c a l l e d t h e l e a d i n g edge, and t h e a f t edge i s c a l l e d t h e t r a i l i n g edge. T r a p e z o i d a l b l a d e s have t h e most uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic forces along t h e blade. Rectangular b l a d e s a r e s i m p l e r t o manufacture, b u t The most widely used

/1 1

they have s e v e r a l poor aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

b l a d e s are t r a p e z o i d a l and r e c t a n g u l a r i n combination.

The p r o f i l e of t h e b l a d e i s t h e

term used f o r t h e form of t h e b l a d e

s e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e longitud inal axis. The p r o f i l e of a b l a d e resembles t h e p r o f i l e of a wing. Most o f t e n double convex asymmetri

c a l s e c t i o n s are used ( F i g u r e 8c).

Therequirements f o r a blade p r o f i l e are:

...
F i g u r e 8.

. ,
_

.
I

, .

Main r o t o r parameters.

High aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y , K = C / C ' Y x' S m a l l s h i f t of c e n t e r o f press u r e w i t h changes i n a n g l e of a t t a c k ;

The a b i l i t y t o a u t o r o t a t e o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e r a n g e of a n g l e s of a t t a c k .

12

. . I

,.

./

.'

The p r o f i l e of t h e b l a d e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e r e l a t i v e t h i c k ness
= c / b and t h e r e l a t i v e camber

'.
Y

..
.
*'

'

f = f / b (Figure 9). According t o t h e r e l a t i v e t h i c k

.
F i g u r e 9. thin

'...

. ,-

!, .

i .

'

.
n e s s , t h e p r o f i l e i s c l a s s i f i e d as

Blade p r o f i l e parameters. medium

(c < 8%),

a r e l a t i v e thickness

(c = 8 - 1 2 % ) , o r t h i c k (c > 1 2 % ) . Most b l a d e s have of c > 12%. The u s e of t h i c k p r o f i l e s allows an i n

c r e a s e i n t h e f o r c e r e s i s t a n c e o f a n element and t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e b l a d e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y depends less on t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k for thick profiles. T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y of t h e p r o f i l e improves t h e b l a d e G e n e r a l l y , t h e outermost element of t h e p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

blade has a g r e a t e r thickness r a t i o than a t t h e root.

A r e l a t i v e camber of t h e b l a d e of f = '2

3% b r i n g s t h e p r o f i l e form

/12

c l o s e r t o symmetry, which l e a d s t o a d e c r e a s e i n t h e s h i f t o f t h e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e w i t h changes of a n g l e of a t t a c k . The i n c i d e n c e a n g l e of t h e b l a d e element i s termed t h e a n g l e main r o t o r hub ( F i g u r e t h e b l a d e element.

4;

i t is

formed by t h e a n g l e between the element chord and t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n of t h e

lo).

The i n c i d e n c e a n g l e i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e p i t c h of I n a more s t r i c t This d i s t a n c e

This i s an a r b i t r a r y d e f i n i t i o n .

d e f i n i t i o n t h e p i t c h o f t h e b l a d e element i s t h e d i s t a n c e H. a f t e r one r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r

H = 2rr tan

i s o b t a i n e d from t h e d i s t a n c e a b l a d e element travels p a r a l l e l t o t h e chord

Owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p i t c h of a b l a d e element depends o n l y on t h e incidence angle

4,

t h e n i n t h e subsequent d i s c u s s i o n w e w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e con
A t different

c e p t " i n c i d e n c e angle" w i t h t h e concept "blade element p i t c h " . elements of t h e b l a d e t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t .

13

,..

. ,...-. _ . ,.

. .

. .

The p i t c h of t h e b l a d e i s t a k e n as t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e , o r t h e p i t c h of
,

t h e b l a d e element, w i t h a relative r a d i u s of

r = 0.7.

This angle i s

d e f i n e d as t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e ( p i t c h )

of t h e main r o t o r .
F i g u r e 10. I n c i d e n c e a n g l e o f the blade.

As t h e blade turns r e l a t i v e t o t h e
l o n g i t u d i n a l axis, t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e

changes.

Such t u r n i n g i s p o s s i b l e thanks t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e a x i a l h i n g e .

Consequently, t h e a x i a l h i n g e of t h e main r o t o r b l a d e i s i n t e n d e d f o r p i t c h alteration. The a l t e r a t i o n of t h e p i t c h of t h e b l a d e elements over t h e r a d i u s of t h e main r o t o r i s termed t h e geometric t w i s t o f t h e b l a d e .

A t t h e r o o t o f t h e b l a d e elements, t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s are t h e l a r g e s t ,

w h i l e a t t h e t i p t h e y are t h e s m a l l e s t ( F i g u r e 1 1 ) .

Geometric t w i s t improves

t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b l a d e elements,and t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k approach t h e optimum, i n g r o t o r of 5 T h i s causes a n i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e o f t h e l i f t T h e r e f o r e , geometric t w i s t i n c r e a s e s t h e u s e f u l l o a d i n g

7%.

of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t c o n s t a n t engine power.

Owing t o geometric t w i s t a more uniform f o r c e l o a d i n g on t h e b l a d e element

i s achieved and t h e speed, a t which flow breakdown o c c u r s on t h e r e t r e a t i n g

blade, is increased. does n o t exceed 5 The m a j o r i t y of b l a d e s have a geometric t w i s t which

7'

S t i f f n e s s i s understood t o mean t h e a b i l i t y of t h e b l a d e t o r e t a i n i t s form. With g r e a t s t i f f n e s s , even f o r c e l o a d i n g i s n o t c a p a b l e of deforming With s m a l l s t i f f n e s s t h e

113

t h e s t r u c t u r e and e x t e r n a l shape o f t h e b l a d e .

b l a d e becomes f l e x i b l e and e a s i l y y i e l d s t o d e f o r m a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e b l a d e

i s s t r o n g l y b e n t and t w i s t e d .
14

I f t h e f l e x i b i l i t y i s t o o g r e a t , t h e optimum

_ :

F i g u r e 11.

Geometric twist of t h e b l a d e . T h i s l e a d s t o i n f e r i o r aerodynamic

twist cannot b e maintained on t h e b l a d e .

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e main r o t o r .

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n g r e a t s t i f f n e s s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e s i z e of t h e l o a d s u p p o r t i n g e l e m e n t s , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e d weight of t h e b l a d e . U n n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h s t i f f n e s s leads t o a n i n c r e a s e of v i b r a t i o n of t h e main rotor. The g r e a t e s t s t i f f n e s s i s o b t a i n e d w i t h b l a d e s of m e t a l o r of continuous wooden c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t t h e l a t t e r are v e r y heavy and a r e u t i l i z e d o n l y on light helicopters. The area swept o u t by t h e main r o t o r i s t h e area of t h e c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d by t h e b l a d e t i p s

T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e main r o t o r h a s approximately t h e s a m e impor t a n c e as t h e wing area o f a f i x e d wing a i r p l a n e , t h a t i s , i t i s s i m i l a r t o t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e area.

15

The d i s k l o a d i n g , based on t h e swept area, i s d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o of he licop t er weight t o area, t h a t i s , t h e area swept o u t by t h e main r o t o r .

where, P = s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g , kgf/m2;

G = h e l i c o p t e r weight, kgf;

I ? = swept area, m

Contemporary h e l i c o p t e r s have s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g s t h a t v a r y from 1 2 t o 2 2 150 N/m ) 25 kgf .m ( o r 120

The s o l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e t o t a l planfrom

area of a l l t h e b l a d e s t o t h e a r e a swept o u t by t h e main r o t o r .

SBk =F

where, SB = planform area o f one b l a d e , m2; k

= number o f b l a d e s

Contemporary main r o t o r s have perhaps from 2 t o 6 b l a d e s . t h e r e are 3 copters.

Most o f t e n

4 b l a d e s on l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s and 5

6 b l a d e s on heavy h e l i T h i s means t h a t The

The s p a c e f a c t o r h a s a v a l u e from .04 t o .07.

114

7% o f t h e area swept o u t by t h e r o t o r i s t a k e n up by t h e b l a d e s .

l a r g e r t h e space f a c t o r , within t h e l i m i t s i n d i c a t e d , t h e l a r g e r t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r . But i f t h e space f a c t o r exceeds . 0 7 , t h e n t h e f o r c e s of r e s i s t a n c e t o r o t a t i o n are i n c r e a s e d and t h e b l a d e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e main r o t o r i s decreased. 6. Basic R e g i m e s of O ~ p e r a t i o n

The o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e main r o c o r o r i t s working regime are d e f i n e d as t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e main r o t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r stream. 16 Depending

on t h e p o s i t i o n , two b a s i c working regimes are c o n s i d e r e d , t h o s e o f axial and t r a n s l a t i o n a l flow. The a x i a l flow regime i s t h e term used f o r t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r where t h e axis of t h e hub i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e oncoming f r e e

stream flow.

I n t h e a x i a l f l o w regime t h e f r e e stream p a s s e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o T h i s regime c o v e r s

t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r hub ( F i g u r e 1 2 a ) . main r o t o r . changed.

t h e hovering, v e r t i c a l climb and v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e a x i a l f l o w regime i s t h a t t h e loca t i o n of t h e b l a d e o f t h e r o t o r , r e l a t i v e t o t h e oncoming f r e e stream, i s n o t Consequently, t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s on t h e b l a d e as i t moves around t h e c i r c l e are n o t changed. The pb1-i-qu-e flow regime i s t h e term used f o r t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s of t h e main r o t o r , where t h e airstream approaches t h e r o t o r i n a d i r e c t i o n n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of t h e hub. An i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e of t h i s regime i s A s a consequence, t h e v e l o c i t y t h a t , as t h e b l a d e moves around i n a c i r c l e , i t c o n t i n u o u s l y changes i t s l o c a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e flow approaching t h e r o t o r . blade. of t h e flow a t each element i s changed and a l s o t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s on t h e The t r a n s l a t i o n a l flow regime o c c u r s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t o f a h e l i c o p t e r and i n f l i g h t i n c l i n e d upwards and downwards. From c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , one can see t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e main r o t o r i n t h e a i r f l o w is i m p o r t a n t . determined by t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r . The angLe of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r i s termed a n g l e A, and i t i s formed by t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e hub and t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r , o r by t h e u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w approaching t h e r o t o r . The a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s I f the p o s i t i v e i f t h e flow approaches t h e r o t o r from below ( F i g u r e 12b). 12c). This p o s i t i o n i s

flow approaches t h e r o t o r from above, t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i s n e g a t i v e ( F i g u r e I f t h e a i r f l o w approaches t h e r o t o r p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e hub, t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s z e r o ( F i g u r e 12d).

17

;.

.,. .' ' . .

'I

'

'

..\ -

F i g u r e 12. O p e r a t i n g regimes and a n g l e o f a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r .

I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o o b s e r v e t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e o p e r a t i n g

regime of t h e main r o t o r and t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k :

I n t h e a x i a l f l o w regime, t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k o f t h e main r o t o r A = I n t h e o b l i q u e flow regime, A

2 90".

+ -

90".

I f t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k A = 0", t h e o p e r a t i n g regime of t h e main r o t o r is termed t h e p l a n a r f l o w regime.

5 7.

The O p e r a t i n g Regime Coef fLc&npt-ouhgXai&

Rotor

A s p e c i a l q u a n t i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e o p e r a t i n g regimes
o f t h e main r o t o r

- the

o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t (*I

The o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t of a main r o t o r , 1-1, i s d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o of t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r on t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e hub t o t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y o f t h e b l a d e t i p . The p r o j e c t i o n of t h e

f l i g h t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r , o r t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow, on t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n o f t h e hub

i s e q u a l t o t h e p r o d u c t of V cos A ( F i g u r e 1 3 ) .

~.

(*)Translator's note: 18

T h i s i s t h e t i p speed r a t i o .

Then w e have

p=
'

.vc0s.h. .
W R

I n t h e a x i a l flow regime, when F i g u r e 13. P r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y on t h e hub p l a n e of rotation.

V = 0, o r cos A = O(A = g o o ) , p = 0.
Consequently, t h e e q u a t i o n p = I f p > 0, t h i s is t h e index of t h e trans

0 i n d i c a t e s t h e a x i a l flow regime.
v e r s e flow regime. t r a n s v e r s e flow. 0 t o 0.4. 10'. formula S i n c e cos

The l a r g e r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t p, t h e l a r g e r t h e e f f e c t of The c o e f f i c i e n t p f o r contemporary h e l i c o p t e r s v a r i e s from

I n most cases t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r does n o t exceed

loo w

1, t h e n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e p by t h e approximate

19

CHAPTER 1 1 1

OPERATION OF THE MAIN ROTOR I N THE

AXIAL F O REGIME LW

During t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r , a t h r u s t f o r c e arises

that

creates l i f t and motion f o r c e s f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

operation.

The q u e s t i o n of t h e o r i g i n

of t h i s t h r u s t f o r c e i s a b a s i c q u e s t i o n i n t h e s t u d y of t h e main r o t o r Several t h e o r i e s e x i s t t h a t e x p l a i n t h e o r i g i n of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e .

W e c o n s i d e r t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of two such t h e o r i e s .

5 8.

Impulsive Theory of a n I d e a l Rotor

I n t h i s theory an i d e a l r o t o r is considered operates without l o s s e s .

- that

is, a rotor that

Such a r o t o r receives i t s energy from t h e engine,

and a l l o f i t i s transformed i n t o work by d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e a i r m a s s along t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n . I f t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime i s c o n s i d e r e d

- that

is, when t h e r e i s no t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r and i t s speed i s

zero

- the

a i r i s a t t r a c t e d by t h e r o t o r from above and from t h e s i d e s ( r o t o r A f l o w of a i r i s

The parameters o f t h i s flow

induced flow) and i t i s d e f l e c t e d downwards ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) . e s t a b l i s h e d through t h e area swept o u t by t h e r o t o r .

are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i n f l o w v e l o c i t y Vi

( t h e speed of t h e flow i n t h e p l a n e

of r o t a t i o n and t h e main r o t o r ) , by t h e downwash v e l o c i t y of t h e flow of VD ( t h e speed of t h e flow a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r ) , by t h e i n c r e a s e of p r e s s u r e i n t h e f l o w AP, and by t h e change of speed along t h e axis o f r o t a t i o n .

20

F i g u r e 14. O p e r a t i o n of an i d e a l r o t o r according t o i m p u l s i v e theory. By d e f l e c t i n g t h e a i r downwards w i t h a f o r c e T , t h e r o t o r receives a f o r c e from t h e a i r i n t h e upward d i r e c t i o n ( a c t i o n e q u a l s r e a c t i o n ) . f o r c e w i l l b e t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e r o t o r . This But from mechanics, i t i s known Therefore,

t h a t a f o r c e e q u a l s t h e p r o d u c t of t h e mass of a body t i m e s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n t h a t t h e body r e c e i v e s under t h e a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e .

where m

= mass of a i r p e r second, flowing through t h e area swept o u t by t h e

rotor;
= a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e flow.

The m a s s of a i r p e r second is determined from t h e formula:

21

where p

= air density; = area swept o u t by t h e r o t o r ;

Vi = induced flow v e l o c i t y ( i n f l o w v e l o c i t y )

As i s known, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e change o f v e l o c i t y i n u n i t t i m e ,

117

a=- dV ' dt
where dV = i n c r e a s e o f f l o w v e l o c i t y dt = time I f w e t a k e d t = 1 second, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n a i s n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e , t h a t i s , a = dV.

L e t u s c l a r i f y t h e v a l u e of dV.

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e r o t o r i n

t h e h o v e r i n g regime, i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see ( F i g u r e 14) t h a t t h e a i r a t

a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from t h e r o t o r i s s t a t i o n a r y relative t o t h e r o t o r i s zero.

- that

is, i t s velocity

Beneath t h e r o t o r , t h e a i r moves a t t h e i n f l o w v e l o c i t y , which means t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e dV = VD. Then u t i l i z i n g Formulas (1) and (2) w e o b t a i n

T = m a = m V = pFViVD. S s D

(3)

I n order t o a r r i v e a t a f i n a l conclusion, i t i s necessary t o a s c e r t a i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e i n f l o w v e l o c i t y V

W e u s e t h e l a w of c o n s e r v a t i o n of momentum:
t h e i n c r e a s e of momentum'.

and t h e downwash v e l o c i t y V i D' 'The impulse of a f o r c e e q u a l s

It w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e impulse o f a f o r c e i s t h e product o f f o r c e

and t i m e .

I f t h e t i m e d t = 1 second, t h e n t h e impulse of t h e f o r c e numeri

c a l l y equals the force.

22

The p r o d u c t of t h e m a s s o f a body and t h e v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e i s termed t h e i n c r e a s e o f momentum: msdV = msVD. T h i s means t h a t , based on t h e fundamental

/8 1

l a w of c o n s e r v a t i o n of momentum, w e o b t a i n t h e t h r u s t f o r c e ;
T = msVD-

(4)

The work p e r second by t h e main r o t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e downwash w i l l have t h e v a l u e ;

N = TVZ.

(5)

But because w e are c o n s i L x i n g a n i d e a l r o t o r losses

- that

-s, a r o t o r w i t h o u t

- then,

as a consequence, a l l of t h e work i s changed i n t o k i n e t i c The k i n e t i c energy i s determined by

energy of t h e flow l e a v i n g t h e r o t o r . t h e formula

U t i l i z i n g Formula ( 4 ) , w e f i n d ;
=

Ek

7 VD..

Equating Formulas (5) and ( 6 ) on t h e b a s i s of t h e t h e o r y of a n i d e a l r o t o r , we obtain

Tvi =

1
2 vD

or

2v. = V D .
1

Thus Formula ( 4 ) f i n a l l y t a k e s t h e form

T =

F V = FVi2Vi V i D P

or

T = 2 F V
P

2 i'

(7)

23

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e t h r u s t f o r c e , developed by t h e main r o t o r , i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a i r d e n s i t y , t h e area swept o u t by t h - r o t o r and induced v e l o c i t y squared.

*

I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e on what t h e induced v e l o c i t y d - ?rids, i t i s necessary t o consider another theory t h a t explains t h e orii. f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r .
I

of t h e t h r u s t

5 9.

Blade Element Theory

I n accordance w i t h t h i s t h e o r y , each element o f t h e b l a d e i s c o n s i d e r e d as a s m a l l wing, which moves i n a c i r c u l a r t r a j e c t o r y w i t h speed u = w r (Figure 15a). angle I f t h e p r o f i l e of t h e b l a d e w e r e symmetrical and t h e i n c i d e n c e

= 0, t h e r e would be no d e f l e c t i o n of a i r downwards, and Vi and T

would b e e q u i v a l e n t t o zero.

For an asymmetrical p r o f i l e and element i s d e f l e c t e d downwards.

9 > 0,

t h e a i r f l o w approaching t h e b l a d e

T h i s d e f l e c t i o n , and as a consequence, t h e

induced v e l o c i t y w i l l b e l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e of t h e element, and t h e g r e a t e r t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o r t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r ( F i g u r e 15b). Adding t h e v e c t o r s of c i r c u l a r and induced v e l o c i t y , w e o b t a i n t h e r e s u l t ingvector

/9 1

+ Vi
The

The a n g l e a between t h e chord of t h e b l a d e element and t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r i s termed t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e b l a d e element.

aerodynamic f o r c e s , a r i s i n g from t h e main r o t o r b l a d e , depend on t h i s a n g l e . Examining t h e spectrum of t h e s t r e a m l i n e s around a b l a d e element, i t can b e observed t h a t t h e s t r e a m l i n e s have t h e s a m e form a s t h e spectrum of On t h i s b a s i s w e can s t a t e t h a t t h e a i r p r e s s u r e on Owing t o t h e

a wing ( F i g u r e 1 5 c ) .

t h e b l a d e upper s u r f a c e w i l l b e l e s s t h a n on t h e lower s u r f a c e .

24

II

C)

F i g u r e 15.

Development of t h r u s t f o r c e according t o b l a d e element t h e o r y

d i f f e r e n c e i n p r e s s u r e , t h e r e arises an element of t h r u s t f o r c e AT ( F i g u r e 1 5 ~ ) . I f a l l t h e e l e m e n t s of f o r c e are summed, w e o b t a i n t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e entire rotor

T = T

where

number of b l a d e s

TB = t h r u s t of b l a d e ; TB = CAT

To determine t h e f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o u t i l i z e t h e

formula f o r t h e l i f t f o r c e of a wing:

where

CT

= thrust coefficient.

25

Because wR = u (u i s t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e t i p ) , i t i s pos s i b l e t o write t h e formula f o r t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form:

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e area swept o u t by t h e r o t o r , a i r d e n s i t y , and t h e s q u a r e of t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e t i p . For a given r o t o r a t a c o n s t a n t a i r d e n s i t y , t h e t h r u s t depends on t h e number of r e v o l u t i o n s and t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t . depends on t h e p i t c h of t h e r o t o r ( F i g u r e 1 6 ) . The t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t

/20

The c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t have been o u t l i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o "impulsive theory" and "blade element t h e o r y " do n o t c o n t r a d i c t each o t h e r , b u t are mutually supplementary. On t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e

t h a t , i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e p i t c h o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n s , o r b o t h of them a t t h e same t i m e . Besides t h e t h r u s t f o r c e , t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r g i v e s r i s e t o f o r c e s t h a t

resist r o t a t i o n .
9 10.

W e w i l l consider t h e s e f o r c e s i n t h e next section.

Forces R e s i s t i n g R o t a t i o n of t h e Main R o t o r

The f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n a r e c a l l e d t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e hub ana d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e r o t a t i o n .

A t each b l a d e element, i t s own element of f o r c e arises t o resist r o t a t i o n .

I n a similar way t o t h e d r a g f o r c e of a wing, t h e elements of t h e f o r c e s re s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n c o n s i s t of t h e f o r c e s of p r o f i l e and induced d r a g .

i s an aerodynamic f o r c e t h a t arises P because of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of a i r p r e s s u r e i n t h e forward and a f t p a r t s of t h e

P r o f i l e r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e AQ b l a d e , and a l s o due t o t h e f r i c t i o n of t h e a i r i n t h e boundary l a y e r . In g e n e r a l , t h e p r o f i l e d r a g depends on t h e number of r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e main

26

r o t o r , t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e b l a d e s u r -

I
Y

f a c e and t h e form of t h e p r o f i l e . It i s changed v e r y l i t t l e by changes i n t h e p i t c h of t h e r o t o r ( F i g u r e 1 7 a ) . Induced r e s i s t a n c e arises owing

12

1 6

20

29 c/

t o t h e induced c r o s s flow on t h e b l a d e of t h e main r o t o r . The induced c r o s s flow d e f l e c t s t h e v e c t o r of elementary t h r u s t f o r c e by a n a n g l e f3 backwards

if

between the Figure 16* t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e p i t c h of t h e main r o t o r .

r e l a t i v e t o t h e axis o f t h e hub
( F i g u r e 17b). I f t h e v e c t o r of t h e d e f l e c t e d elementary t h r u s t f o r c e AT i s p r o j e c t e d on t h e r o t a t i o n p l a n e of t h e hub, w e o b t a i n t h e v e c t o r of an elementary induced f o r c e t h a t resists r o t a t i o n AQ
i'

The induced r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e depends, p r i n c i p a l l y , on t h e p i t c h of t h e main r o t o r ( w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n p i t c h , i t i n c r e a s e s ) . d r a g , j u s t l i k e t h e t h r u s t f o r c e , depend on a i r d e n s i t y . The r e a c t i v e moment of t h e main r o t o r . The elementary r o t a t i o n a l resisCombining t h e elementary P r o f i l e and induced

t a n c e f o r c e s a r i s e on each element of t h e b l a d e . f o r c e s of one b l a d e , w e o b t a i n t h e i r r e s u l t a n t Q

I21

= CAQ

(Figure 17c).

Since t h e f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n a r e d i r e c t e d opposite t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n , t h e i r geometric sum ( r e s u l t a n t ) i s z e r o and does n o t l e a d t o t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion of t h e main r o t o r . r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e torque M But t h e f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n c r e a t e
a t o r q u e about t h e hub a x i s , termed r e a c t i v e , and sometimes termed t h e

( s e e F i g u r e 17c)

where

rQ
k

i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e ;

i s t h e number o f b l a d e s .
27

b.

Figure 17.

Main r o t o r r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e s .

The reactive t o r q u e depends on t h o s e same f a c t o r s which determine t h e magnitude of t h e f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n , i . e . , r o t o r p i t c h , r o t o r rpm,

b l a d e s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n and shape, and a i r d e n s i t y .

The r e a c t i v e t o r q u e is d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n , consequently t h i s t o r q u e i s a r e t a r d i n g t o r q u e ; it t e n d s t o s t o p t h e r o t o r and r e d u c e s i t s a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n .

1 . 1

Power and Torque Required t o R o t a t e Main Rotor

I n o r d e r f o r t h e main r o t o r t o t u r n , t h e a c t i o n of t h e reactive t o r q u e must b e overcome, i . e . , The t o r q u e M d r i v i n g t o r q u e must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r .

which must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r is termed t h e tor required torque. I n magnitude, i t e q u a l s t h e reactive t o r q u e - i n d i r e c t i o n ,

i t opposes t h e l a t t e r

/22

28

- .... ...

M~~~ = mt o r F 2 where

(UR)

tor

is t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t .

The t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t i s a composite q u a n t i t y , i - e . ,

tor

= m

tor

+ m
Pr

tor

where

tor

i s t h e p a r t of t h e t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t due t o p r o f i l e d r a g P r f o r c e s . T h i s p a r t depends on t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e b l a d e
s u r f a c e , t h e r o t o r rpm, and t h e b l a d e shape;
i s t h e p a r t of t h e t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t due t o t h e induced
i

tor

d r a g f o r c e s and depends p r i m a r i l y on t h e main r o t o r p i t c h ( F i g u r e 18)

The formula f o r t h e r e q u i r e d t o r q u e , and a l s o t h e c u r v e of t h i s t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t v e r s u s r o t o r p i t c h , makes i t p o s s i b l e t o conclude t h a t t h e main r o t o r r e q u i r e d t o r q u e w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h , rpm, and a i r density.

W e r e c a l l t h a t power i s work p e r u n i t t i m e .

The concept of t h e power

r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e main r o t o r can b e o b t a i n e d i f w e examine t h e work ex pended i n overcoming t h e f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g t h e r o t a t i o n of a s i n g l e b l a d e , and t h e n t h e work expended i n overcoming t h e r e a c t i v e t o r q u e of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r (Figure 19). The work of a s i n g l e b l a d e d u r i n g one r e v o l u t i o n of t h e main r o t o r i s

Ab = Qb25irQ.
The main r o t o r work p e r second, i . e . , t h e power r e q u i r e d , i s

29

F i g u r e 18. Torque c o e f f i c i e n t v e r s u s main r o t o r p i t c h .

F i g u r e 19. A c t i o n of r o t a t i o n a l resistance forces.

where

k n
S

i s t h e number of b l a d e s ;
is the rps.

Consequently,
= Q b 2 m kn

req

since

then
N

req

= M u .
P

Both t h e power r e q u i r e d and t h e t o r q u e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e main r o t o r change w i t h change of t h e p i t c h , rpm, and a i r d e n s i t y . I n order t o t u r n t h e

30

_... ..

, ,

.. .

.-

...... ..,-.

. .. ... .....- ._..-

._.. . . . .. ._ . .,.-.....,. , ,

,, ., ,. .

. .... ...-..-..

r o t o r , e n g i n e power e q u a l t o t h e power r e q u i r e d must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r shaft. T h i s e q u a l i t y i s t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r c o n s t a n t rpm

sup

= N

req

where

SUP

i s t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r from t h e engine.

I f t h e power s u p p l i e d Nsup if N sup

> Nreq,

t h e r o t o r rpm w i l l i n c r e a s e .

However,

< N

req

t h e r o t o r rpm w i l l d e c r e a s e .
9 12.

Main Rotor RPM C o n t r o l

The main r o t o r rpm w i l l change b o t h w i t h change of t h e power s u p p l i e d ,

i.e.,

t h e e n g i n e power, and w i t h change of t h e power r e q u i r e d , i . e . , w i t h The magnitude of t h e t h r u s t d e v e l

change of t h e main r o t o r r e a c t i v e t o r q u e .

oped by t h e main r o t o r changes w i t h change of t h e rpm.

W e need t o know t h e o p t i m a l r o t o r rpm, i . e . , is i t b e t t e r t o increase

t h e t h r u s t by i n c r e a s i n g rpm o r p i t c h ? thrust

Moreover, w e need t o know how t o

m a i n t a i n t h e o p t i m a l main r o t o r rpm w i t h v a r i a t i o n of t h e magnitude of t h e

.
Main r o t o r s p e c ~ific thrust is a

The answer t o t h e f i r s t of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s can b e o b t a i n e d by examining t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c termed s p e c i f i c t h r u s t . power r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e r o t o r q =

T r . req

q u a n t i t y e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r t o t h e

The s p e c i f i c t h r u s t shows t h e number of u n i t s of t h r u s t p e r u n i t of

power expended by t h e e n g i n e i n t u r n i n g t h e r o t o r . t h r u s t , t h e more e f f i c i e n t t h e main r o t o r .

The l a r g e r t h e s p e c i f i c

31

W e s u b s t i t u t e t h e v a l u e s of t h e t h r u s t from (8) and t h e power r e q u i r e d

from (10) and (11) i n t o (12).

Then

A.f t e r s i m p l i f y i n g , w e o b t a i n
if I c o n s t and wR = u -

tor

WR,

tor

then we f i n a l l y o b t a i n const q=,* Consequently, t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r u s t w e s h o u l d r e d u c e t h e main r o t o r t i p speed. T h i s means t h a t i t i s b e t t e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r u s t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e Here, i t must b e emphasized t h a t t h e r e i s a Reduction o f t h e rpm below t h e

main r o t o r p i t c h a t minimal rpm.

minimal p e r m i s s i b l e rpm f o r every r o t o r . h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y and s t a b i l i t y .

minimal a c c e p t a b l e value leads t o f l i g h t s a f e t y problems, d e t e r i o r a t i o n of

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , as i t p r o v i d e s a n answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n of why heavy and complex main r o t o r r e d u c t i o n gearboxes are i n s t a l l e d i n helicopters. These r e d u c e r s make i t p o s s i b l e t o connect t h e main r o t o r

s h a f t , which r o t a t e s a t a low a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y , w i t h t h e e n g i n e s h a f t , which r o t a t e s w i t h a n a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y 10-15 t i m e s t h a t of t h e r o t o r .

Thus, w e have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o t u r n t h e main r o t o r a t low speed and i n c r e a s e t h r u s t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e p i t c h . But i n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e reactive t o r q u e and, t h e r e f o r e , i n c r e a s e of t h e power r e q u i r e d . 32 T h i s means t h a t i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t r o t o r rpm

t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r must b e changed a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e p i t c h i s changed. The main r o t o r and t h e engine must b e c o n t r o l l e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . lever.
This lever i s i n s t a l l e d i n an i n c l i n e d

Simultaneous c o n t r o l i s accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of a s p e c i a l l e v e r , termed the "collective-throttle" p o s i t i o n t o t h e l e f t of t h e p i l o t ' s s e a t . I f t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever

i s d i s p l a c e d upward, b o t h t h e main r o t o r p i t c h and t h e e n g i n e power are

i n c r e a s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , and t h e main r o t o r rpm remains approximately constant. The t h r o t t l e twist g r i p i s l o c a t e d on t h e end of t h i s lever. The e n g i n e power a l o n e , and t h e r e f o r e t h e main r o t o r rpm, can b e a l t e r e d by rotating t h i s grip.
9 13.

Techniques f o r C o u n t e r a c t i n g Main R o t o r R e a c t i v e Torque

~~

The r e a c t i v e t o r q u e r e t a r d s r o t a t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r and c a u s e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t u r n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h a t of t h e r o t o r . a c t i o n of t h e r e a c t i v e t o r q u e i s c o u n t e r a c t e d i n v a r i o u s ways. moment ( F i g u r e 20). S i n c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r t u r n s about i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t mument i s d e f i n e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The h e l i c o p t e r w i l l n o t t u r n about t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s i f t h e r e a c t i v e t o r q u e e q u a l s t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t moment, which i s d e f i n e d by t h e formula
= T

The t u r n i n g
Cn s i n g l e -

r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s t h e r e a c t i v e t o r q u e i s balanced by t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t

Mt.r where rotor.

t.r

i s t h e d i s t a n c e f r o n t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y t o t h e t a i l

= M o w e can determine t h e magnitude of t h e main req P r o t o r r e a c t i v e t o r q u e and t h e e q u a l t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t nioTilent

From t h e forniula N

33

F i g u r e 20. Balancing of n a i n r o t o r reactive mopLent on a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .

Knowing t h e d i s t a n c e 2, w e f i n d t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t

M - -. t2. r . Tt.r

Now i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n t h e purpose o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r t a i l
rotor. The t a i l r o t o r of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r i s i n t e n d e d t o create a t h r u s t whcse moment b a l a n c e s t h e ma.in r c t c r r e a c t i v e t o r q u e and t h e r e b y pre v e n t s r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r around t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s . and i t s moment 2boc.t t h e h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l a x i s . Cirectional

c o n t r o l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s acconiplished by v a r y i n g t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t

IR h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h ttro main r o t o r s , t h e t u r n i n g a c t i o n of t h e reactive

t o r q u e s i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e d - t h e main r o t o r s t u r n i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s and t h e i r reactive t o r q u e s b a l a n c e one a n o t h e r .

34

-.

.. .-.

5 14.

Techniques f o r T r a n s m i t t i n g Torque from Engine t o Main Rotor

With r e g a r d t o t h e t e c h n i q u e used t o create and t r a n s m i t t o r q u e , modern h e l i c o p t e r s can b e d i v i d e d i n t o two groups:

1) t h o s e w i t h r e a c t i v e d r i v e ;
2) t h o s e w i t h mechanical d r i v e .

I n h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h reactive dr.ive t h e engines a r e l o c a t e d a t t h e t i p s __

of t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s ( F i g u r e 21a).
r a d i u s R and t h e number k of b l a d e s

I n t h i s case, t h e t o r q u e can b e ex en g by t h e main r o t o r

p r e s s e d as t h e p r o d u c t of t h e reactive en.gine t h r u s t P

tor

= P

eng

Rk..

The t o r q u e b a l a n c e s d i r e c t l y t h e moment r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l n o t turn. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e k e l i c o p t e r w i t h r e a c t i v e d r i v e a r e s i m p l i c i t y of

i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n and low weight.

It h a s n o power e x p e n d i t u r e t o r o t a t e a

t a i l r o t o r , less v i b r a t i o n , and t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g h i g h

v a i n r o t o r t h r u s t w i t h low t h r u s t of t h e j e t e n g i n e l o c a t e d a t t h e t i p of t h e blade. Any t y p e of r e a c t i v e e n g i n e can b e u.sed a.s t h e r e a c t i v e e n g i n e a t t h e t i p of t h e b l a d e . However, a t t h e preser?.t t i m e t h e s o - c a l l e d compressor r e a c t i . o n n o z z l e s are l o c a t e d a t t h e t i p s of

d r i v e i s most o f t e n used, i . e . ,
a s p e c i a l compressor.

t h e b l a d e s and are s u p p l i e d w i t h compressed a i r from a gas t u r b i n e e n g i n e o r

The r e a c t i o n - d r i v e n h e l i c o p t e r i s s t i l l i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e .
i s a r e s u l t of d i f f i c u l t t e c h n i c a l problems, t h e primary ones b e i n g :

This

35

Figure 21.

Techniques f c r t r a n s n r i t t i n g power t o main r o t o r :

a ) r e a c t i v e d r i v e ; b ) mechanical d r i v e ;

1) e n g i n e gearbox; 2 ) main t r a n s n i s s i o n s h a f t ; 3) main rctcjr gearbox; 4 ) t a i l r o t o r d.riveshaf t ; 5) i n t e r n e d i a t e gearbcx; 6 ) t a i l r o t o r gearbox.

high f u e l consumption and low e f f i c i e n c y (2-3%) of t h e r e a c t i o n d r i v e ; c o n p l e x i t y of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e hub and b l a d e s , i n which plumbing must b e provided.; coni1.exity of t h e des.ign of a r e a c t i o n e n g i n e which w i l l o p e r a t e r e l i a b l y when s u b j e c t e d t o t h e h i g h c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and t h e v a r y i n g airstream direction; d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m i n r o t o r owing t o t h e e n g i n e s l o c a t e d on t h e b l a d e s . H e l i c o p t e r s w i t h rcechanical d r i v e a r e t h o s e i n which t h e t o r q u e t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e e n g i n e t o t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s by means of a. s p e c i a l assembly, terrreG a t r a n s x k s i o n ( F i g u r e 21b).

The transrrilssion i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s i c u n i t s :

P-educers ; Skaf t s ; S h a f t s u p p o r t s and conn.ections;

Clutches ;
Reducer mount frames;
Main r o t o r b r a k e .

36

1 , 1 1 1 1

111

The t r a n s m i s s i o n reduc.ers inclu.de: Main r o t o r r e d u c e r s ; 1nternedia.te reducers; Airframetm0unte.d e n g i n e r e d u c e r s ; T a i l r o t o r reducers. The

The n a i n r o t o r r e d u c e r i s prcvided t o reduce t h e r o t o r s h a f t speed. need f o r t h i s r e d u c t i o n was e x p l a i n e d above.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s r e d u c e r Two-stage sinip1.e re.ducers

i s t h e h i g h r e d u c t i o n r a t i o - from 1:8 t o 1:14.

on t h e intermed.iate and heavy h e l i c o p t e r s . t r a n s r c i t t e d through t h e p a i n r o t o r r e d u c e r .
tail

are used on l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s ; u s u a l l y two-stage p l a n e t a r y redu.cers are used

The t c r q u e t o t h e t a i l r o t o r i s When t h e main r o t o r t u r n s , t h e Thus, t h e n d n and t a i l r o t o r s

r o t o r i s a l s o automatically ro t at ed .

always c o n s t i t u t e a s i n g l e systen! and cannot r o t a t e s e p a r a t e l y . The i n t c r n e d i a t e r e d u c e r s are i n s t a l l e d i n order. t.o change t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n d i r e c t i o n ( f o r e x a n p l e , a t t h e junc.t.ure of t h e t a i l bocm and t h e a f t v e r t i c a l fin). These r e d u c e r s do n o t char.ge t h e r p r , and c o m i s t of two c o n i c a l g e a r s . The airfr=n?e-mounted e n g i n e r e d u c e r s a r e used t o t r a n s m i t t h e t o r q u e from t h e hori.zont.al e n g i n e s h a f t t o t h e v e r t i c a l t r e n s r c i s s i o n s h a f t . horizonta.1. The t a i l r o t o r r e d u c e r s are provided t o t r a n s n i t t o r q u e t o t h e t a i l r o t o r s h a f t and t o reduce t a i l r o t o r s h a f t rpm.
t a i l r o t o r i s located i n i t s reducer.

They a r e

l o c a t e d i n t h e e n g i n e c a s e , and are u s e d when t h e e n g i v e s h a f t a x i s i s

The mecha.nisro f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e

The t o r q u e i s t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s .
of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r i n c l u d e s :

The t r a n s m i s s i o n

Main t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t ;
T a i l r o t o r driveshaf t.

37

The main t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t transmits t h e t o r q u e frolr t h e e n g i n e t o t h e main r o t o r r e d u c e r .

As a r u l e , t h e t a . i l r o t o r d r i v e s h a f t c o n s i s t s of several s e c t i o n s and

t r a n s m i t s t h e t o r q u e from t h e m - i n r o t o r r e d u c e r t o t h e t a i l r o t o r r e d u c e r and

i t s l e n g t h i s 8-1C m.
heli c o p t e r .

T h i s s h a f t i s a s o u r c e o f a . d d i t i o n a 1 v i b r a t i o n of t h e

A l l t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s r o t a t e a t h i g h a n g u l a r speed.

I n c r e a s e of

t h e a~igul.arspeed. r e d u c e s t h e l o a d i n g on t h e s h a f t f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e

same Fower.

If
N

req

= M

tor

then M

tor

rec -.
w

N -.

The s h a f t sv.pports p r e v e r t d e f l e c t i o n ar.d ber.li.ng v i b r a t i o n s (whipping)

of t h e l o n g s h a f t s .
supports.

E a 1 1 besrirzgs w i t h e l a s t i c s p a c e r s are used a s t h e

The s h a f t s are conn.ected w i t h one a n o t h e r a.nd w i t h tlte o t h e r p a r t s

of t h e t r a n s n i i s s i o n by means of u n i v e r s a l s and f l e x i b l e c o u p l i n g s ; i n a d d i t i m
t o t h e i n t e r c o m e c t i . n g c.cupliags t h e r e are s t a r t i n g , engagin.g, and

f r e e b h e e l i n g cLut ches

.
The f r e e The

O sone h e l j c c p t e r s a l l t h r e e of t h e s e c l . u t c h e s are combined i n t o a n s i n g l e u n i t , l o c a t e d iri t h e engi.c.e c a s e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e d u c e r . s h e d i n g c l u t c h i s most f r e q u e n t l y made i n t h e fcrm cf a s e p a r a t e u n i t . s t a r t i n g c l u t c h i s a urlit of t h e f r i c t i c n t y p e a d i s i n t e n d & f o r smooth conr,cctj.c,n of t h e t r a n s v i s s i o n s h a f t w i t h t k e e n g i n e s h a f t .
Wheri t h i s t y p e

of c o r n e c t i o n i.s use.d, t h e r e i s s l i p p q e oi one s h a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e c t h e + u n t i l t h e speecis of t h e d r i v i n g and driver, s h a f t s beccme t h e s a n e . t h e Engine i.s o p e r a t i n g a t l o w speed. This; t c l u t c h t r a r i s m i t s t h e s n ~ J 1o r q u e from the. engj-ne t o t h e t r a n s r h s i c n when The s t a r t i n g c l u t c h p r o v i d e s smooth When t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

r o t a t i o n of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s w i t h o u t j e r k i n g .

i s engaged, t h e main c l u t c h (most o f t e n of t h e dog t y p e ) i s a c t i v a t e d and

connects t h e e n g i n e and t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s r i g i d l y t o g e t h e r . The t o t a l t o r q u e i s t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e engine t o t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s through t h i s

38

clutch.

The f r e e w h e e l i n g c l u t c h i s designed t o t r a n s m i t t o r q u e i n one d i r e c

It p r o v i d e s a u t o m a t i c

t i o n o n l y - i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . e n g i n e rpm.

d i s c o n n e c t of t h e e n g i n e from t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n i f t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n of t h e T h i s i s n e c e s s a r y i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime i f t h e r e Moreover , t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e f r e e w h e e l i n g

A s a r u l e , t h e freewheeling c l u t c h i s

i s an e n g i n e f a i l u r e i n f l i g h t .

c l u t c h l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e i n e r t i a l l o a d s on t h e main r o t o r s h a f t when t h e r e i s a change of e n g i n e o p e r a t i o n . and t h e r e d u c e r s h a f t . l o c a t e d i n t h e main r o t o r r e d u c e r case, between t h e main t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t The main r o t o r b r a k e i s designed f o r r a p i d d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n a f t e r s h u t t i n g down t h e e n g i n e on t h e ground. The h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s m i s s i o n i s q u i t e heavy, and t h e r e f o r e r e d u c t i o n of t h e weight of i t s i n d i v i d u a l components i s of primary importance.

/29

15.

Main- Rotor Power A v a i l a b l e .. .. .

~~~

The power r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e main r o t o r i s s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r from t h e e n g i n e through t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n . purposes and does n o t r e a c h t h e r o t o r . of t h e l o s s e s i n : Turning t h e t a i l r o t o r ;

Turning t h e e n g i n e c o o l i n g f a n ;
Overcoming f r i c t i o n i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n components;
Driving t h e a c c e s s o r i e s ;
Overcoming a i r d r a g on f u s e l a g e and o t h e r p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

L e t u s examine t h e magnitudes of t h e s e l o s s e s , o r t h e energy b a l a n c e of

But t h e r o t o r does n o t r e c e i v e a l l t h e The o v e r a l l power l o s s e s are made up

power t h e e n g i n e d e v e l o p s , s i n c e p a r t of t h i s power i s expended f o r o t h e r

the helicopter.

On t h e average, 8% o f t h e e n g i n e power i s expended i n t u r n i n g t h e t a i l

r o t o r (N

t.r The f a n a b s o r b s 5% (Nfan);

);

39

The f r i c t i o n i n t r a n s m i s s i o n a b s o r b s 7% The a c c e s s o r i e s a b s o r b 1% (Nacc); H e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e d r a g a b s o r b s 2% (N

( N t r A s );
).

Par

That p o r t i o n of t h e e n g i n e power which i s s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r i s c a l l e d t h e power a v a i l a b l e .

It i s d e f i n e d as the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e

e f f e c t i v e e n g i n e power and t h e sum of t h e l o s s e s

The r a t i o of t h e power a v a i l a b l e t o t h e e f f e c t i v e e n g i n e power i s termed t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

hence

Navail = N 5. e
The d i f f e r e n c e 1 - 5 = 5

i s c a l l e d t h e power LOSS c o e f f i c i e n t .

For s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e a v e r a g e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
i s 0.75-0.S0,

and t h e a v e r a g e power l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t i s 0.25-0.20.

u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , and consequently t h e power a v a i l a b l e , v a r y w i t h v a r i a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed. a v a i l a b l e i s shown i n F i g u r e 22. The speed dependence of t h e power

The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s can b e drawn from t h i s f i g u r e :

1 ) The e f f e c t i v e e n g i n e power i s independent of t h e f l i g h t speed;

2 ) The o v e r a l l power l o s s d e c r e a s e s w i t h speed up t o 80-100 km/hr and

then i n c r e a s e s w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed;

3) The power a v a i l a b l e i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e f l i g h t speed t o

80-100 km/hr and t h e n d e c r e a s e s ;

40

N a v a i l = Ne - (Nt.r + N f a n + N t r a n s

Nacc

-t N

par

1.

The power

/30

4 ) The maximal power a v a i l a b l e

i s o b t a i n e d a t a f l i g h t speed

from 80 t o 100 km/hr f o r most helicopters.

F i g u r e 22. Main r o t o r power a v a i l a b l e v e r s u s speed.

16.

Main Rotor T h r u s t i n V e r t i c a l Climb and

Vertical Descent

%in- r o t o r t h r u s t i n v e r t i c a l climb. formulas

It w a s e s t a b l i s h e d above t h a t t h e

t h r u s t of t h e i d e a l main r o t o r i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime i s d e f i n e d by t h e

The f i r s t formula i s of a g e n e r a l n a t u r e and i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r a l l a x i a l flow regime cases. The second i s a p p l i c a b l e o n l y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t h r u s t i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime. During v e r t i c a l climb, t h e magnitude of t h e a i r mass f l o w r a t e m t h e swept a r e a changes. v e l o c i t y V. d u r i n g v e r t i c a l climb ( F i g u r e 23a). through

This i s seen from t h e s c h e m a t i c of main r o t o r motion

The r o t o r travels upward w i t h t h e I n t h e p l a n e of

W e can s a y t h a t an u n d i s t u r b e d flow caused by t h i s motion

approaches t h e r o t o r ( p r i n c i p l e of r e v e r s i b i l i t y of motion). r o t o r r o t a t i o n , t h e flow v e l o c i t y V

/31

w i l l be

v1

v + VI.
= pFV1,

I f t h e a i r inass f l o w r a t e i s d e f i n e d as m

then t h e t h r u s t i s

41

F i g u r e 23.

Operation of main r o t o r i n v e r t i c a l climb.

d e f i n e d as T = m V o r T = pFV V and s i n c e t h e e q u a l i t y V = 2V. i s a l s o S d w 1 dw' d w 1 v a l i d f o r v e r t i c a l climb, t h e t h r u s t w i l l b e

Comparing t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t T = 2pFV.2 i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime, and

1

t h e t h r u s t T = 2pFV1Vi

i n t h e v e r t i c a l climb regime, w e can s a y t h a t t h e

t h r u s t i n t h e climbing regime i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime, s i n c e

> V But t h i s c o n c l u s i o n would b e v a l i d o n l y i f t h e induced v e l o c i t y V 1 i' i d i d n o t change w i t h change of t h e r o t o r motion v e l o c i t y . I n a c t u a l i t y , t h e

V

induced v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t .

T h i s means t h a t t h e main r o t o r must develop more t h r u s t d u r i n g v e r t i c a l climb t h a n t h e weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The dependence o f t h e main r o t o r

t h r u s t on speed can a l s o b e e x p l a i n e d from t h e v i e w p o i n t of b l a d e element theory. I n h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g , t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k depends on

t h e p i t c h and t h e induced flow v e l o c i t y ( F i g u r e 15b).

With i n c r e a s e of t h e climb v e l o c i t y , t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r b l a d e element d e c r e a s e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t

42

F i g u r e 24.

O p e r a t i o n of main r o t o r i n v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t .

d e c r e a s e s , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t , s i n c e

, T

C,F

-$-

( o R ) z ( F i g u r e 23b).
During v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t

Main r o t o r t h r u s t i n v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t . . .
~~

( F i g u r e 2 4 a ) , t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow approaches t h e main r o t o r from below w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y V ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e flow v e l o c i t y i n t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n of Y t h e main r o t o r i s V1 = Vi - V i . e . , i t w i l l b e less t h a n d u r i n g h o v e r i n g . Y' Main r o t o r t h r u s t i n v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i s d e f i n e d by t h e s a m e formula as f o r v e r t i c a l climb

T = CTtc+U2

or

T=ZpFVIVi.

The main r o t o r b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t by t h e amount Aa as a r e s u l t of t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y , which

leads t o i n c r e a s e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C

/32

and of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t t h e induced flow,

( F i g u r e 24b). helicopter.

Two f l o w s are encountered below t h e r o t o r :

a c c e l e r a t e d by t h e r o t o r , and t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow c r e a t e d by d e s c e n t of t h e Meeting of t h e s e two flows l e a d s t o t h e o n s e t of i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e v o r t i c e s , b u f f e t i n g of t h e main r o t o r , and d e t e r i o r a t i o n of c o n t r o l .

5 17.

Losses of t h e R e a l Rotor
a

W e have been examining t h e o p e r a t i o n of an ideal. main r o t o r , i . e . ,

r o t o r i n which a l l t h e power o b t a i n e d from t h e e n g i n e w a s converted i n t o work 43

i n a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e a i r downward o r i n creating thrust.

W e have assumed t h a t t h e e n t i r e

area swept by t h e r o t o r p a r t i c i p a t e s
i n creating thrust. This m e a n s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d a i r p r e s s u r e below t h e r o t o r and t h e reduced a i r p r e s s u r e above t h e r o t o r ( F i g u r e 25a) a c t s on t h e e n t i r e main r o t o r area. In r e a l i t y , as w i l l b e shown l a t e r , t h e F i g u r e 25. Main r o t o r l o s s e s . e n t i r e swept a r e a does n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n creating thrust. The i d e a l r o t o r

accelerates a uniform a i r j e t downward

w i t h t h e s a m e induced v e l o c i t y f o r a l l t h e b l a d e elements. The real r o t o r p r o v i d e s a s w i r l i n g j e t , and t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s w i l l v a r y markedly a l o n g t h e r a d i u s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements ( F i g u r e 25b).

The i d e a l r o t o r does n o t expend energy i n overcoming f r i c t i o n f o r c e s , while t h e real r o t o r experiences p r o f i l e drag f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g rotation,and c o n s i d e r a b l e power i s expended i n overcoming t h e s e f o r c e s . Moreover , t h e

r e a l r o t o r h a s t h e s o - c a l l e d t i p and r o o t l o s s e s .
i n t o t h e low-pressure r e g i o n above t h e r o t o r .

The e s s e n c e of t h e s e l o s s e s

l i e s i n cross-flow of t h e a i r from t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e g i o n below t h e r o t o r

T h i s cross-flow t a k e s place through t h e ends of t h e b l a d e s ( t i p l o s s e s ) and through t h e r o o t s e c t i o n s of t h e b l a d e s n e a r t h e main r o t o r hub ( r o o t l o s s e s ) , where t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a r t of t h e b l a d e ( s p a r ) does n o t have a l i f t i n g s u r f a c e . The concept of t h e end

loss coefficient

h a s been i n t r o d u c e d t o account f o r t h e t i p and r o o t l o s s e s .

With account f o r t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e a c t u a l area p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n c r e a t i o n

of t h r u s t i s d e f i n e d by t h e formula

Fe = F x .
44

For most main r o t o r s

= 0.90

0.92.

i induced v e l o c i t y i t s v a l u e a t t h e r a d i u s

Since f o r t h e real r o t o r V

varies a l o n g t h e r a d i u s , w e t a k e as t h e

r=

0.7

v. *vi.

'0,7

To account f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e p r o f i l e d r a g f o r c e s , w e assume t h a t t h e r e a l r o t o r power r e q u i r e d f o r c r e a t i n g t h r u s t i s g r e a t e r on t h e a v e r a g e t h a n t h e i d e a l r o t o r power r e q u i r e d by 25%. With account f o r t h e s e l o s s e s , t h e t h r u s t of t h e r e a l r o t o r can b e found from t h e formula

Hence, i t i s easy t o f i n d t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime

Knowing t h a t

T = CTFStP,
we obtain

'

.. ..

For most main r o t o r s , t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime i s

VcX8-10

m/sec,

and

CTNN~.CG~.

45

An i m p o r t a n t characteristic of the main r o t o r i s t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y

N4

The = i n

r o t o r r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y i s t h e r a t i o of t h e power r e q u i r e d t o

create t h e t h r u s t of t h e i d e a l r o t o r t o the t o t a l power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r .

For modem r o t o r s , t h e e f f i c i e n c y is 0.6-0.75.

18.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of O p e r a t i o n of- C o a x i a l System of Two Main R o t o r s

I n t h e c o a x i a l t w i n - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r , t h e main r o t o r s are p o s i t i o n e d on

a s i n g l e axis

- one

above and t h e o t h e r below.

Such a h e l i c o p t e r h a s c e r t a i n

operational characteristics.

The area swept b y t h e two main r o t o r s i s e q u a l

t o t h e area swept by a s i n g l e r o t o r

F
where Fc F1

F1

i s t h e area swept by t h e system of c o a x i a l r o t o r s ; i s t h e area swept by a s i n g l e r o t o r .

I n t h i s case, w e have assumed t h a t the d i a m e t e r s of t h e upper and lower r o t o r s are t h e s a m e . L e t u s examine t h e system of a i r j e t s p a s s i n g through t h e areas swept by t h e upper and lower r o t o r s ( F i g u r e 2 6 ) . I n c r e a s e of t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e hubs of t h e upper and lower r o t o r s degrades t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s of t h e lower r o t o r and c o m p l i c a t e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e e n t i r e system, w h i l e re d u c t i o n of t h i s d i s t a n c e l e a d s t o t h e danger o f c o l l i s i o n of t h e r o t o r b l a d e s and i n c r e a s e s h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n . t h e Ka-15 and Ka-18 h e l i c o p t e r s . T h i s d i s t a n c e i s h = 0.08D = 0.8m i n

/34

A t t h i s d i s t a n c e , t h e lower r o t o r h a s no
The j e t from t h e upper r o t o r con

e f f e c t on t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e upper r o t o r .

t r a c t s , and i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e lower r o t o r i t s r a d i u s i s 0.7R,

where R i s t h e r o t o r r a d i u s .

In t h i s c a s e , t h e lower r o t o r b l a d e t i p s

46

o p e r a t e under t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n s as t h o s e of t h e upper r o t o r and draw a d d i t i o n a l a i r i n from t h e s i d e .

On t h i s b a s i s , w e s h a l l estimate t h e e f f e c t i v e area of t h e e n t i r e system

through which the a i r flows, j u s t as f o r a n i s o l a t e d r o t o r i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime. From t h e area swept by t h e upper r o t o r , w e must s u b t r a c t t h e r o o t l o s s

area (of r a d i u s 0.25R).

t h e s e t i p s is

Under c o n d i t i o n s similar t o t h o s e i n t h e h o v e r i n g The area swept by

regime, o n l y t h e t i p s of t h e lower r o t o r b l a d e s o p e r a t e .

Consequently, t h e e f f e c t i v e area of b o t h r o t o r s t h e formula

through which t h e

stream flows, as i n t h e c a s e of h o v e r i n g of an i s o l a t e d r o t o r , i s found from

That p o r t i o n of t h e lower r o t o r which o p e r a t e s i n t h e j e t of t h e upper r o t o r h a s lower e f f i c i e n c y . The a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e lower r o t o r b l a d e

T o reduce t h i s

elements are reduced as a r e s u l t of t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e upper r o t o r ( s e e F i g u r e 23b), which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t . e f f e c t , t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s of t h e lower r o t o r b l a d e s a r e made 2-3' i n f l u e n c e of t h e upper r o t o r on t h e lower. larger

t h a n f o r t h e upper r o t o r , b u t t h i s does n o t e l i m i n a t e e n t i r e l y t h e harmful I n t h e presence of t h i s influence, t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n of t h e lower r o t o r , which i s i n the j e t from t h e upper r o t o r i s reduced by a f a c t o r of two, i n comparison w i t h t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t i p area o u t s i d e t h e j e t from t h e upper r o t o r . The swept area of the lower r o t o r , o p e r a t i n g i n t h e j e t from the upper r o t o r , i s found from t h e formula

47

S i n c e i t s e f f i c i e n c y is less t h a n t h a t of t h e upper r o t o r by a f a c t o r of two, t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e area of

main r o t o r

..

t h e lower r o t o r i s

F i g u r e 2 6 . O p e r a t i o n of c o a x i a l r o t o r system.

Fe . 1= @.43F,0.5
system i s Pe . 1

0.22Fi.

The e f f e c t i v e area of t h e e n t i r e

- 1.45F14-0.2!2F1=1.67F1 .

This formula shows t h a t t h e t h r u s t of

two c o a x i a l r o t o r s under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e t h r u s t of an

i s o l a t e d main r o t o r of t h e same diameter by a f a c t o r o f 1.57. I f t h e t h r u s t s of t h e c o a x i a l system and t h e i s o l a t e d r o t o r are t h e same, then less power i s r e q u i r e d t o create t h e t h r u s t of t h e c o a x i a l r o t o r system, which f o l l o w s from i d e a l r o t o r momentum t h e o r y .

The power r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e i d e a l r o t o r i s e n t i r e l y converted i n t o k i n e t i c energy of t h e j e t , i . e . , N . =

1

mi.

I f w e use T

CY

Vc,

Fc, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o d e n o t e t h e t h r u s t , induced

v e l o c i t y , and e f f e c t i v e area of t h e c o a x i a l s y s t e m of two r o t o r s , and T 1 V1 F t o denote t h e t h r u s t , induced v e l o c i t y , and swept area of t h e i s o l a t e d

r o t o r , t h e n w e h a v e Tc = T . 1 Consequently ,

48

....

W e know t h a t

Then

Hence, w e f i n d
'

2p&..,vq

'%= '&l.G7i?,
or

v;
'

16 .7

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h r u s t on a system o f c o a x i a l r o t o r s e q u a l t o t h e t h r u s t of a n i s o l a t e d r o t o r of t h e same d i a m e t e r , t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e c o a x i a l system must b e less t h a n t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e i s o l a t e d r o t o r . less power i' i s r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n t h e same t h r u s t f o r t h e c o a x i a l system t h a n f o r t h e isolated rotor. T h i s i s t h e advantage of t h e c o a x i a l system. The number S i n c e t h e i d e a l r o t o r power r e q u i r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o V

/36

0.78

is c a l l e d t h e aerodynamic advantage c o e f f i c i e n t , and i s denoted by CA.

Using t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t , w e e x p r e s s t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o a x i a l system i n terms of t h e power r e q u i r e d of an i s o l a t e d i d e a l r o t o r

Nc = CANt= O.SN*.
This i m p l i e s t h a t f o r t h e s a m e power t h e c o a x i a l r o t o r system p r o v i d e s 13-15% more t h r u s t t h a n t h e i s o l a t e d main r o t o r . T h e r e f o r e , the h e l i c o p t e r w i t h c o a x i a l r o t o r s h a s smaller dimensions t h a n t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l l c o p t e r .

49

However, t o d a t e o n l y l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s have been b u i l t u s i n g t h i s scheme because of s t r u c t u r a l complexity and o t h e r problems.

Twin-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s of o t h e r arrangements, f o r example, w i t h t h e r o t o r s p l a c e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y and w i t h i n t e r m e s h i n g r o t o r s , a l s o have an aerodynamic advantage i n t h e axial flow regime. main r o t o r hub a x e s . The aerodynamic advantage c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e s e systems approaches c l o s e r t o 0 . 8 , t h e less t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e

a .. Programmed T e s t i n g Q u e s t i o n s~. nd Answers

I n C h a p t e r s 1 and 2 w e have examined c o n c e p t s which are of c o n s i d e r a b l e importance i n themselves and e n s u r e f u r t h e r s u c c e s s f u l s t u d y of h e l i c o p t e r aerodynamics.

W e s h a l l p r e s e n t some q u e s t i o n s and answers t o t e s t t h e r e a d e r s '

knowledge of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n .

The o b j e c t i v e i s t o s e l e c t t h e most complete and c o r r e c t answer from three or four possibilities. Some of t h e answers given are completely i n c o r r e c t , most of t h e answers are simply incomplete. Question 1. Answer 1. D e f i n i t i o n and purpose of b l a d e g e o m e t r i c twist.

Geometric t w i s t i n v o l v e s v a r i a t i o n of t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s of
T w i s t i s provided t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e l o a d s uniformly over

t h e b l a d e elements.

t h e b l a d e and i n c r e a s e main r o t o r t h r u s t .

Answer 2.

Geometric t w i s t i n v o l v e s v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e element i n c i The r o o t elements have l a r g e r

dence a n g l e s a l o n g t h e main r o t o r r a d i u s .

i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s , - a n d t h o t i p e l e m e n t s have smaller a n g l e s . main r o t o r t h r u s t by 5-7%.

Twist g i v e s t h e

b l a d e elements a n g l e s of a t t a c k c l o s e t o t h e o p t i m a l v a l u e s and i n c r e a s e s t h e Twist r e s u l t s i n more uniform l o a d i n g on t h e

i n d i v i d u a l b l a d e elements and d e l a y s flow s e p a r a t i o n from t h e t i p p o r t i o n of the blade.

50

Answer 3.

Geometric t w i s t i s the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s T w i s t p r o v i d e s minimal i n c i d e n c e This is

a t t h e r o o t and t i p s e c t i o n s of t h e b l a d e .

a n g l e s a t t h e r o o t e l e m e n t s and maximal a n g l e s a t t h e t i p elements. more uniform l o a d i n g on t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e b l a d e . Q u e s t i o n 2. Main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t .

n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n h i g h e r r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y , i n c r e a s e t h r u s t , and a c h i e v e

Answer 1 .

The main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t i s t h e dimension

less number 1-1, e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed t o t h e b l a d e

t i p induced v e l o c i t y

A n s w e r 2.

The main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t i s t h e number p,

e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y on t h e main r o t o r hub a x i s t o t h e b l a d e t i p c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y

Answer 3. velocity

The main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t is t h e number

u,

e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed t o t h e b l a d e t i p a n g u l a r

Answer 4 .

The o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t i s t h e number 1-1, e q u a l t o t h e

r a t i o of t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed on t h e main r o t o r hub p l a n e of r o t a t i o n t o t h e b l a d e t i p circumferential v e l o c i t y

p,=- V cos A

Question 3.

What i s t h e connection between t h e o p e r a t i n g regime

c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime?

51

Answer 1. The l a r g e r

v,

t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r induced v e l o c i t y and

t h e c l o s e r i t s o p e r a t i n g regime approaches t h e axial f l o w regime.

A n s w e r 2.

I f 1-1 = 0, t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e axial flow regime.

The l a r g e r

v,

the more e f f e c t i v e l y t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e axial f l o w regime m a n i f e s t

themselves.

Answer 3.

I n c r e a s e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t 1-1 i n d i c a t e s i n c r e a s e of t h e main

r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k and approach of i t s o p e r a t i n g regime t o t h e a x i a l flow regime.

Question 4 .

What i s t h e connection between t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of

a t t a c k and i t s o p e r a t i n g regime? Answer 1. The main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e f l i g h t I n the axial flow regime, t h e

v e l o c i t y v e c t o r and t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e . main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k A =

+ 90, -

i n t h e i n c l i n e d flow regime A

+ 90". -

A n s w e r 2.

The main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e f l i g h t I f t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k A = 9 0 , However, i f A

v e l o c i t y v e c t o r and t h e hub a x i s .

t h e r o t o r i s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e axial flow regime. o p e r a t i n g i n t h e i n c l i n e d flow regime.

# go",

i t is

A n s w e r 3.
ing the rotor.

The main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e p l a n e

of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r and t h e v e c t o r of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow approach

For A = 0 " t h e i n c l i n e d flow regime i s p r e s e n t ; f o r A

90"

t h e flow regime i s axial. Q u e s t i o n 5.

What is main r o t o r t h r u s t , and on what does it depend?

A n s w e r 1. Main r o t o r t h r u s t i s t h e aerodynamic f o r c e which arises

d u r i n g r o t o r r o t a t i o n as a r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e a i r p r e s s u r e on t h e rotor blades

52

The t h r u s t depends on t h e r o t o r area t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , f l i g h t s p e e d , and a i r d e n s i t y . element p i t c h The t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t depends on r o t o r rpm and b l a d e

/38

.
Main r o t o r t h r u s t i s t h e aerodynamic f o r c e d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e

Answer 2.

main r o t o r a x i s and formed as a r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e a i r p r e s s u r e s below and above t h e r o t o r

The t h r u s t depends on t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , main r o t o r area o r r a d i u s , a i r d e n s i t y , and main r o t o r rpm. Answer 3 .

The t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t depends on t h e p i t c h .

Main r o t o r t h r u s t i s t h e aerodynamic f o r c e which a r i s e s as a

r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e a i r p r e s s u r e below and above t h e r o t o r

The main r o t o r t h r u s t depends on t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , area swept by t h e r o t o r , r o t o r p i t c h , and r o t o r rpm. t h e p i t c h and rpm. Question 6.
What i s t h e main r o t o r reactive t o r q u e , what does i t depend

The t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of

on, and how does i t a c t ? Answer 1. The reactive t o r q u e i s t h e t o r q u e opposing r o t o r r o t a t i o n

53

It r e t a r d s r o t o r r o t a t i o n and yaws the h e l i c o p t e r o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n

of r o t a t i o n .

The reactive t o r q u e depends on t h e r o t o r rpm, a i r d e n s i t y , r o t o r

p i t c h , and f l i g h t speed.

A n s w e r 2.

The reactive t o r q u e i s t h e moment o f t h e f o r c e s of r e s i s t a n c e It i s d e f i n e d by t h e formula

Mr = QbrQk.

t o r o t a t i o n about t h e hub axis.

It depends on t h e rpm, p i t c h , a i r d e n s i t y , s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n and f l i g h t

speed.

It r e t a r d s r o t o r r o t a t i o n and yaws t h e h e l i c o p t e r o p p o s i t e t h e

d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

A n s w e r 3.

Reactive t o r q u e i s t h e moment of t h e f o r c e s of r e s i s t a n c e t o

r o t a t i o n , d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e r o t o r d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n , r e t a r d i n g r o t o r r o t a t i o n and yawing t h e h e l i c o p t e r o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . depends on t h e f l i g h t speed, rpm, and a i r d e n s i t y M r = 2Qbrk. Question 7. rpm c o n d i t i o n s .

It

Power r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e t h e main r o t o r and t h e c o n s t a n t

A n s w e r 1.

The power r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e main r o t o r depends on t h e r p m ,

p i t c h , f l i g h t speed, and a i r d e n s i t y
N

= m

F ! ~ 3R3.
tor

req
If N
= N

sup

req

t h e rpm is c o n s t a n t ; i f N

sup

> N

req

t h e rpm i n c r e a s e s .

Answer 2.

The power used t o overcome the r e a c t i v e t o r q u e depends on t h e

r o t o r p i t c h , rpm, and f l i g h t speed

54

When N increases.

sup

= N

req

t h e rpm remains c o n s t a n t , when N

sup

> N

req

t h e rpm

Answer 3.

The power r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e main r o t o r and overcome t h e

/39

r e t a r d i n g a c t i o n of t h e reactive t o r q u e depends on t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t , rpm,

a i r d e n s i t y , and f l i g h t speed
N

req

2 3

R tor

When N

sup

= N

req

t h e rpm i s c o n s t a n t ; when N

sup

> N

req

t h e rpm i n c r e a s e s .

Question 8.
i t changed?

What i s t h e r o t o r b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k and how i s

Answer 1.

The b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e

It depends on t h e b l a d e ele

b l a d e chord and t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r . induced v e l o c i t y , t h e lower t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k .

ment p i t c h , induced v e l o c i t y , and h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed. climbing v e l o c i t y , t h e lower t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k . Answer 2.

The l a r g e r t h e

The l a r g e r t h e v e r t i c a l

The b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e

It depends on t h e

b l a d e element chord and t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r . f l i g h t speed and induced flow downwash a n g l e .

i t decreases.

With i n c r e a s e of t h e induced

v e l o c i t y , t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s , w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y

Answer 3.

The b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i s t h e a n g l e between t h e

It depends on t h e p i t c h and

chord and t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r . h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed. a n g l e of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s .

With i n c r e a s e of t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y , t h e With i n c r e a s e of t h e v e r t i c a l climbing v e l o c i t y ,

t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k d e c r e a s e s .

55

CHAPTER

Iv

MAIN ROTOR OPERATION I N F R A D FLIGHT OWR

1 9 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s g f Main-Rotor i n Forward F l i g h t

Operation

W e r e c a l l t h a t t h e t e r m forward f l i g h t r e f e r s t o o p e r a t i o n of t h e main

r o t o r i n a n u n d i s t u r b e d s t r e a m which approaches t h e r o t o r n o n p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub a x i s ( s e e F i g u r e 1 2 c ) . While i n t h e a x i a l flow c a s e , t h e r o t o r i m p a r t s t o

t h e a i r mass t r a v e l i n g along t h e a x i s a d d i t i o n a l momentum i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n , i n t h e c a s e o f forward f l i g h t t h e r o t o r a l s o i m p a r t s t o a d e f i n i t e

a i r m a s s some a d d i t i o n a l momentum, o n l y t h i s t i m e n o t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e
u n d i s t u r b e d approaching s t r e a m , r a t h e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n a l o n g t h e r o t o r a x i s , downward. T h i s l e a d s t o t h e appearance of t h e s o - c a l l e d downwash ( F i g u r e 27a).

The downwash magnitude i s connected d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t which t h e main r o t o r develops i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. I n accordance w i t h wing and p r o p e l l e r v o r t e x t h e o r y , developed by Zhukovskiy i n t h e 1905-1921 p e r i o d , t h e wing l i f t and t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime can be determined u s i n g t h e s a m e formulas.

W e imagine a stream of c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , flowing p a s t a wing

( F i g u r e 27b).

The stream approaches t h e wing w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y V.

As a

r e s u l t of t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e induced v o r t i c e s , t h e wing i m p a r t s t o t h e a i r mass p e r second m

S

140

t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y u , termed t h e induced v e l o c i t y .

Vortex t h e o r y shows and e x p e r i m e n t a l aerodynamics confirms t h a t t h e r e i s a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e o f t h e induced v e l o c i t y behind t h e wing.

56

F i g u r e 27. O p e r a t i o n o f main r o t o r i n forward f l i g h t regime.

A t a d i s t a n c e e q u a l t o about 0.52

(wing h a l f - s p a n )

t h e induced v e l o c i t y

r e a c h e s t h e v a l u e 2u ( F i g u r e 27c). a d d i t i o n a l momentum e q u a l t o m 2u.

S

Thus, t h e a i r a c q u i r e s from t h e wing

The energy c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w s t a t e s t h a t t h e momentum i n c r e a s e e q u a l s t h e impulse of t h e f o r c e . t h e wing l i f t . The impulse of t h e f o r c e p e r second w i l l b e simply Consequently,

L e t u s f i n d t h e magnitude of t h e a i r m a s s f l o w r a t e m

The stream s e c t i o n

area F

" normal t o t h e v e c t o r V1 e q u a l s t h e area o f a c i r c l e of d i a m e t e r '

e q u a l t o t h e wingspan 1.

The v e l o c i t y v e c t o r

V,=v+F
Then

(V i s t h e u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w v e l o c i t y , and

u i s t h e induced v e l o c i t y ) .

57

.m,= pFNVl.
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e o f t h e m a s s f l o w r a t e i n t o (131, w e o b t a i n

Thus, t h e wing l i f t depends on t h e a i r d e n s i t y , wingspan, f l i g h t speed, and t h e induced v e l o c i t y w i t h which t h e wing d e f l e c t s t h e stream downward. From (15) w e f i n d t h e magnitude of t h e induced v e l o c i t y

S i n c e t h e stream induced downwash a n g l e i s s m a l l , w e can assume t h a t

V*=X

The downwash formed by t h e main r o t o r ( s e e F i g u r e 27a) i s similar t o t h e downwash due t o a wing w i t h span

= D.

The a i r approaches t h e r o t o r w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y V and i s d e f l e c t e d The r e s u l t a n t r o t o r i' v e l o c i t y w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e v e c t o r sum of t h e v e l o c i t i e s of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d downward as a r e s u l t of t h e induced i n f l o w v e l o c i t y V

stream and t h e induced v e l o c i t y

The a n g l e E between t h e v e c t o r s

Tf

and

vl i s t h e induced downwash.
N
normal t o t h e

Continuing t h e comparison w i t h t h e a i r p l a n e wing, w e can s a y t h a t t h e

a i r m a s s f l o w r a t e &=pFpVl
resultant velocity vector span
= D, then

p a s s e s through t h e area F

VI!.

S i n c e t h e r o t o r i s t a k e n t o be a wing w i t h

58

FN =

i.e.,

t h e area p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e v e c t o r

VI!, i l l w

b e e q u a l t o t h e area

swept by t h e main r o t o r FN = F.

I n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e downwash v e l o c i t y i s a l s o e q u a l t o

twice t h e i n f l o w v e l o c i t y .

On t h i s b a s i s and u s i n g i d e a l r o t o r momentum

t h e o r y , w e f i n d t h e t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime u s i n g (4) T = m V = ms2Vi. s dw Using (14), w e can write

I f FN = F , t h e n

I f w e account f o r t i p and r o o t l o s s e s , t h i s formula can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

Consequently, main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime depends on

a i r d e n s i t y , r o t o r p i t c h , and f l i g h t v e l o c i t y .

5 20.

Main Rotor T h r u s t as a F u n c t i o n of F l i g h t Speed

The t h r u s t of a p a r t i c u l a r r o t o r a t c o n s t a n t a i r d e n s i t y depends on t h e f l i g h t speed and t h e induced v e l o c i t y . With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y , which l e a d s t o increase of

59

V, km/hr

'

'

' I

V,km/hr

F i g u r e 28. Main r o t o r induced v e l o c i t y and t h r u s t v e r s u s speed f l i g h t .

t h e mass f l o w r a t e of t h e a i r d e f l e c t e d by t h e main r o t o r .

Consequently, t h e

h i g h e r t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime, t h e l a r g e r t h e a i r m a s s f l o w r a t e and t h e g r e a t e r t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r . i n c r e a s e i s p o s s i b l e o n l y up t o some l i m i t . But t h r u s t

This is associated with t h e

change of t h e induced v e l o c i t y which, i n t u r n , depends on t h e f l i g h t speed. However, t h i s r e l a t i o n i s complicated by t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k ( F i g u r e 28a). important conclusions: T h i s f i g u r e makes i t p o s s i b l e t o draw some

t h e induced v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed;

w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r a n g l e o f a t t a c k t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s and vice v e r s a ;

f o r n e g a t i v e a n g l e s of a t t a c k t h e induced v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed;

f o r A > 0" t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i r s t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e

f l i g h t speed up t o 15-20 kmlhr and t h e n d e c r e a s e s ; f o r f l i g h t speeds up t o 50-60 km/hr t h e induced v e l o c i t y depends t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e on t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k , w h i l e a t h i g h e r

60

f l i g h t s p e e d s t h i s dependence becomes less s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h e induced v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s v e r y r a p i d l y w i t h f l i g h t speed i n t h e range from 0 t o 60-70 km/hr. With f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed, t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y becomes more g r a d u a l . These c o n c l u s i o n s are n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e of main r o t o r t h r u s t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime, and a l s o f o r under s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f h e l i c o p t e r motion i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , climb, d e s c e n t along a n i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y . and
If w e t a k e i n t o account t h e n a t u r e

/43

o f t h e induced v e l o c i t y v a r i a t i o n , t h e n t h e v a r i a t i o n of main r o t o r t h r u s t w i t h change of t h e f l i g h t speed becomes clear ( F i g u r e 28b). r e a c h e s t h e maximal v a l u e f o r a speed of about 100 km/hr. This f i g u r e shows t h a t main r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed and

All t h e conclu

s i o n s drawn on t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y and t h r u s t r e l a t e t o o p e r a t i o n of a main r o t o r w i t h c o n s t a n t power expended i n t u r n i n g t h e r o t o r . The t h r u s t i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t , a s t h e f l i g h t speed i n c r e a s e s , a l a r g e r amount of a i r approaches t h e rotor, i.e., creases. t h e m a s s f l o w r a t e of t h e a i r i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e r o t o r in The r o t o r d e f l e c t s t h e l a r g e a i r mass downward and, t h u s , f o r c e

impulse i n c r e a s e s , i . e . , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s . Upon f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed, t h e t i m e of i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e r o t o r with t h e a i r diminishes. t h e r e f o r e , o f t h e f o r c e impulse. The r o t o r " f a i l s to" d e f l e c t t h e a i r Moreover, t h e energy r e c e i v e d by t h e r o t o r markedly downward, which means a d e c r e a s e of t h e induced v e l o c i t y and, from t h e s h a f t i s expended n o t o n l y i n c r e a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t y , b u t a l s o i n overcoming f r i c t i o n a l d r a g f o r c e s , and w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t velocity these forces increase.

61

I IIIIII

Ill I I

'

...

5 21.

Blade T h r u s t and Its

Azimuthal V a r i a ti-on

During r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime, t h e r e i s continuous v a r i a t i o n of the blade position relative t o t h e f l i g h t velocity vector o r the velocity vector of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w approaching t h e main r o t o r . F i g u r e 29. Blade azimuth. This s i t u a t i o n in

f l u e n c e s t h e n a t u r e of t h e f l o w o v e r t h e b l a d e and t h e f o r c e s which arise.

The v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e p o s i t i o n i s t h e r e a s o n f o r many phenomena which

arise i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime.

define t h i s position-

A s p e c i a l concept i s i n t r o d u c e d t o

b l a d e azimuth.

The azimuth, o r t h e a n g l e of t h e a z i m u t h a l p o s i t i o n of t h e b l a d e , i s t h e a n g l e between a reference l i n e and t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s a t a given moment of t i m e ( F i g u r e 29).

It i s customary t o t a k e as t h e r e f e r e n c e l i n e t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l

axis when t h e b l a d e i s p o s i t i o n e d d i r e c t l y a f t of t h e main r o t o r hub.

The azimuth i s reckoned from 0 t o 360' i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of The b l a d e t r a v e l i n g from The

) . t h e main r o t o r and i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l e t t e r I

/44

from t h e ' 0

azimuth t o t h e 180' azimuth i s c a l l e d t h e advancing b l a d e .

b l a d e t r a v e l l i n g from t h e 180' azimuth t o t h e 360" azimuth i s c a l l e d t h e r e t r e a t i n g blade.

The concepts o f ''advancing" and " r e t r e a t i n g " b l a d e s are

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d stream approaching t h e b l a d e .

I n t h e case of t h e advancing b l a d e , t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow c r e a t e d by

h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t i s d i r e c t e d a t some a n g l e t o t h e b l a d e l e a d i n g edge, w h i l e 62

i n t h e case of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e ,

o'\ +F i g u r e 30. Blade r o o t c u t o u t . t o o b t a i n wing l i f t

t h i s flow i s d i r e c t e d a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, i n c r e a s e s t h e v i b r a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r and t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e t h r u s t as a f u n c t i o n o f azimuth, and r e d u c e s t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. The main

r o t o r b l a d e h a s a s e c t i o n of t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e removed i n t h e r o o t r e g i o n i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e phenomena ( F i g u r e 30). I n c r e a s e of t h e c u t o u t r e d u c e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of reverse flow, b u t increases t h e r o o t l o s s e s and, consequently, t h e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. An o p t i m a l s i z e of t h e r o o t c u t o u t s i s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r each main r o t o r . The t h r u s t of a n i n d i v i d u a l b l a d e can b e found from t h e same formula used

where C Tb

i s t h e blade thrust coefficient;

S i s t h e b l a d e planform a r e a ; b W is the r e s u l t a n t blade t i p velocity.

The b l a d e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t depends on i t s shape and i n c i d e n c e a n g l e ; and S a r e c o n s t a n t s . b Tb Then f o r c o n s t a n t a i r d e n s i t y t h e b l a d e t h r u s t w i l l v a r y s i m i l a r l y t o t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y over t h e b l a d e . I n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e b l a d e t h r u s t r e a c h e s i t s maximal v a l u e a t t h e 90" azimuth, s i n c e i n t h i s c a s e t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y over t h e b l a d e
i s maximal.

consequently, f o r a f i x e d p i t c h @ t h e q u a n t i t i e s C

Conversely, a t $ = 270" t h e b l a d e t h r u s t i s minimal, s i n c e t h e

r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i s l e a s t a t t h i s azimuth ( s e e F i g u r e 3 1 c ) .

63

22.

R e s u l t a n t Flow V e l o c i t y o v e r Blade Element i n t h e Hub Rotation. P l a n e

It i s w e l l known t h a t i n t h e v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regime e a c h b l a d e element

is i n a stream whose v e l o c i t y i s e q u a l t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e
element u = w r . The s i t u a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. I f t h e main

I45

r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k A = O o , t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y w i t h which t h e stream f l o w s over t h e b l a d e element depends on t h e element c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y , t h e f l i g h t speed, and t h e azimuth a u g l e

$.

I n t h i s case t h e r e s u l t a n t

v e l o c i t y w i l l n o t b e e q u a l t o t h e geo

m e t r i c sum of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
v e l o c i t y and t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y , s i n c e o n l y t h e flow d i r e c t e d perpen dicular t o t h e blade longitudinal a x i s has a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e aero

dynamic f o r c e s of t h e element. F i g u r e 31. Blade element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i n forward f l i g h t regime. T h e r e f o r e , we must t a k e as t h e

r e s u l t a n t b l a d e element v e l o c i t y i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e sum of t h e v e c t o r s of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e element and t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r on t h e l i n e of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ( F i g u r e 31).

Consequently, f o r a c o n s t a n t f l i g h t speed and c o n s t a n t a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y w i l l v a r y as a f u n c t i o n of t h e azimuth a n g l e . L e t u s examine t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n of b l a d e azimuth ( F i g u r e 3 2 ) .

64

I,

,.

~.

..

F i g u r e 32. azimuth.

Blade element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n of

It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see t h a t f o r

)I

0" and 180" t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y

e q u a l s t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y , s i n c e t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y on t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r e q u a l s z e r o ( F i g u r e 32a)

WIBo'.= + Vsin 189" = U. u

For @ = 90" t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i s

\v,,= u + Vsindo'= U ,

For $ = 270" t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y e q u a l s t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e v e l o c i

t i e s ( F i g u r e 32b)

I f w e u s e (16) t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y f o r s e v e r a l a z i m u t h s ,

w e can p l o t t h e r e l a t i o n W = f($) ( F i g u r e 32c).

F i g u r e 32 makes i t p o s s i b l e t o conclude t h a t :

65

t h e maximal b l a d e element v e l o c i t y w i l l occur a t $ = go", occur a t $ = 270"; f o r

$ J

t h e minimal w i l l

= 0" and 180" t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t i e s of a given

element are e q u a l t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y o f t h i s element. a t i o n of t h e b l a d e element v e l o c i t y .

Consequently,

t h e forward f l i g h t regime d i f f e r s from t h e v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regime i n t h e vari I n t h e v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regime t h i s In this I n t h e forward f l i g h t

v e l o c i t y remains c o n s t a n t W = u and i s independent of t h e azimuth. regime t h e "blade azimuth" concept h a s no meaning.

regime t h e r e s u l t a n t b l a d e element v e l o c i t y i n t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e v a r i e s continuously.

5 23.

V a r i a t i o n of C i r c u m f e r - e > t . $ a u i

R e s u l t a n t V e l o c i t i e s a l e n x Main Rotor. R a d i u s

L e t us examine t h e v e l o c i t y diagram of d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements o f a twobladed r o t o r when t h e b l a d e s are a t t h e 90" t h e v e c t o r s of t h e r e v e r s e d flow, i . e . ,

270" a z i m u t h s .

W e s h a l l consider

t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s of t h e f l o w which

approaches t h e b l a d e element as a r e s u l t of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y and the f l i g h t velocity. The v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s of t h e motion of a p o i n t on t h e

b l a d e element w e r e shown p r e v i o u s l y i n F i g u r e 32a, b . I n t h e diagram of F i g u r e 33 w e examine t h e r e v e r s e d v e c t o r s . f o l l o w i n g from t h e f i g u r e .

W e see t h e

1.

The c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s i n c r e a s e from z e r o a t t h e hub a x i s .

The v a r i a t i o n of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s elements up t o t h e m a x i m a l v a l u e a t t h e t i p elements i s shown a l o n g t h e l i n e OD o r OE.

2.

A l l t h e b l a d e elements t r a v e l w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

G I f w e draw t h e l i n e F p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e ED a t t h e d i s t a n c e V , w e o b t a i n t h e diagram of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t i e s of t h e v a r i o u s elements.

3.
u

A t t h e 90" azimuth t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of a l l t h e elements i s

+V

= wr

+ V;

a t t h e p o i n t 0, W

V.

66

4.

A t t h e 270'

azimuth t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i s w r

- V.

5.

A t t h e outboard b l a d e elements, l o c a t e d between p o i n t s A and C, t h e

c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y and, consequently, the difference u

V i s p o s i t i v e , i . e . , W > 0.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e air flow There i s d i r e c t flow

/47

approaches t h e outboard elements from t h e l e a d i n g edge. o v e r t h e b l a d e elements j u s t as a t t h e 90'

azimuth,but w i t h a lower v e l o c i t y .

6.

The b l a d e element l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t A h a s a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y S i n c e t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s are d i r e c t e d

e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y u = V.

o p p o s i t e l y , t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h i s element i s z e r o .

7.

For t h e inboard elements between p o i n t s A and 0 t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l

v e l o c i t y i s less t h a n t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y (u < V ) , the difference u

i.e.,

f o r t h e s e elements

V =

W.

T h i s means t h a t t h e flow approaches t h e s e elements

from t h e t r a i l i n g edge. azimuths c l o s e t o 270".

There i s r e v e r s e d flow over t h e inboard elements a t

8.

The r e v e r s e d flow zone h a s t h e diameter d , which can b e determined I n t h e s e t r i a n g l e s OC = R; OA = d;

from t h e s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s ODC and OBA.

CD = u = UR;

AB

= V.

From t h e b a s i c p r o p e r t y of s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s

OA XE - (3C CD
z -

Or

hence
. .

Knowing t h a t

67

we f i n a l l y have d = Rp.
Conclusion: t h e dia

meter of t h e reverse flow

zone i s l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r r a d i u s and t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t 1-1, i.e.

/48

, the

higher t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y f o r a g i v e n r o t o r rpm.

F i g u r e 33.

C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and r e s u l t a n t

A s a r e s u l t of the reverse flow, n e g a t i v e

t h r u s t develops on t h e

v e l o c i t i e s of d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements.

p o r t i o n of t h e b l a d e l o c a t e d i n t h i s zone; t h i s n e g a t i v e t h r u s t i s reduced by t h e blade r o o t cutout.

5 24.

Drawbacks o f MaZn Rotor w i t h Rigid Blade R e t e n t-i__ n o

The main r o t o r s of t h e e a r l y h e l i c o p t e r s (TsAGI1-EA, f o r example) had b l a d e s which w e r e r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e hub. changed by means o f a x i a l h i n g e s . The b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e w a s

I n t h e i r arrangement such r o t o r s are But t h e v e r y f i r s t f l i g h t s

similar t o airplane variable pitch propellers.

d i s c l o s e d major deficienciescharacteristic of t h e s e r o t o r s . The t h r u s t i s c r e a t e d by a l l t h e b l a d e elements, b u t t h e h i g h e s t e l e m e n t a l f o r c e s w i l l b e t h o s e on t h e elements l o c a t e d a t 3 R / 4 (see F i g u r e 1 5 d ) . The

r e s u l t a n t of t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e s i s a p p l i e d a t t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e , which i s l o c a t e d a t t h e element w i t h r e l a t i v e r a d i u s

0.7.

This d i s t r i b u

t i o n of t h e e l e m e n t a l t h r u s t f o r c e s and t h i s p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e r e s u l t a n t l e a d s t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a l a r g e bending moment a t t h e b l a d e r o o t ( F i g u r e 34a). The approximate magnitude of t h e b l a d e r o o t bending moment a t t h e b l a d e

68

.. .,

..

........

a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e hub i s determined from t h e formula %end = Tb 0.7R. Thus, i f t h e r o t o r h a s f o u r b l a d e s and t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t weight i s 6000 k g f , t h e t h r u s t o f a s i n g l e b l a d e w i l l b e T = 6000:4 = 1500 kgf. b main r o t o r d i a m e t e r D = 20 m y %end = 1500 x 0.7 x 10 = 10,5000 kgf-m. moment w i l l b e s t i l l l a r g e r f o r a heavy h e l i c o p t e r . For This

The l a r g e bending moment

creates a l a r g e l o a d on t h e b l a d e r o o t .

Moreover, t h e b l a d e i s s u b j e c t e d t o

a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e which r e a c h e s a magnitude o f s e v e r a l t e n s o f t o n s ; con

s e q u e n t l y t h e r o o t p o r t i o n of t h e b l a d e o p e r a t e s under c o n d i t i o n s of l a r g e loads. I n o r d e r t o avoid b l a d e f a i l u r e , t h e a r e a o f i t s r o o t s e c t i o n must b e i n c r e a s e d , and t h i s l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l weight and r e d u c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s u s e f u l l o a d . S i n c e t h e b l a d e t h r u s t v a r i e s a z i m u t h a l l y , i t s bending moment a l s o v a r i e s ( F i g u r e 34b). The v a r i a b l e bending causes f a t i g u e stresses i n t h e m a t e r i a l The up of t h e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , which can l e a d t o r a p i d b l a d e f a i l u r e .

and down bending v i b r a t i o n s of t h e b l a d e t i p s r e a c h h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s (up t o

3 - 4 c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d ) , c r e a t i n g heavy v i b r a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .
The b l a d e t h r u s t does n o t v a r y a z i m u t h a l l y i n t h e v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regime, and t h i s means t h a t t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t v e c t o r , e q u a l t o t h e sum of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t f o r c e s T = T k , l i e s a l o n g t h e hub a x i s ( F i g u r e 34c). b I n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e b l a d e t h r u s t depends on t h e azimuth. The t h r u s t i s maximal a t t h e 90" azimuth and minimal a t t h e 270" azimuth ( F i g u r e 34d).
A s a r e s u l t of t h i s v a r i a t i o n , h a l f t h e main r o t o r d i s k

(advancing b l a d e s ) h a s a h i g h e r t h r u s t t h a n t h e o t h e r h a l f , formed by t h e r e t r e a t i n g blades

I n t h i s case t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t v e c t o r T does n o t p a s s through t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub, b u t r a t h e r a t t h e d i s t a n c e a from t h e hub a x i s . moment P$,

=

The t h r u s t

Ta i s c r e a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e hub a x i s .

69

F i g u r e 3 4 . Blade bending moment and main r o t o r t h r u s t o v e r t u r n i n g moment.

S i n c e t h e hub axis i s i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r p l a n e of symmetry, t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t moment c a u s e s t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r t o tend t o o v e r t u r n . This

i s termed t h e o v e r t u r n i n g moment.

Thus t h e main r o t o r w i t h r i g i d b l a d e

r e s t r a i n t h a s t h r e e major drawbacks:

p r e s e n c e of t h e o v e r t u r n i n g t h r u s t moment i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime;

p r e s e n c e of l a r g e t h r u s t bending moment a t t h e b l a d e r o o t ;
v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t moment a z i m u t h a l l y .

A l l t h e s e drawbacks can b e e l i m i n a t e d i f t h e b l a d e s are a t t a c h e d t o t h e

hub by means of h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s .

70

5 25.

__ H Purpose of Main R o t o r. - u b Ho-rizontal Hinges

The h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e (HH) h a s i t s axis i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e hub, p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e . b l a d e ( F i g u r e 35a). b l a d e t h r u s t d e v e l o p s a moment which r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e about t h i s hinge. t h r u s t moment The The

% = Ta

c a u s e s r o t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o t h i s h i n g e ,

/50

and t h i s means t h a t t h e moment i s n o t t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub ( t h e t h r u s t o v e r t u r n i n g moment i s e l i m i n a t e d ) ( F i g u r e 35b). When t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e i s used, t h e t h r u s t - f o r c e bending moment a t t h e r o o t of t h e b l a d e becomes z e r o , t h u s u n l o a d i n g t h e r o o t s e c t i o n ; t h e b l a d e bending i s reduced and t h e r e f o r e b l a d e f a t i g u e stresses are reduced and b l a d e service l i f e i s i n c r e a s e d . The v i b r a t i o n s caused by azimuthal v a r i a t i o n of Summarizing, we can s a y t h a t t h e b l a d e t h r u s t - f o r c e moment a r e a l s o reduced. the h o r i z o n t a l hinges a r e intended t o : e l i m i n a t e t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t o v e r t u r n i n g moment i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime ;

relieve t h e b l a d e r o o t s e c t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t bending moment;

reduce f a t i g u e stresses i n t h e b l a d e and v i b r a t i o n s caused by a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t moment. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s s i m p l i f y c o n t r o l of t h e main r o t o r and h e l i c o p t e r , improve h e l i c o p t e r s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y , and reduce t h e magnitude
of t h e a z i m u t h a l b l a d e t h r u s t v a r i a t i o n .

5 26.

Conditions f o r Blade Equilibrium R e l a t i v e t o t h e H o r i z o n t a l Hinge

L e t u s examine t h e b l a d e t h r u s t moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge.

If t h i s moment i s n o t t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub b u t simply r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e ,

t h e n a q u e s t i o n arises immediately: through t h e h i n g e t o t h e hub?

how i s t h e b l a d e t h r u s t t r a n s m i t t e d

I n o r d e r t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n w e examine

71

F i g u r e 35.

Blade e q u i l i b r i u m a b o u t h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e .

t h e conditions f o r b l a d e equilibrium relative t o the h o r i z o n t a l hinge.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h r u s t f o r c e , i n t h e p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e t h e r e a c t t h e weight f o r c e G ( F i g u r e 35b). Each o f t h e s e f o r c e s develops a moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge. The b l a d e t h r u s t moment r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e upward. The f l a p p i n g a n g l e B i s When
b

/51

and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e N

formed between t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s and t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e .

t h e b l a d e t i p i s above t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e , t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i s considered p o s i t i v e . The t h r u s t moment r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g f l a p p i n g a n g l e ( b l a d e f l a p s upward). The weight moment MG = Gbb r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment r o t a t e s I f t h e flapping angle

downward, reducing t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e .

t h e b l a d e t o b r i n g i t c l o s e r t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e .

i s p o s i t i v e , t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment MN = Nc r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e downward and

c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e b l a d e weight f o r c e moment.

I f the flapping

a n g l e i s n e g a t i v e ( F i g u r e 3 5 c ) , t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e upward and c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e t h r u s t f o r c e moment. Thus t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment t e n d s t o reduce t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e b l a d e from t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e . 72

The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e always a c t s i n t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n , i s d i r e c t e d outward. from t h e axis, and i s a p p l i e d t o t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y . d e f i n e d by t h e formula

It i s

The b l a d e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of the'Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r a t maximal main r o t o r rpm exceeds 20,000 kgf. T h e r e f o r e , even w i t h a s m a l l a r m , c t h e moment o f t h i s force w i l l be very large. A f t e r s e e i n g what moments a c t on t h e b l a d e a b o u t t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e , we can d e f i n e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n

T h i s c o n d i t i o n can b e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s f o r p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e f l a p ping angles: or $ > 0

E q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e case of n e g a t i v e f l a p p i n g a n g l e s i s p o s s i b l e , b u t o n l y i n t h e c o u r s e of a v e r y l i m i t e d t i m e . T h e r e f o r e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w e s h a l l con s i d e r (17) t o b e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n . I f t h i s condition is violated, t h e blade w i l l r o t a t e u n t i l equilibrium i s r e s t o r e d a t a new f l a p p i n g a n g l e . With change of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e , t h e r e

w i l l b e a change of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a r m and t h e r e f o r e o f i t s moment.

/52
73

Thus t h e b l a d e w i l l f l a p upward i f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e moment i s g r e a t e r than t h e sum of t h e moments of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and t h e weight f o r c e , i . e . , f o r

>JT>?;IG+?AN

But w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e , t h e moment

3 = Nc

w i l l increase and e q u i l i b r i u m w i l l a g a i n b e e s t a b l i s h e d .
direction. The f l a p p i n g a n g l e h a s a comparatively s m a l l v a l u e

The same p r o c e s s

w i l l t a k e p l a c e upon r e d u c t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e , b u t i n t h e reverse

-7 -

10".

The primary r e a s o n f o r v i o l a t i o n of b l a d e e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e i s t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and i t s moment.

The h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s have snubbers ( s t o p s ) t o l i m i t t h e b l a d e upward and downward r o t a t i o n . The lower s t o p i s t h e b l a d e droop l i m i t e r , i . e . , the b l a d e rests on t h i s s t o p i f t h e r o t o r i s n o t t u r n i n g , which p r e v e n t s t h e b l a d e coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The s t o p h a s

a c e n t r i f u g a l r e g u l a t o r which a l l o w s t h e b l a d e t o d e f l e c t t o n e g a t i v e f l a p p i n g
angles i n f l i g h t .

The upper s t o p l i m i t s t h e upward r o t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e ( f l a p p i n g a n g l e

25

30").

The b l a d e does n o t r e a c h t h e l i m i t e r s i n f l i g h t , s i n c e t h e

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment does n o t p e r m i t t h e b l a d e t o d e f l e c t v e r y f a r from t h e hub r o t a t i o n plane.

5 27.

Main Rotor Cone of Revolution

When h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s are u s e d , t h e r o t a t i n g r o t o r forms a "cone of revolution". I f t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i s p o s i t i v e , as t h e main r o t o r t u r n s t h e

b l a d e s travel a l o n g t h e g e n e r a t o r o f a cone whose apex i s l o c a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub. The p l a n e p a s s i n g through t h e r o t a t i n g r o t o r b l a d e t i p s i s c a l l e d t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n [ t i p p a t h p l a n e ] ( F i g u r e 3 6 ) .

74

The l i n e p a s s i n g through t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub p e r p e n d i c u l a r

=io
F i g u r e 36. Main r o t o r coning.

t o the t i p path plane is called t h e coning a x i s . t h e coning a x i s . The main r o t o r t h r u s t vector passes l i e s along

If t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g a n g l e does n o t change a z i m u t h a l l y , t h e main r o t o r

t i p p a t h p l a n e i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e and t h e coning a x i s c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e main r o t o r hub a x i s . e q u a l s t h e coning a n g l e ao. I n t h i s case t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e f3 The coning a n g l e i s t h e a n g l e a

0 between t h e hub
I t v a r i e s from

r o t a t i o n p l a n e and t h e g e n e r a t o r of t h e cone of r e v o l u t i o n .

oo

t o 10

12".

Inc r e a s e of t h e p i t c h l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and moment about the h o r i z o n t a l hinge. The main r o t o r cone of r e v o l u t i o n i s c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i f a l l t h e b l a d e s have t h e same f l a p p i n g a n g l e , i . e . , t h e r e e x i s t s so-called co-conicity of t h e To

The coning a n g l e i s l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r p i t c h .

I53

b l a d e s , absence of which l e a d s t o severe v i b r a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . b e t h e same.

o b t a i n co-conicity i t i s necessary t h a t t h e incidence angles of a l l t h e blades The t e c h n i q u e f o r . a d j u s t i n g t h e r o t o r f o r b l a d e t r a c k i n g i s given i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r maintenance i n s t r u c t i o n s .

5 28.

Blade Flapping Motions

Blade motions r e l a t i v e t o t h e main r o t o r hub h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime are c a l l e d f l a p p i n g motions. of a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t . When t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and moment i n c r e a s e i t f l a p s upward, and when t h e t h r u s t and moment d e c r e a s e i t f l a p s downward.
L e t u s see how t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g

These motions a r i s e when

t h e b l a d e e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s i s d i s r u p t e d because

75

a n g l e s v a r y w i t h azimuth.

For t h e advancing b l a d e w i t h

JI

from 0 t o 90" t h e r e s u l t a n t f l o w v e l o c i t y

over t h e b l a d e and t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and moment i n c r e a s e , and t h e b l a d e f l a p s upward

- the

f l a p p i n g a n g l e and t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y increase.

A t the

90" azimuth t h e upward v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y r e a c h e s t h e m a x i m a l v a l u e .

For $ > 90" t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e , w h i l e the flapping angle continues t o increase. The b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions are a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y by v a r i a t i o n of t h e re s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y , b u t a l s o by v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k caused by t h e main r o t o r coning a n g l e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e coning a n g l e t h e u n d i s t u r b e d stream approaches t h e b l a d e l o c a t e d a t t h e 180' azimuth a t some a n g l e from below, and approaches t h e b l a d e l o c a t e d a t t h e 360" azimuth a t some a n g l e from above ( F i g u r e 37a). The u n d i s t r u b e d stream v e l o c i t y v e c t o r can be broken down i n t o t h e com

ponents:

V p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s , and V p a r a l l e l t o Y S t h e b l a d e a x i s . The l a t t e r i s c a l l e d t h e s l i p v e l o c i t y . The b l a d e element

a n g l e of a t t a c k and t h r u s t are independent of Vs.

A t t h e 180" azimuth t h e

v e c t o r V i s d i r e c t e d a t t h e b l a d e from below, consequently t h i s l e a d s t o Y i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k by t h e magnitude Aa ( F i g u r e 37b). The induced flow v e l o c i t y i s n o t shown i n t h e f i g u r e .

i s d i r e c t e d downward Y toward t h e b l a d e , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of

A t t h e 360' azimuth ( F i g u r e 37a) t h e v e c t o r V
a t t a c k ( F i g u r e 37d). Thus, as a r e s u l t of coning t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of each b l a d e element changes a z i m u t h a l l y from a maximum a t t h e 1 0 azimuth t o 8'

a minimum a t t h e 360" azimuth.

A t t h e 90'and

270" azimuths, t h e a n g l e s of

/54

a t t a c k e q u a l t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e ( w i t h o u t a c c o u n t f o r t h e induced v e l o c i t y and t h e f l a p p i n g motion v e l o c i t y )

, Figure

37c.

76

.-.
F i g u r e 37. Blade element a n g l e of a t t a c k as a f u n c t i o n of main r o t o r coning a n g l e . But t h e i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e o f a t t a c k a s a r e s u l t o f t h e coning a n g l e f o r $ > 90" leads t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t and f u r t h e r upward flapping.
A s a r e s u l t of t h i s e f f e c t , t h e maximal b l a d e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i n t h e
)I

forward f l i g h t regime w i l l occur a t

~ 2 2 1 0 " . I n t h i s case equilibrium of

A s the blade

the blade relative t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

motion c o n t i n u e s around t h e c i r c l e , t h e b l a d e t h r u s t d e c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of r e d u c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y and t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k , and e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d , i.e.,

The v e r t i c a l downward f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y w i l l b e maximal a t t h e 270" azimuth. E q u i l i b r i u m i s reached a g a i n f o r J, x30" and t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e w i l l b e minimal. This v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i n azimuth i s p o s s i b l e i n t h e f o r ward f l i g h t regime i f t h e b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e d o e s n o t change i n azimuth and account i s n o t t a k e n of e l a s t i c t w i s t i n g of t h e b l a d e under t h e i n f l u e n c e

of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s .

77

29.

Main Rotor Coning -his T i l t

With v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e s t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n and t h e coning a x i s d e f l e c t backward and t o t h e s i d e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e advancing b l a d e through t h e a n g l e T ( F i g u r e 38a). coning a x i s backward by t h e a n g l e al,

A s a r e s u l t of t h e tilt of t h e

t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e blade flap

p i n g a n g l e t o f3 = a a a t t h e 180" azimuth and a r e d u c t i o n t o f3 = a . 0 1 a t t h e 0" azimuth ( F i g u r e 38b). T i l t i n g of t h e cone axis t o t h e s i d e by t h e a n g l e bl l e a d s t o change of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e s :

a .

al

a t t h e azimuth 90"

bl;

a t t h e azimuth 270" f3 = a.

+ bl

( F i g u r e 38c).

F i g u r e 38. Blade f l a p p i n g motions and t i l t of main r o t o r cone a x i s . 1 - cone f o r p = 0; 2 cone f o r p > 0.

T i l t i n g of t h e cone axis backward by t h e a n g l e al l e a d s t o d e f l e c t i o n through t h e same a n g l e o f t h e t h r u s t v e c t o r and t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l t h r u s t component H ( F i g u r e 39a). T h i s f o r c e i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e Since i t is directed a f t , i t The

I55

main r o t o r t h r u s t on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e .

i s a d r a g f o r c e and i s analogous t o t h e induced d r a g o f a n a i r p l a n e wing.

78

Figure 39.

Main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e components.

l a r g e r t h e f l a p p i n g motions, t h e l a r g e r t h e backward t i l t of t h e cone a x i s and t h e l a r g e r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e H r e s i s t i n g h e l i c o p t e r forward motion. Consequently, t h e f l a p p i n g motions i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime must b e restricted. I f t h e d e f l e c t e d t h r u s t T i s p r o j e c t e d on t h e hub a x i s , we o b t a i n t h e f o r c e required f o r h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t

I n view o f t h e s m a l l n e s s of t h e a n g l e a1(2 - 3") w e can t a k e a l z 1. Then T

1 56

T.

The sideward t i l t of t h e cone a x i s ( F i g u r e 39b) l e a d s t o t h e appearance of t h e s i d e f o r c e S s , which i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e

Ss = T s i n bl.
Since t h i s f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t , t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s unfavorable f o r s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions must b e r e s t r i c t e d i n o r d e r t o a l t e r t h e sideward t i l t of t h e cone a n g l e from t h e
79

l e f t to the r i g h t .

Moreover, r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g motions i s a l s o

n e c e s s a r y t o r e d u c e main r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s .

5 30.

Blade Flapping M o t i o n - R e s t r i c t i o n and F l a w i n R Compensator

The b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions are l i m i t e d by t h e a c t i o n of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment. Moreover, t h e f l a p p i n g motions themselves create aerodynamic The e s s e n c e o f t h e l i m i t i n g amounts t o t h e follow

l i m i t i n g of t h e s e motions. ing.

A s t h e b l a d e f l a p s upward ( F i g u r e 4 0 a ) , t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k

which fl l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and moment and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t o more r a p i d r e s t o r a t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m a b o u t t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e . When t h e b l a d e

i s reduced by

Aa as a r e s u l t of t h e v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y V

f l a p s downward ( F i g u r e 40b), t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t and l i m i t a t i o n of t h e downward f l a p p i n g motion.

But t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e f l a p p i n g motions as a r e s u l t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and aerodynamic l i m i t i n g i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t . T h e r e f o r e u s e i s made o f

t h e s o - c a l l e d p i t c h c o n t r o l . a r m compensation o r f l a p p i n g compensator.

The e s s e n c e of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator l i e s i n a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e b l a d e p i t c h c o n t r o l elements.

It w a s e s t a b l i s h e d earlier t h a t t h e

b l a d e p i t c h ( i n c i d e n c e a n g l e $J) changes w i t h r o t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e about i t s longitudinal axis. Blade r o t a t i o n i s accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of t h e a x i a l The h i n g e , on t h e body o f which t h e r e i s t h e b l a d e p i t c h horn l e v e r .

/57

v e r t i c a l rod from t h e main r o t o r t i l t c o n t r o l i s connected t o t h e b l a d e horn

arm.

Connection o f t h e c y c l i c c o n t r o l rod w i t h t h e b l a d e horn i s accomplished

by means o f t h e pitch h o r n hinge.

I f t h e t i l t c o n t r o l rod moves upward, t h e b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e i s

i n c r e a s e d ( F i g u r e 41a).

80

/-

F i g u r e 40. Blade element a n g l e o f a t t a c k change.

I f t h e c o n t r o l rod moves downward,the b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e i s reduced ( F i g u r e 41b). The l o c a t i o n of t h e horn a r m h i n g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e main r o t o r

I t may b e l o c a t e d on t h e

hub h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e i s of fundamental importance. t h i s a x i s by t h e d i s t a n c e a ( F i g u r e 41d).

a x i s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e ( F i g u r e 41c) o r i t may b e s h i f t e d r e l a t i v e t o

T i l t c o n t r o l rod

View

:, , F i g u r e .

41. Blade f l a p p i n g compensator.

a x is

, o
81

I n t h e f i r s t case, d u r i n g f l a p p i n g motion t h e h o r n r o t a t e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e b l a d e about t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis so t h a t i t d o e s n o t h i n d e r b l a d e rotation. The b l a d e chord d i s p l a c e s p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f and t h e i n c i d e n c e

a n g l e remains c o n s t a n t . I n t h e second case, t h e s h i f t o f t h e horn h i n g e relative t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis l e a d s t o change of b l a d e p i t c h d u r i n g f l a p p i n g motions. Thus,

when t h e b l a d e f l a p s upward t h e h o r n h i n g e , remaining s t a t i o n a r y , h o l d s back t h e b l a d e l e a d i n g edge, i . e . ,

i t causes r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p i t c h ( F i g u r e 41d).

When t h e b l a d e f l a p s downward i t s p i t c h i n c r e a s e s . l e a d s t o l i m i t i n g of t h e f l a p p i n g motions.

T h i s s o r t of p i t c h change

For example, when t h e b l a d e moves

upward t h e b l a d e p i t c h i s reduced and i t s t h r u s t and moment are a l s o reduced. T h e r e f o r e , e q u i l i b r i u m i s r e s t o r e d more r a p i d l y and t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i s reduced.

When t h e b l a d e f l a p s downward, t h e i n c r e a s e d p i t c h l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e d t h r u s t and t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i s r e s t r i c t e d . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e f l a p p i n g

compensator a c t i o n depends on t h e f l a p p i n g compensation c o e f f i c i e n t K.

The compensation c o e f f i c i e n t i s t h e r a t i o of t h e d i s t a n c e a between t h e p i t c h h o r n h i n g e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis t o t h e d i s t a n c e b between t h e p i t c h h o r n h i n g e a n d t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ( F i g u r e 41d):

The l a r g e r t h e compensation c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e l a r g e r t h e b l a d e p i t c h change w i t h v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e more t h e b l a d e up and down f l a p p i n g i s r e s t r i c t e d . For most h e l i c o p t e r s t h e compensation c o e f f i c i e n t i s about 0.5.

By i n c r e a s i n g t h e compensation c o e f f i c i e n t w e can l i m i t t h e i n c r e a s e of

82

t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e f o r t h e advancing b l a d e t o a p o i n t where maximum f l a p p i n g

w i l l n o t occur a t t h e $ = 210" azimuth, as w e have n o t e d above, b u t r a t h e r a t

t h e $ % 160" azimuth. I n t h i s case, t h e minimal f l a p p i n g a n g l e o f t h e retreat With t h i s change of t h e f l a p i n g b l a d e w i l l o c c u r a t t h e $ % 340" azimuth.

p i n g a n g l e s , t h e main r o t o r cone a x i s w i l l be d e f l e c t e d a f t and i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e , and t h e s i d e f o r c e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d t o t h e r i g h t .

5 31.

Blade Element Angle-of A t t a c k Change -~ . . .

~

Owing t o Flapping Motions The b l a d e a n g l e of a t t a c k change v e l o c i t y +Vfl,

+Aa depends on t h e v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g on t h e azimuth a n g l e , which w e

on w r , and on V s i n $, i . e . ,

see from t h e formula

tg A = a

or

kVfl V sin

.
I/J

The s i g n of t h e v e r t i c a l f-apping v e l o c i t y i s determined -y t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g motion: downward f l a p p i n g .

a minus s i g n f o r upward b l a d e f l a p p i n g , a p l u s s i g n f o r
S i n c e t h e m a x i m a l upward b l a d e f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y o c c u r s

a t t h e 90" azimuth, t h e n e g a t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment w i l l b e g r e a t e s t a t t h i s azimuth and t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k of a given b l a d e element w i l l b e

minimal. The h i g h e s t downward v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y occurs a t t h e 270" T h i s means t h a t a given b l a d e element has i t s m a x i m a l a n g l e of Moreover, i n a n a l y z i n g t h e curve
we

159
-

azimuth, and t h e p o s i t i v e a n g l e o f a t t a c k increment ACX w i l l b e maximal a t t h i s azimuth. a t t a c k a t t h e 270" azimuth ( F i g u r e 4 2 ) .

see t h a t t h e maximal magnitude of t h e n e g a t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment a t t h e 90" azimuth i s less t h a n t h e m a x i m a l magnitude of t h e p o s i t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment a t t h e 270" azimuth. This v a r i a t i o n of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t

0 t h a t i n (17a) f o r J, = 9 '
over t h e blade.

t h e second term of t h e denominator i s p o s i t i v e , and

a t g A w i l l d e c r e a s e as a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e of t h e r e s u l t a n t flow v e l o c i t y

83

F i g u r e 4 2 . Azimuthal v a r i a t i o n o f b l a d e element a n g l e o f a t t a c k .

F i g u r e 4 3 . Azimuthal v a r i a t i o n of blade t h r u s t : 1) 2) w i t h r i g i d mounting; w i t h hinged support,

For

= 270" t h e second term o f t h e denominator i s n e g a t i v e , and t h i s

means t h a t t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment A w i l l i n c r e a s e a s a r e s u l t of a r e d u c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e element. Moreover, a t t h e

90" azimuth t h e v e r t i c a l upward f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y V w i l l b e less than a t f l t h e 270" azimuth, when t h e b l a d e f l a p s downward. But t h e b l a d e element a n g l e
of a t t a c k does n o t change o n l y i n azimuth.
It a l s o v a r i e s along t h e main r o t o r radius (Figure 4 3 ) .

W e see from t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k

w i l l b e h i g h e s t f o r t h e t i p elements a t an azimuth c l o s e t o 270", and lowest

a t t h e 90" azimuth, w i t h t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k b e i n g n e a r l y t h e same f o r
elements a t d i f f e r e n t r a d i i .

The f o l l o w i n g azimuthal v a r i a t i o n of t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : from t h e 0" azimuth t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k , remaining n e a r l y c o n s t a n t along t h e l e n g t h of t h e b l a d e , d e c r e a s e up t o about t h e 110" azimuth and t h e n b e g i n t o increase.

The f o l l o w i n g a n g l e o f a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n a l o n g t h e r a d i u s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e : from t h e r o o t t o t h e t i p of t h e b l a d e t h e b l a d e w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n being less a t

element a n g l e s of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e by 4 - 5 " , t h e r o o t elements t h a n a t t h e t i p .

The a n g l e of a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n e q u a l i z e s

t h e b l a d e t h r u s t f o r c e a z i m u t h a l l y ( F i g u r e 4 4 ) , and t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions are reduced.

84

5 32.

E f f e c t of Number of Blades on Main Rotor Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

S i n g l e - b l a d e main r o t o r s a r e n o t used because o f t h e h i g h d e g r e e of unb a 1ance

.
But t h e two-blade r o t o r h a s low s o l i d i t y and consequently

The primary advantage o f t h e two-blade main r o t o r s i s t h e s i m p l i c i t y of t h e construction. poor aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (low t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t C ) T

I n c r e a s e of t h e s o l i d i t y w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e area of each b l a d e (by i n c r e a s i n g i t s w i d t h ) l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e p r o f i l e d r a g and r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y . Moreover, t h e b l a d e s of any r o t o r cannot be made p e r f e c t l y i d e n t i c a l . They always d i f f e r from one a n o t h e r i n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e o v e r a l l b l a d e t h r u s t v a r i e s i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. r e s i s t a n c e t o r o t a t i o n w i l l a l s o vary, i . e . , The main r o t o r t h e l o a d on t h e r o t o r s h a f t w i l l

v a r y , and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e s h a f t , main r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s , and v i b r a t i o n s of t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l develop. These problems can be r e s o l v e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e number of b l a d e s . l a r g e r t h e number o f b l a d e s , t h e s m a l l e r t h e amplitude of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t v a r i a t i o n s and t h e smaller t h e azimuthal v a r i a t i o n of t h e r o t o r t o r q u e ,
i.e.,

The

t h e r o t o r becomes more balanced.

However, a t t h e same t i m e r o t o r f a b r i On t h i s

c a t i o n and b l a d e b a l a n c i n g and adjustment become more d i f f i c u l t .

b a s i s , main r o t o r s w i t h 4-5 b l a d e s a r e most f r e q u e n t l y encountered.

5 33.

Azimuthal V a r i a t i o n of R o t a t i o n a l R e s i s t a n c e Forces and R e a c t i v e Torque

Both t h e r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e s and t h e t h r u s t f o r c e s of t h e b l a d e s v a r y a z i m u t h a l l y as a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t flow v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e b l a d e s .

85

..

F i g u r e 44. Blade element a n g l e of a t t a c k diagram.

F i g u r e 45. Blade r o t a t i o n a l resis t a n c e f o r c e s a t d i f f e r e n t azimuths.

The r e s i s t a n c e t o r o t a t i o n of a s i n g l e b l a d e r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l v a l u e

a t t h e 90" azimuth and minimal v a l u e a t t h e 270" azimuth. A t t h e 0" and 180" azimuths t h e r o t a t i o n a l d r a g i n t h e forward f l i g h t
regime i s e q u a l t o t h e d r a g i n t h e axial flow regime, i f t h e main r o t o r p i t c h and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e remain t h e same ( F i g u r e 45).

As a r e s u l t of t h i s v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o r o t a t i o n , t h e r e w i l l
b e azimuthal v a r i a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r reactive t o r q u e from t h e maximal v a l u e when t h e b l a d e s are a t t h e 90"and 270" azimuths t o t h e minimal v a l u e when t h e y are l o c a t e d a t t h e 0"and 180" azimuths. The v a r i a t i o n o f t h e reactive t o r q u e c a u s e s v i b r a t i o n ( t o r s i o n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s ) w i t h a frequency e q u a l t o t h e main r o t o r rpm o r some m u l t i p l e t h e r e o f . For two b l a d e s a t o p p o s i t e azimuth a n g l e s t h e r o t a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e s are d i r e c t e d oppositely r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r diameter.

161 -

A t t h e 0" and 180"

u azimuths t h e i r s m i s z e r o ; however, a t t h e 90" and 270" azimuths t h e sum of

t h e s e f o r c e s i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o and i s d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e h e l i c o p t e r

86

E
flight direction, since Q azimuth.

is l a r g e r a t t h e 90" azimuth than a t t h e $ = 270"

T h i s f o r c e is t h e p r o f i l e d r a g of t h e main r o t o r .

34.

I n e r t i a l F o r c e s Acting on Main Rotor Blades

As a r e s u l t of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r , c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , whose
magnitude w e have a l r e a d y determined, act on t h e b l a d e s .

As a r e s u l t of t h e f l a p p i n g motions, i n e r t i a l f o r c e s develop i n t h e p l a n e
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . azimuth The f l a p p i n g motion i n e r t i a l f o r c e s change t h e i r d i r e c t i o n and magnitude as a f u n c t i o n of b l a d e

A t azimuths from 2 7 0 " t o 90'

t h e i n e r t i a l f o r c e s of t h e f l a p p i n g motions

are d i r e c t e d downard.
occurs a t t h i s point.

These f o r c e s reach t h e i r maximal magnitude a t an

A t azimuths from 90" t o 270" t h e i n e r t i a l f o r c e s are A t t h e 90"and 270'

azimuth c l o s e t o 360, s i n c e t h e m a x i m a l upward a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e b l a d e d i r e c t e d upward and have t h e i r maximal magnitude a t t h e 180" azimuth, when t h e b l a d e a c c e l e r a t i o n downward w i l l b e g r e a t e s t . azimuths t h e f l a p p i n g motion i n e r t i a l f o r c e s are z e r o , s i n c e t h e f l a p p i n g motion a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e z e r o a t t h e s e azimuths, and t h e f l a p p i n g motion v e l o c i t i e s are maximal. The i n e r t i a f o r c e s i n c r e a s e t h e l o a d s on t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s . Blade C o r i o l i s f o r c e s . Coriolis forces. motion). I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and t h e the circular

f l a p p i n g motion i n e r t i a l f o r c e s , t h e r e a r e t h e r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a f o r c e s , o r They arise as a r e s u l t of combination of b l a d e ,motion and b l a d e motion r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge a x i s ( f l a p p i n g

As a r e s u l t of v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e d u r i n g f l a p p i n g
Thus, F i g u r e 46a shows t h a t w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e T h e r e f o r e , t h e f l a p p i n g motions 87

motions, t h e r e i s a change o f t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e a l o n g which t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y t r a v e l s . f l a p p i n g a n g l e from

6, t o 6, t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d by t h e b l a d e

c e n t e r of g r a v i t y d e c r e a s e s from rl t o r2.

.. ....

vr

. .

-+ I
Figure 4 6 . Blade C o r i o l i s f o r c e s .

are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r a d i a l displacement of t h e b l a d e m a s s , and t h i s l e a d s t o

t h e development of an i n e r t i a l f o r c e which i s termed t h e C o r i o l i s o r r o t a t i o n a l force. The e s s e n c e of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s e a s i l y e x p l a i n e d i f w e r e c a l l t h e n a t u r e of i n e r t i a l f o r c e s i n t h e case of r e c t i l i n e a r a c c e l e r a t i o n of motion. Everyone knows from h i s own e x p e r i e n c e t h a t d u r i n g b r a k i n g t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e

I62

i s d i r e c t e d forward, and t h a t d u r i n g r e c t i l i n e a r a c c e l e r a t i o n i t i s d i r e c t e d
aft.

L e t u s apply t h i s r u l e t o t h e moving b l a d e .

When upward f l a p p i n g t a k e s p l a c e , t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y d e c r e a s e s , and t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s , i . e . forward i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . During downward f l a p p i n g t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e along wh c h t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y travels i n c r e a s e s , t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y u =

ir d

, retardation

of t h e motion t a k e s p l a c e , and an i n e r t i a l f o r c e appears which is d i r e c t e d

i n c r e a s e s , and an i n e r t i a l f o r c e d i r e c t e d a f t - o p p o s i t e t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n

- appears.
This a n a l y s i s i s confirmed by t h e energy c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w and t h e a s s o c i a t e d a n g u l a r momentum c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w

88

m,,ur where nj, u

is t h e m a s s o f t h e body;

= const

i s the circumferential velocity; i s t h e t r a j e c t o r y r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e .

L e t us apply t h i s l a w t o b l a d e motion d u r i n g v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f l a p p i n g angle. S i n c e t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r s h a f t remains c o n s t a n t , t h e a n g u l a r momentum o f each b l a d e must a l s o remain c o n s t a n t m,,ulrl
= m,,u2r2 = c o n s t

or

m,,ulrl 2

m,,w2r2 2 = c o n s t .

A f t e r d i v i d i n g through by m, w e o b t a i n (+>,I-: = tu& t h i s e q u a t i o n t h a t d u r i n g upward b l a d e f l a p p i n g ( f z < f I ) must i n c r e a s e be violated.

= const.

W e see from

t h e angular v e l o c i t y

(Q>o~),i n

o r d e r t h a t t h e a n g u l a r momentum c o n s e r v a t i o n law n o t This f o r c e w i l l b e t h e C o r i o l i s o r

/63

A f o r c e d i r e c t e d along t h e main r o t o r r o t a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n

order t o increase t h e angular velocity. r o t a t i o n a l force. The C o r i o l i s f o r c e F by t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n

i s d e f i n e d as t h e product of t h e m a s s of t h e body

where

m,,
jc

is the blade m a s s ; is t h e Coriolis acceleration.

89

The C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n i s found from t h e formula

j c = 2wVr

where

Vr

i s t h e relative o r r a d i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y .

The v e l o c i t y Vr ( F i g u r e 46a) can b e d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :

Vr = V

f l

sin

B.

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of Vr i n t o t h e formula f o r t h e C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n ,

we obtain
j c = 2wVfl s i n

6.

The formula f o r t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e f i n a l l y t a k e s t h e form Gb F = 2 wVfl C g

sin

B.

Thus, t h e b l a d e C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o b l a d e w e i g h t , main r o t o r rpm, a n g u l a r f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y , and t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e . The C o r i o l i s f o r c e f o r t h e advancing b l a d e i s d i r e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n and i n c r e a s e s as t h e b l a d e approaches t h e 90" azimuth.
i t b e g i n s t o d i m i n i s h and becomes z e r o a t t h e moment of e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e

Then

blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge.

The C o r i o l i s f o r c e f o r t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d a f t , opposing r o t o r r o t a t i o n , and r e a c h e s i t s maximal v a l u e a t t h e 270" azimuth.

The b l a d e C o r i o l i s f o r c e develops t h e moment MCor main r o t o r axis ( F i g u r e 46b). without vertical hinges M Cor

= F C r c S g about t h e

For t h e main r o t o r w i t h d i a m e t e r D = 20 m

10,000 kgf'm.

90

Necessity f o r vertical hinges.

W e have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r o t a t i o n a l

d r a g and C o r i o l i s f o r c e s act on t h e b l a d e s i n t h e main r o t o r r o t a t i o n p l a n e .

A t t h e 90" azimuth t h e s e f o r c e s are d i r e c t e d i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s (see

F i g u r e 46b).

A t t h e 270 azimuth t h e s e f o r c e s c o i n c i d e i n d i r e c t i o n .

While

t h e moment of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e a l o n e r e a c h e s a magnitude of about 10,000 kgf-m, t h e combined moment of t h e two f o r c e s ( C o r i o l i s and r o t a t i o n a l drag)

w i l l be considerably l a r g e r .

This m e a n s t h a t t h e blade root experiences l a r g e

/64

l o a d s i n t h e r o t o r p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n , which can cause r a p i d f a i l u r e o f t h e blade i f w e consider t h a t these loads alter t h e i r s i g n t w i c e p e r revolution, and t h e magnitude varies from t h e minimal t o t h e m a x i m a l v a l u e twice p e r revolution.

W encountered t h e l o a d s c r e a t e d by t h e b l a d e t h r u s t moment p r e v i o u s l y . e
These l o a d s were e l i m i n a t e d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e . I n order t o e l i m i n a t e t h e bending moment i n t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e from t h e b l a d e r o o t ,

w e must i n s t a l l a v e r t i c a l h i n g e .

When t h i s h i n g e i s used, t h e bending moment t h e b l a d e w i l l r o t a t e forward ( i n t h e

at the blade root w i l l be zero, i.e.,

d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n ) o r a f t about t h i s h i n g e , performing o s c i l l a t o r y motions.

35.

O s c i l l a t o r y Blade Motions
~~

The v e r t i c a l h i n g e s have s t o p s t o l i m i t t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions of t h e blade. However, t h e b l a d e does n o t reach t h e s t o p i n f l i g h t , s i n c e e q u i l i b r i u m

i s e s t a b l i s h e d under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e moments of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e

b l a d e i n t h e main r o t o r hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e ( F i g u r e 4 7 a ) . The c o n d i t i o n f o r e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l hinge i n g e n e r a l

form i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a l i t y

For a p o s i t i v e l a g a n g l e , t h i s e q u a l i t y can b e w r i t t e n as

91

!--a

-4
Blade e q u i l i b r i u m about v e r t i c a l hinge.

F i g u r e 47.

The l a g a n g l e i s t h e a n g l e

between t h e r a d i a l l i n e and t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l

/65

axis of t h e b l a d e .

The r a d i a l l i n e i s t h e l i n e p a s s i n g through t h e main

r o t o r a x i s and t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e axis.

The l a g a n g l e w i l l b e p o s i t i v e when t h e b l a d e r o t a t e s a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a d i a l l i n e , o p p o s i t e t h e main r o t o r r o t a t i o n . b l a d e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment I n the l a s t equality, the

%=

N c w i l l be larger, the larger the

With i n c r e a s e of t h e l a g a n g l e

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and t h e l a r g e r t h e l a g a n g l e .

t h e r e is an i n c r e a s e of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e arm c and i t s moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l hinge.

92

For a p o s i t i v e l a g a n g l e , t h e moment

r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e ahead i n t h e

d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r about t h e v e r t i c a l hinge. I f t h e l a g a n g l e i s n e g a t i v e , t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e a f t , o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . acts as a s o r t of r e g u l a t o r of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions. of t h i s moment, t h e p o s i t i v e l a g a n g l e s r o t o r d r i v e n by t h e e n g i n e ) . a n g l e s r e a c h 8-12". The moment M of t h e r o t o r . vary. The C o r i o l i s f o r c e moment i n magnitude and d i r e c t i o n . F b v a r i e s a s a f u n c t i o n of azimuth, b o t h k A t azimuth a n g l e s c l o s e t o 90" t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e
= Q of t h e r o t a t i o n a l drag f o r c e always opposes r o t a t i o n a

Therefore,
it

t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e moment r o t a t e s t h e b l a d e toward t h e r a d i a l l i n e :

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e

do n o t exceed 3-5" ( w i t h t h e main I n t h i s case, t h e l a g

Negative b l a d e l a g a n g l e s are developed when

t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t e s i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

S i n c e t h e f o r c e Qb v a r i e s w i t h azimuth, i t s moment w i l l a l s o

%=

reduces t h e l a g a n g l e , w h i l e a t azimuths c l o s e t o 270" t h e l a g i s i n c r e a s e d . N w (18) can b e w r i t t e n i n expanded form o

Nc = Q a b -

F b = 0. C

T h i s w i l l t h e n b e t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l hinge. The moments M and

% vary

c o n t i n u o u s l y i n azimuth, and t h e i r v a r i a t i o n

i s one of t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o

t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. Another r e a s o n f o r t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions i s t h e a c t i o n of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and i t s moment relative t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e .

Its a c t i o n can b e

compared w i t h t h e a c t i o n of t h e weight f o r c e on a f r e e l y suspended body.

93

...

If a f r e e l y suspended body i s d e f l e c t e d , o s c i l l a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of a pendulum develop. S i n c e t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s several times s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e weight f o r c e , i t creates s i g n i f i c a n t "pendulous" o s c i l l a t i o n s , which combine w i t h t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s from t h e v a r i a b l e moments of t h e r o t a t i o n a l d r a g f o r c e and t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e t o amplify o r a t t e n u a t e t h e a m p l i t u d e s of t h e b l a d e o s c i l l a t i o n s about t h e v e r t i c a l hinge.

5 36.

Damping of O s c i l l a t o r y Blade Motions

I f w e combine a l l t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e b l a d e i n t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e , w e o b t a i n t h e i r r e s u l t a n t R.

I n t h e case of e q u i l i b r i u m relative t o
W e r e s o l v e t h e f o r c e R i n t o two

t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e , t h e r e s u l t a n t R, s h i f t e d t o t h e h i n g e axis, l i e s a l o n g t h e b l a d e axis and i t s moment w i l l b e z e r o . components ( F i g u r e 47b):

about t h e hub axis is z e r o .

i s r a d i a l , and i t s moment and Q 1' The f o r c e The f o r c e Q, creates t h e moment Q a, which

t w i s t s the rotor shaft.

Both t h e magnitude and moment o f t h e f o r c e Q

1w i l l

change w i t h v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l a g a n g l e .

Consequently, t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions

of t h e b l a d e s about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s are t h e s o u r c e of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e s h a f t , w h i l e v a r i a t i o n of t h e f o r c e the shaft.

l e a d s t o bending v i b r a t i o n s of

Various t y p e s o f dampers are used t o e l i m i n a t e t h e o s c i l l a t o r y

motions ( f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n s ) of t h e b l a d e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s . The dampers may b e o f two t y p e s : f r i c t i o n and h y d r a u l i c .

The f r i c t i o n dampers
d i s k s (Figure 48).

c o n s i s t of a set of s t e e l and cermet ( f r i c t i o n )

Half of t h e s t e e l d i s k s are a t t a c h e d t o t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e

l i n k of t h e hub, t h e o t h e r h a l f i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e body o f t h e axial h i n g e . The f r i c t i o n d i s k s , designed t o i n c r e a s e t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e , are l o c a t e d between t h e steel d i s k s . The d i s k s are compressed from above by a s p r i n g , which i s t i g h t e n e d by

a b o l t which screws i n t o t h e f i n g e r o f t h e v e r t i c a l hinge.

As the blade

r o t a t e s about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e , f r i c t i o n f o r c e s develop between t h e d i s k s .

F i g u r e 49. H y d r a u l i c damper f o r b l a d e vertical hinge.

The moment of t.,ese f o r c e s about t h e F i g u r e 48. F r i c t i o n damper f o r b l a d e v e r t i c a l hinge.

vertical

hinge axis will

be the

damping moment.

The magnitude of t h e

damping moment can b e r e g u l a t e d by tightening the b o l t . h e l i c o p t e r s t h e damping moment v a r i e s from 80 t o 120 kgf-m.

On modern

The magnitude of t h e damping moment must b e monitored d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , and care must b e t a k e n t h a t i t i s t h e same f o r a l l t h e main r o t o r dampers. With a damper i n s t a l l e d , t h e b l a d e r o t a t e s relative t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e i f t h e t o r q u e exceeds t h e damping moment. moment, i . e . , T h i s means t h a t t h e r o o t p o r t i o n of
A t the

/67

t h e b l a d e e x p e r i e n c e s a l o a d which does n o t exceed t h e magnitude of t h e damping t h e b l a d e r o o t i s r e l i e v e d of a l a r g e bending moment.

same t i m e , t h e b l a d e w i l l n o t have f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n s about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e ,

which means t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e no reason f o r t h e o n s e t o f severe v i b r a t i o n s . The f r i c t i o n dampers can b e used on l i g h t and i n t e r m e d i a t e h e l i c o p t e r s (Mi-1, Mi-4). They a r e n o t used on heavy h e l i c o p t e r s because of t h e s m a l l magnitude of t h e damping moment and t h e f r e q u e n t damper r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d . The h y d r a u l i c dampers are b e i n g used more and more a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e .

95

The h y d r a u l i c damper c o n s i s t s o f a c y l i n d e r and a rod and p i s t o n (Figure 4 9 ) . The c y l i n d e r i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e body of t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e , In the w h i l e t h e rod i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e f i n g e r o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e . p i s t o n t h e r e are c a l i b r a t e d o r i f i c e s w i t h r e l i e f valves.

As t h e b l a d e r o t a t e s relative t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e , t h e rod and p i s t o n

d i s p l a c e relative t o t h e c y l i n d e r . liquid. The c y l i n d e r cavities are f i l l e d w i t h a

As t h e p i s t o n moves i n t h e c y l i n d e r , t h e l i q u i d opens t h e r e l i e f
The moment o f t h i s f o r c e about t h e

valves and flows from one c a v i t y i n t o t h e o t h e r through o r i f i c e s i n t h e p i s t o n .

The r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e P i s developed.

v e r t i c a l h i n g e a x i s M = Pa w i l l b e t h e damping moment. T h i s moment i s e a s i l y 4 r e g u l a t e d by s e l e c t i n g t h e p i s t o n area, d i a m e t e r o f t h e o r i f i c e s i n t h e p i s t o n ,

and lever arm a (from t h e damper a x i s t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e a x i s ) . H y d r a u l i c dampers h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g drawbacks:

low damping moments f o r low rates of b l a d e r o t a t i o n relative t o t h e vertical hinge; marked i n c r e a s e of t h e damping moments d u r i n g r a p i d r o t a t i o n ; dependence of t h e damping moments on t e m p e r a t u r e because of v a r i a t i o n of t h e l i q u i d v i s c o s i t y ; marked v a r i a t i o n of t h e damping moments i f a i r g e t s i n t o t h e c y l i n d e r chamber

The h y d r a u l i c dampers are sometimes supplemented w i t h s p r i n g dampers t o e l i m i n a t e t h e f i r s t problem.

The second problem i s e l i m i n a t e d by p r o p e r c h o i c e of t h e r e l i e f valves. The t h i r d problem i s a l l e v i a t e d by s e l e c t i o n o f a l i q u i d whose v i s c o s i t y depends v e r y l i t t l e on temperature. To p r e v e n t a i r e n t r y i n t o t h e damper, a s m a l l s u p p l y r e s e r v o i r i s i n s t a l l e d on t h e r o o t p o r t i o n of t h e b l a d e , and t h e damper c a v i t i e s are r e p l e n i s h e d w i t h t h e working f l u i d from t h i s .
96

9 37.

P o s s i b i l i_t_y of Loss o f Blade Flapping _

~

- -~ Motion S t a b i l i t y

The main r o t o r hubs i n which t h e a n g l e between t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis

and t h e r a d i a l l i n e i s go", i . e . f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y . stops.

= go",

have a s e r i o u s problem:

l o s s of

By loss of f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y , w e mean

p o s s i b l e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e b l a d e upward o r downward t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e T h i s phenomenon takes p l a c e a s a r e s u l t of v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s d u r i n g f l a p p i n g , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e of a b l a d e l a g angle.

I f t h e b l a d e r o t a t e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l hinge through t h e l a g a n g l e

5,

t h e n t h e b l a d e element chord AB w i l l n o t b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l During f l a p p i n g motions, t h e l e a d i n g edge and t r a i l i n g edge of the point A a t the t h e p o i n t B on t h e t r a i l i n g edge

h i n g e axis.

t h e b l a d e element will d i s p l a c e along two d i f f e r e n t r a d i i : l e a d i n g edge w i l l have t h e l a r g e r r a d i u s r

A'

w i l l have t h e r a d i u s rB ( F i g u r e 50).

When t h e b l a d e f l a p s upward through a c e r t a i n f l a p p i n g a n g l e B , t h e p o i n t s

A and B move up d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e main r o t o r hub r o t a t i o n

plane.

P o i n t A w i l l move t o t h e h e i g h t hA, w h i l e p o i n t B moves t o t h e h e i g h t

\.

As a r e s u l t of t h i s h e i g h t d i f f e r e n c e , t h e a d d i t i o n a l a n g l e ACX develops
The l a r g e r t h e

/69

between t h e b l a d e element chord and t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e . the incidence angle increase w i l l be.
W e see from t h e f i g u r e t h a t

b l a d e l a g a n g l e and t h e l a r g e r t h e change of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e , t h e l a r g e r

sin A? =
where b

A -: h
I1

i s t h e b l a d e element chord l e n g t h .

97

. -- .. .. . . .. _-

F i g u r e 50.

Blade p i t c h change d u r i n g f l a p p i n g motions.

The i n c r e a s e d h e i g h t of t h e l e a d i n g edge above t h e t r a i l i n g edge LUI i s found from t h e formula

where

a = b sin
Consequently

i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e chord on t h e r a d i a l l i n e .

or

98

i.e.,

t h e p r e v i o u s l y drawn c o n c l u s i o n i s confirmed.
I f t h e r e i s a l a g angle

6,

t h e b l a d e element i n c i d e n c e a n g l e w i l l i n c r e a s e This v a r i a t i o n l e a d s

d u r i n g up-f l a p p i n g and w i l l d e c r e a s e d u r i n g down-f l a p p i n g . h i n g e d u r i n g upward f l a p p i n g , i . e . ,

t o i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and i t s moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l t h e b l a d e w i l l travel up a g a i n s t t h e s t o p .

During down-flapping of t h e b l a d e , b l a d e t h r u s t w i l l d e c r e a s e s t i l l f u r t h e r , which l e a d s t o downward travel of t h e b l a d e a g a i n s t t h e lower s t o p . T h i s i s t h e n t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e l o s s of f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y . How can t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e phenomena b e e l i m i n a t e d ? pensation c o e ffi c i e n t . t h e f l u t t e r type. The s i m p l e s t t e c h n i q u e

i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e degree of p i t c h h o r n compensation, i . e . , i n c r e a s e t h e com

However, i n c r e a s e of t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e of a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of main r o t o r b l a d e v i b r a t i o n n a t e d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e by a d i f f e r e n t approach geometry of t h e main r o t o r hub. T o accomplish t h i s , a hub i s used i n which t h e a n g l e between t h e horizon
t a l h i n g e axis and t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l b l a d e axis w i t h t h e b l a d e i n t h e r a d i a l

-a

v i b r a t i o n of

T h e r e f o r e , t h e l o s s of f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y i s e l i m i

-a

change of t h e b a s i c

p o s i t i o n i s less t h a n go",

i.e.,

< 90" ( F i g u r e 51).

Such a hub i s

i n s t a l l e d , f o r example, on t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r . I f t h e b l a d e of such a hub i s r o t a t e d through t h e l a g a n g l e

= 90"

&HH,

i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s i s t h e n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis.

This means t h a t t h e r a d i i of r o t a t i o n about t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e f o r t h e l e a d i n g and t r a i l i n g edges approach one a n o t h e r , i . e . , rA = rB ( s e e F i g u r e 50). I n t h i s case, f l a p p i n g motions w i l l n o t l e a d t o any h e i g h t increment Ah. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e w i l l n o t b e any i n c r e a s e o f t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e f l a p p i n g motions remain s t a b l e . I f t h e l a g angle

I70

Ah , and

the

> 90"

6 ,

t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s v a r y j u s t as f o r

6,

90".

However, i n t h i s case, t h e i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e f l a p p i n g motions

99

F i g u r e 51. Schematic o f main r o t o r hub.

F i g u r e 52.

Schematic of main r o t o r hub.

shows up t o a lesser degree. However, i f t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s of t h e main r o t o r are l o c a t e d i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r , t h e f a c t o r s which c a u s e loss o f f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y can b e completely e l i m i n a t e d ( F i g u r e 5 2 ) .

With t h i s h i n g e arrangement, r o t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e does n o t cause any change of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b l a d e element chord r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis. Consequently, f o r t h i s hub t h e r a d i i of r o t a t i o n o f t h e l e a d i n g edge and t r a i l i n g edges about t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge a x i s w i l l always b e t h e same, ( r A = rB) , i . e . , t h e r e w i l l n o t b e any change of p i t c h d u r i n g f l a p p i n g motions,

and l o s s of f l a p p i n g motion s t a b i l i t y w i l l n o t o c c u r . P r o g w u e s-i o n s .and - h s w e . r s t

Question 1. Main r o t o r t h r u s t dependence on f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime.

A n s w e r 1. Main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime i s d e f i n e d by

t h e formula 100

S i n c e V1 > Vi,

t h e t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o d u c t VIVi i n c r e a s e s boundedly and

But w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed, t h e r e is a t t h e same t i m e a r e d u c t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y . r e a c h e s a m a x i m a l v a l u e a t a speed of about 100 km/hr. t h r u s t i s m a x i m a l a t t h i s f l i g h t speed. Answer 2 . by t h e formula The main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime i s d e f i n e d

Thus, t h e main r o t o r

Since t h e r e s u l t a n t ve-ocity W = u w i t h t h e f l i g h t speed. Answer 3. by t h e formula

V , t h e main r o t o r t.,rust i n c r e a s e s

/71

The main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime i s d e f i n e d

With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t s p e e d , t h e induced v e l o c i t y V t h e r e f o r e , t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r w i l l i n c r e a s e . Question 2 .

increases

What i s t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e element i n t h e

forward f l i g h t regime? Answer 1. The v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o t h e v e c t o r sum of t h e f l i g h t speed and t h e induced i n f l o w v e l o c i t y V rotor thrust.

v+

Vi.

With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed

t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s , and t h i s l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e main

101

- - - - ....

. ..

A n s w e r 2.

The v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o t h e v e c t o r sum of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l

v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e element and t h e induced i n f l o w v e l o c i t y

The a n g l e between t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y o f t h e b l a d e element and t h e chord i s t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k . Answer 3 . The v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o t h e v e c t o r s m of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l u

v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e element and t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r on t h e l i n e o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r

The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y varies a z i m u t h a l l y .
= 180" W =

A t t h e azimuths J, = 0" and

u; a t t h e azimuth $

90" W = u

V; a t t h e azimuth J, = 270"

w = u - v . Answer 4 . The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r

f l i g h t v e l o c i t y on t h e main r o t o r hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e

(w

cos A).

It

depends on t h e f l i g h t speed and t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k . Question 3.

What does a change of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e

element i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime l e a d t o ?

Answer 1.

Change of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime

l e a d s t o change of t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k , i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t , appearance o f a r o l l i n g moment of t h e main r o t o r , and nonuniform l o a d i n g on t h e blades.

A n s w e r 2.

Change of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime The consequence of t h e

l e a d s t o azimuthal v a r i a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e t h r u s t .

a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e t h r u s t f o r a main r o t o r w i t h r i g i d b l a d e

102

attachment w i l l b e t h e appearance of a r o l l i n g moment and v i b r a t i o n ; f o r t h e main r o t o r w i t h hinged b l a d e attachment, f l a p p i n g motions w i l l appear.

Answer 3.

Azimuthal change of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y l e a d s t o t h e

appearance of a r o l l i n g moment of t h e main r o t o r , change of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k , flow s e p a r a t i o n from t h e r o o t r e g i o n of t h e advancing b l a d e , and l i m i t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed. Question 4 . Reasons f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e of and consequences of b l a d e

f l a p p i n g motions i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. Answer 1. The r e a s o n f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e of f l a p p i n g motions i n t h e f o r

ward f l i g h t regime i s t h e d i s r u p t i o n of t h e c o n d i t i o n of b l a d e e q u i l i b r i u m

r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e as t h e b l a d e t h r u s t v a r i e s w i t h azimuth.
a r e s u l t of t h e f l a p p i n g motions, t h e r e i s a change of t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i n azimuth, which l e a d s t o t i l t i n g of t h e main r o t o r coning a x i s and change of t h e t h r u s t v e c t o r d i r e c t i o n . develop. Answer 2 . The r e a s o n f o r t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions i n t h e forward

As

Moreover, as a r e s u l t of t h e f l a p p i n g

motions t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k change and C o r i o l i s f o r c e s

f l i g h t regime i s t h e a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e b l a d e p i t c h , which r e s u l t s i n change of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and t h e appearance of t h e f l a p p i n g motions. The r e s u l t of t h e f l a p p i n g motions i s t i l t of t h e main r o t o r coning a x i s forward and i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e advancing b l a d e , and i n c r e a s e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speed. Answer 3.
The r e a s o n f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e of b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions i n

/72

t h e forward f l i g h t regime i s t h e azimuthal v a r i a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k . A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e i s a change o f t h e b l a d e t h r u s t , which

The consequence of t h e f l a p p i n g motions i s

t h e n l e a d s t o t h e f l a p p i n g motion.

a t i l t of t h e coning axis and t h e appearance of main r o t o r t h r u s t components

d i r e c t e d a f t and toward t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e .

103

Question 5.

Blade f l a p p i n g compensator and i t s purpose.

A n s w e r 1. "he b l a d e f l a p p i n g compensator c o n s i s t s of t h e c o n n e c t i o n of
t h e c y c l i c c o n t r o l rod w i t h t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l horn, which c o n t r o l s t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e p i t c h a n g l e motions.

(I.

The o b j e c t i v e i s t o l i m i t t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g

The f l a p p i n g compensator e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i l l b e t h e h i g h e r , t h e

g r e a t e r t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis and t h e p i t c h h o r n hinge.

Answer 2.

The b l a d e f l a p p i n g compensator c o n s i s t s of t h e connection of

t h e l e v e r w i t h t h e a i d of which t h e b l a d e p i t c h i s changed w i t h t h e rod coming from t h e c y c l i c c o n t r o l . During upward f l a p p i n g t h e p i t c h i s reduced, d u r i n g

down f l a p p i n g t h e p i t c h i s i n c r e a s e d .

The f l a p p i n g compensator e f f e c t i v e n e s s

w i l l b e t h e h i g h e r , t h e smaller t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e a x i s
t o t h e p i t c h horn h i n g e .

Answer 3.

The b l a d e f l a p p i n g compensator i n v o l v e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r p o s i This p o s i t i o n i s d e f i n e d by t h e d i s t a n c e a

t i o n i n g o f t h e p i t c h horn h i n g e .

from t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e a x i s and by t h e d i s t a n c e b from t h e b l a d e l o n g i t u dinal axis. sator. The l a r g e r t h e r a t i o a / b , t h e more e f f e c t i v e t h e f l a p p i n g compen

The compensator i s designed t o l i m i t b l a d e f l a p p i n g motions, which i s

achieved by r e d u c i n g b l a d e p i t c h d u r i n g up-flapping and i n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h d u r i n g down-flapping. Question 6.

Reasons f o r and consequence of a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e

b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime. Answer 1. of p i t c h change. The b l a d e element a n g l e s o f a t t a c k v a r y i n azimuth a s a r e s u l t The a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e advancing b l a d e i n c r e a s e s , w h i l e With change of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k

t h a t of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e d e c r e a s e s .

t h e r e i s a change of t h e b l a d e t h r u s t , which l e a d s t o a z i m u t h a l e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e .

104

Answer 2 .

I n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y

of t h e advancing b l a d e is d i r e c t e d upward, t h e r e f o r e , t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of each b l a d e element d e c r e a s e s w h i l e t h a t of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e i n c r e a s e s . The a n g l e of a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n l e a d s t o azimuthal e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h e b l a d e thrust force

.
The b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k change a z i m u t h a l l y as a

Answer 3.

During t h e f l a p p i n g motions t h e induced flow Vl = u V sin $ v e l o c i t y changes, and t h e r e f o r e an angle-of-attack increment

r e s u l t of t h e f l a p p i n g motions. appears.

The a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e advancing b l a d e d e c r e a s e , w h i l e t h o s e of azimuth t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k may

t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e i n c r e a s e , and a t t h e 270'

become g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e , and flow s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s . Question 7 . Answer 1. Blade C o r i o l i s f o r c e and i t s azimuthal v a r i a t i o n . The b l a d e C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s t h e f o r c e which develops a s a t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of

r e s u l t of t h e combination of two v e l o c i t i e s : r e s u l t of v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e .

t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and t h e r a d i a l v e l o c i t y which develops as a

The C o r i o l i s f o r c e of t h e advancing b l a d e i s d i r e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n

0 of r o t a t i o n of t h e motor and r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l v a l u e a t t h e 9'

r o t a t i o n and r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l v a l u e a t t h e 270" azimuth. Answer 2 .

azimuth.

The C o r i o l i s f o r c e of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e i s d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e r o t o r

The C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s an i n e r t i a l f o r c e which a r i s e s i n t h e

forward f l i g h t regime as a r e s u l t of t h e combination of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y a n d t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s l a t i o n a l f l i g h t velocity. For t h e advancing b l a d e , t h i s f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d forward azimuth; f o r t h e r e t r e a t i n g azimuth. and r e a c h e s i t s maximal magnitude a t t h e 90'

b l a d e i t i s d i r e c t e d a f t and r e a c h e s i t s maximal v a l u e a t t h e 270'

105

'

I I1

I1 I 1 1 1 .

I1 I

11111111111111111

I . I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I ~ 1 1 ~ I I 111111111111111111 1111 111111 1

Answer 3.

The C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s an i n e r t i a l f o r c e which arises from

/73

f l a p p i n g motions r e s u l t i n g from t h e combination o f t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of motion o f t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and t h e v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y . For t h e advancing b l a d e , t h i s f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d upward and r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l v a l u e a t t h e 90" azimuth; f o r t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e , i t i s d i r e c t e d downward and w i l l b e m a x i m a l a t t h e 270" azimuth.

106

CHAPTER

HELICOPTER VERTICAL FLIGHT OPERATING REGIMES

Concept of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes. b e e i t h e r s t e a d y s t a t e o r nonsteady s t a t e . v e l o c i t y i s termed a s t e a d y s t a t e regime. subdivided as f o l l o w s .

1. Vertical f l i g h t regimes:

The h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regime can R e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t a t constant The s t e a d y - s t a t e regimes can b e

hovering; v e r t i c a l climb; v e r t i c a l descent. There a r e two v a r i e t i e s of v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t : descent with engine

o p e r a t i n g and d e s c e n t i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

2.
3.

H o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t regime. Climb regime along i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y . Descent regime a l o n g i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y (can b e performed w i t h

4.

engine o p e r a t i n g o r w i t h main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i n g ) . The unsteady f l i g h t regime i s one i n which t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r changes i n magnitude o r d i r e c t i o n . The unsteady regimes i n c l u d e t a k e o f f , l a n d i n g , man,euvering ( h o r i z o n t a l t u r n s , heading changes , s p i r a l , s n a k i n g , and s o on) and t r a n s i t i o n from one f l i g h t regime t o a n o t h e r .

107

I n accordance w i t h t h e l a w of i n e r t i a , a body travels uniformly and r e c t i l i n e a r l y o r i s i n a s t a t e of rest i f no e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t on i t . The

s t e a d y - s t a t e f l i g h t regime i s uniform, r e c t i l i n e a r motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Consequently, f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s regime i t .is n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e geometric sum of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t b e e q u a l t o zero. Moreover, t h e sum of t h e f o r c e moments a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e l a t i v e These w i l l t h e n b e t h e

t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y must a l s o b e e q u a l t o z e r o . c o n d i t i o n s f o r complete e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

Unsteady f l i g h t can occur o n l y i f some unbalanced f o r c e a c t s on t h e h e l i c o p t e r and i m p a r t s a n a c c e l e r a t i o n t o i t , i . e . ,

CF

cg

# 0 and EM

cg

# 0.

5 38.

Hovering Regime.

General Charac.tteristigs

The h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g regime i s t h a t f l i g h t regime i n which t h e v e l o c i t y equals zero. t o t h e ground. Hovering can b e performed r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r and r e l a t i v e the

If t h e a i r i s s t a t i o n a r y r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h , i . e . ,

wind v e l o c i t y e q u a l s z e r o ( u = 0 ) , t h e h e l i c o p t e r hovering r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r

w i l l b e a t t h e s a m e t i m e hovering r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h .
I f t h e wind v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r t h a n z e r o , when h o v e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h (when t h e nose of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s p o i n t e d i n t o t h e wind), i t w i l l perform f l i g h t r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e wind. In this

case t h e main r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime.

flow regime.

When t h e

h e l i c o p t e r hovers r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r , t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t e s i n t h e a x i a l

I f d u r i n g h o v e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r , t h e r e i s a wind and t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s nose i s p o i n t e d i n t o t h e wind, t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l move backward w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e wind.

108

I f i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a wind t h e h e l i c o p t e r p l a n e of symmetry i s a t a n a n g l e of 90' t o t h e wind d i r e c t i o n , t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l d i s p l a c e t o t h e s i d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h (when hovering r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r ) o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r (when hovering r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ) . Hovering i s performed i n e v e r y f l i g h t d u r i n g t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g . In

a d d i t i o n , hovering i s performed d u r i n g unloading and l o a d i n g when i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o l a n d ( f o r example, over water, b r u s h , rough ground, and i n o t h e r such s i t u a t i o n s ) . Earth. T h e r e f o r e , h o v e r i n g must b e performed r e l a t i v e t o t h e Hovering I n t h i s case t h e p i l o t maintains t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t a t i o n a r y relative

t o some p o i n t on t h e ground a t a h e i g h t of no more t h a n 1 0 meters.

of e n g i n e f a i l u r e a s a f e emergency l a n d i n g i s n o t a s s u r e d .

a t a h e i g h t of more than 1 0 m and less t h a n 200 m i s hazardous, s i n c e i n case

Hovering a t h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s i s performed o n l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r , s i n c e t h e p i l o t cannot main t a i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t a t i o n a r y r e l a t i v e t o t h e ground from a h i g h a l t i t u d e . The h e l i c o p t e r speed r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r must n o t be less t h a n t h a t which can b e i n d i c a t e d s t a b l y by t h e a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r meter ( 4 0 km/hr).

5 39.

Diagram o f F o r c e s Acting on H e l i c o p t e r and Hovering Conditions

I n t h e f u r t h e r s t u d y o f t h e h o v e r i n g regime w e examine h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r w i t h t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g i n t h e a x i a l flow regime. I n o r d e r t o avoid c o m p l i c a t i n g our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e q u e s t i o n , w e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e wind v e l o c i t y i s z e r o . During h o v e r i n g , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o observe t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s which c h a r a c t e r i z e any s t e a d y - s t a t e f l i g h t regime, i . e . ,

/75

The f o l l o w i n g b a s i c f o r c e s a c t on t h e h e l i c o p t e r d u r i n g h o v e r i n g ( F i g u r e 53a):

109

F i g u r e 53.

Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r i n h o v e r i n g regime.

h e l i c o p t e r weight G; main r o t o r t h r u s t T;

tail rotor thrust T

p a r a s i t e drag X par *

t.r

The p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e a r i s e s as a r e s u l t o f a i r flow from t h e main r o t o r over t h e f u s e l a g e and o t h e r p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . This force i s The main

v e r y s m a l l and amounts t o about 1-2% of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. which means t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e f o r c e X b e neglected.

r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s somewhat as a r e s u l t of t h e a i r f l o w over t h e f u s e l a g e ,

Par

d e c r e a s e s , and i t can h e r e a f t e r

The main r o t o r r e a c t i v e moment d u r i n g h o v e r i n g i s balanced by t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t moment M

Tt.rLt.r from t u r n i n g a b o u t t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s .

This i s necessary t o prevent t h e h e l i c o p t e r But i n t h i s case t h e unbalanced f o r c e

acts on t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e h e l i c o p t e r d i s p l a c e s t o t h e s i d e . To t.r p r e v e n t l a t e r a l displacement i t is n e c e s s a r y t o b a l a n c e t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t

T

by a f o r c e d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e l y .

To t h i s end t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t v e c t o r i s
For

d e f l e c t e d t o t h e s i d e o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t . t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t ( F i g u r e 53b).

h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h r i g h t hand r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r (as s e e n from above) A s a r e s u l t of t i l t i n g of t h e cone a x i s t o t h e r i g h t through t h e a n g l e 6 , t h e main r o t o r

s i d e t h r u s t develops

110

which b a l a n c e s t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t .

The v e r t i c a l component

Y-TCosJ

of

t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t w i l l b e balanced by t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. The a n g l e 6 does n o t exceed 3-5". adequate p r e c i s i o n t h a t And s i n c e

C<?S~'=;

, we

can s a y w i t h

P*xT

/76

Thus, t h e h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s are

expressed by t h e e q u a l i t i e s

Y = G T t a r = Ss o r T

orY-G=0, t.r

S s = 0.

CM

cg

0.

S i n c e t h e r e are no f o r c e s a c t i n g along t h e h e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s
= 0 i s assured. i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime, CM cg

I n view o f t h e e q u a l i t y c o n d i t i o n i n t h e form T = G.

YXT

w e can w r i t e t h e f i r s t hovering regime

There

W e s h a l l use t h i s e q u a l i t y h e r e a f t e r .

f o r e , f o r h e l i c o p t e r hovering i t i s necessary t h a t :
T = G (constant hovering h e i g h t ) ;
T t e r = SS

(absence of l a t e r a l displacement) ;

CM

cg

0 (absence o f r o t a t i o n about t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) .

The h o v e r i n g regime i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f l i g h t regime and d e f i n e s t o a considerable degree t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Example.

A h e l i c o p t e r i s hovering.
G = 2200 k g f , Ne = 575 hp, 5 = 0.78,

n = 249 rpm, L t m r = 8.65 m. Solution.

Find:

N , Mr,

Ttmr,

and 6.

1.

The power expended i n r o t a t i n g t h e main r o t o r i s d e f i n e d

w i t h account f o r t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

11 1

2.

From (11) w e f i n d t h e main r o t o r r e a c t i v e moment M

= Nr

The main r o t o r a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y i s found from t h e formula

w=---

2zn

60

zn -_ -- 3.14~249 26 r a d / s e c -

30

30

3.

The t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t i s found from t h e e q u a l i t y

Tt.r

= -Mr

= -1295

,8.65 ~

150 k g f .

4.

The t i l t of t h e t h r u s t v e c t o r i s found from t h e e q u a l i t y

a r c s i n 0.068 = 4 " .

5 40.

T h r u s t and Power Required f o r Hovering

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g i s found from t h e Formula

T = G.
I f w e t a k e i n t o account t h e r o t o r s l i p s t r e a m flowing over t h e f u s e l a g e , But how can w e Let us turn t h e t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s by 1-2% i n comparison w i t h t h e w e i g h t .

o b t a i n main r o t o r t h r u s t e q u a l t o t h e weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ? t o t h e Formula

T = ,cTF$- ((I)/?)' .

/77

The main r o t o r t h r u s t depends on t h e

t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t GT, a i r d e n s i t y p , and r o t o r a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o r rpm. Knowing t h e main r o t o r rpm and t h e a i r d e n s i t y i n t h e s t a n d a r d atmosphere, w e can c a l c u l a t e t h e t h r u s t . formulas The t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t CT can b e found from t h e

112

C= .=
CT-u"
Y"0'

Cvp7
9

ay3,
9

(19)

where Cy7 i s t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of
'r-0.

4 ' 0

F i g u r e 54. Blade element l i f t coe f f i c i e n t v e r s u s a n g l e of a t t a c k (Mi-1)

t e -h = b l a d e r 0.7;
0

element w i t h r e l a t i v e r a d i u s

is the solidity r a t i o a t the

radius

= 0.7;

ao i s t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e b l a d e element l o c a t e d a t t h e r e l a t i v e 7 radius = 0.7.

F i g u r e 54 shows t h e b l a d e p r o f i l e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n of a n g l e of a t t a c k f o r v a r i o u s M.
W e find C

from t h e f i g u r e and t h e n compute b o t h C

and main r o t o r With a c c o u n t f o r

t h r u s t a t f u l l rpm a t t h e a l t i t u d e H = 0 f o r m a x i m a l p i t c h . b l a d e twist

~ , = = 9t h e, induced ~

downwash a n g l e f3 f o r t h e given b l a d e element Then t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k i s

e q u a l s about 4" ( s e e F i g u r e 15b).

0.7

=, ? t

-p

g -4

5".

From t h e s a m e f i g u r e w e f i n d find

c,,

=0.42

Knowing t h a t t h e s o l i d i t y

f o r t h e M i - 1 main r o t o r i s c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e r a d i u s and e q u a l t o 0.05, w e

W e t h e n f i n d t h e t h r u s t a t m a x i m a l e n g i n e rpm, knowing t h a t F = 162 m

and w = 26;

113

T = C,F

( ? = 0,0066 * 162 0 125 (26 7.17)' d) '

-*
T

2250

kgf

This f o r c e e q u a l s t h e maximal f l i g h t weight f o r which t h e M i - 1 can make a vertical t a k e o f f .

W e can a l s o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C
accuracy

from (19), b u t w i t h less

C,=

-= 5.005 32 32
a717

007 .0.
/78

Hovering can b e performed a t d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s r e l a t i v e t o sea l e v e l and a t d i f f e r e n t a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s ; t h e r e f o r e , w e s h a l l examine t h e dependence of main r o t o r t h r u s t on t h e a i r d e n s i t y .

A i r d e n s i t y v a r i e s w i t h change of t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e and, t h e r e

f o r e , depends on t h e a l t i t u d e , t i m e of day, and s e a s o n o f t h e y e a r .

L e t us d i v i d e t h e f i r s t e q u a l i t y termwise by t h e second:

-=To
'H

\?a 211

hence

PJY Ti{= T o - .

Po

The r a t i o
PO

=A

is called the r e l a t i v e density.

This means t h a t ,

T h i s formula shows t h a t t h e t h r u s t ' d e v e l o p e d by t h e r o t o r w i l l d i m i n i s h w i t h i n c r e a s e of a l t i t u d e and temperature. I n o r d e r t o accomplish h o v e r i n g d u r i n g

114

t a k e o f f from a h i g h - a l t i t u d e

a i r f i e l d o r a t h i g h a i r temperatures, i t i s But (20) and (21) i n d i c a t e t h a t h e l i c o p t e r

n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r u s t t o t h e magnitude of t h e weight f o r c e by i n c r e a s i n g r o t o r p i t c h and rpm. increased a i r temperature. t a k e o f f weight d e c r e a s e s f o r t a k e o f f from a h i g h - a l t i t u d e a i r f i e l d o r w i t h T h e r e f o r e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s lower t a k e o f f weight i n t h e summer t h a n i n t h e w i n t e r . The power r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r s h a f t i n o r d e r t o overcome t h e r e t a r d i n g a c t i o n of t h e r e a c t i v e moment.
It i s known t h a t Nreq
= Mru.

But a t c o n s t a n t rpm
2 (LOR) R.

M~

M~~~

= mtorF

T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e q u i r e d main r o t o r t o r q u e and power a t c o n s t a n t rpm a t con

s t a n t a1 t i t u d e depend on t h e t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t m
Chapter 3 t h a t m tor

= m

i Pr up from t h e induced d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t .

tor

+ m

tor

, i.e.,

I t w a s shown i n tor t h i s t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t i s made

The

induced d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t depends on t h e induced v e l o c i t y . The c o e k f i c i e n t m and t h e r e l a t i v e induced v e l o c i t y V

tor by t h e r e s p e c t i v e formulas:

are d e f i n e d

where V
i

i s t h e r e l a t i v e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e element w i t h 7 = 0.7

Knowing t h e v a l u e of C f o r t h e M i - 1 r o t o r , w e can f i n d t h e r e l a t i v e T induced v e l o c i t y

115

V,.= 0.52 r/'0.0366= 0.043.

W e s u b s t i t u t e t h i s v a l u e i n t o (22) and f i n d mtor

From (11) and (10) w e f i n d t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o v e r i n g t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r

a t m a x i m a l e n g i n e rpm.

r e q = M r w = m torF

5 ( w R ) ~ 0.00043
=

162 X

X ,
or
N

0.125

l8S3=28WO

kgf.m/sec

req

=--= Oo0 28

75

374 hp

Knowing t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

(c=0.7q

, we

f i n d t h e power

which must b e developed by t h e e n g i n e i n h o v e r i n g

T h i s power i s somewhat l e s s t h a n t h a t developed by t h e AI-26C e n g i n e a t t a k e o f f power a t sea l e v e l (575 h p ) .

The power r e q u i r e d t o overcome b l a d e induced d r a g ( i n c r e a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t y ) can b e found from t h e formula

Consequently, t h i s power depends on h e l i c o p t e r weight and a i r d e n s i t y .

116

The power r e q u i r e d t o overcome p r o f i l e d r a g can b e found from t h e f ormul.a

where V i s t h e i n v e r s e of t h e b l a d e element e f f i c i e n c y . The r a t i o of t h e p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t t o t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s termed t h e r e c i p r o c a l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e b l a d e element

/E

The b l a d e element r e c i p r o c a l e f f i c i e n c y v a r i e s i n t h e r a n g e 0.02-0.04.

see from (24) t h a t t h e p r o f i l e power depends on t h e main r o t o r rpm.

W e

Moreover,

i f t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e roughness i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i n c r e a s e s and t h e r e c i p r o c a l aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y of t h e b l a d e element increases. T h i s circumstance must b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e w i n t e r t i m e , when t h e b l a d e may b e covered w i t h f r o s t , which l e a d s t o a l a r g e i n c r e a s e of t h e p r o f i l e power. The p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i s h i g h e s t f o r b l a d e s w i t h f a b r i c c o v e r i n g , lower f o r b l a d e s w i t h plywood covering, and s t i l l lower f o r m e t a l b l a d e s . T h e r e f o r e , main r o t o r s w i t h m e t a l b l a d e s a r e most w i d e l y used a t t h e p r e s e n t
time.

They have r e c e n t l y been i n s t a l l e d on t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s and

on a l l t h e new h e l i c o p t e r s .
W e can u s e ( 2 3 ) and ( 2 4 ) t o f i n d t h e induced and p r o f i l e powers f o r t h e
M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r (G = 2200 k g f ; Vi = 7 . 5 m / s e c ,

= 0.9; w = 26;

= 0.03)

N r e q = Ni Npr +

= 245

136 = 381 hp.

117

H/R

F i g u r e 55.

Hovering a t low h e i g h t .

T h i s r e s u l t n e a r l y c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h a t o b t a i n e d u s i n g (10) and (11) 374 hp. I n t h e h o v e r i n g regime t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d e q u a l s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. I f low power i s r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h i s c o n d i t i o n , t h e main r o t o r h a s h i g h

relative efficiency.
i n t h e range 0.6-0.65

On t h e a v e r a g e t h e magnitude o f t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t varies i f t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s o p e r a t e a t t h e o p t i m a l a n g l e s

of a t t a c k (5-6').
E f f e c t o f a i r .cush_llp_n_ o-n-.hovering.
~~

The s o - c a l l e d a i r cushion ( F i g u r e The e s s e n c e

55a) develops d u r i n g h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g a t low h e i g h t (H < D ) . o f t h i s phenomenon i s as follows.

The a i r from t h e r o t o r travels downward and I n t h i s case the

i t s v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o as i t e n c o u n t e r s t h e ground.

p r e s s u r e below t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n c r e a s e s a s a r e s u l t of t h e v e l o c i t y head. The t o t a l p r e s s u r e a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e d i s k , p r o j e c t e d onto on t h e ground, i s 2 PVi

P = Pat

+ 2,

where Pat i s atmospheric p r e s s u r e . The t h r u s t f o r c e i n c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of t h e p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e below t h e rotor. For H = 0.2R t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s by 50% i n comparison w i t h

/81

t h e t h r u s t w i t h o u t t h e a i r cushion e f f e c t , f o r H = R t h e i n c r e a s e i s 25%, f o r H = 2R i t i s 10%. A t t h e h e i g h t H = 4R t h e e f f e c t of t h e a i r cushion d i s a p p e a r s completely.

118

The v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t increment under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e a i r cushion i s shown i n F i g u r e 55b. The a i r cushion is used i n t a k e o f f w i t h a n overload o r from a h i g h - a l t i t u d e a i r f i e l d , when t h e r e i s a s h o r t a g e of' power. The a i r cushion e f f e c t h a s a f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on h e l i c o p t e r s t a b i l i t y , s i n c e t h e r e w i l l b e a n i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e main r o t o r which i s c l o s e s t t o t h e ground when t h e r o t o r t i l t s t o one s i d e , and t h i s l e a d s t o t h e development of a r i g h t i n g moment.

5 41.

Vertical Climb

Helicopter f l i g h t along a vertical t r a j e c t o r y with constant v e l o c i t y i s termed t h e v e r t i c a l climb regime. i n v e r t i c a l climb ( s e e F i g u r e 5 3 ) : The f o l l o w i n g f o r c e s a c t on a h e l i c o p t e r t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e G , t h e main t.r'

r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e T , and t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e T

I n o r d e r t o b a l a n c e t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r must b e i n c l i n e d a t t h e a n g l e 6 , which r e s u l t s i n t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l t h r u s t f o r c e component Y and t h e h o r i z o n t a l component S

S

The s t e a d y - s t a t e climb c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be expressed by t h e e q u a l i t i e s :

t. r

= Ss,

i s s m a l l and may b e n e g l e c t e d and t h e f o r c e Y x T , Par can b e r e p l a c e d by t h e e q u a l i t y T = G. Then t h e the equality Y = G + X Par v e r t i c a l climb c o n d i t i o n s w i l l b e analogous t o t h e h o v e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The
Since t h e fo rc e X c o n d i t i o n T = G a s s u r e s c o n s t a n t h e l i c o p t e r speed i n t h e v e r t i c a l climb r e g i m e . & ? The e q u a l i t y T
= S

t.r

assures rectilinear flight.

119

..

. . .. ._..._ .

.. ..

. , .. - .. - ..... - . -

. .

Power r e q u i r e d f o r v e r t i c a l climb.

The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e hovering

and v e r t i c a l climb c o n d i t i o n s i s t h a t , f i r s t , t h e f o r c e X

i n the vertical Par climb i s l a r g e r t h a n i n hovering, s i n c e i t depends on two v e l o c i t i e s : t h e

v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y V and t h e induced v e l o c i t y V io Y
Second, w h i l e i n hovering t h e e q u a l i t y T = G a s s u r e s a s t a t e of r e l a t i v e

rest; i n climb t h e same e q u a l i t y must a s s u r e c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y o f t h e v e r t i c a l

motion.

Consequently, t h e work p e r u n i t t i m e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i n a v e r t i c a l climb i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t i n a hover; d u r i n g climb t h i s work i s made up of t h e work.expended on c r e a t i n g t h e t h r u s t f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e weight (TV t h e work expended i n c r e a t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y (TV 1. Y hovering, t h e work p e r u n i t t i m e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i s expended o n l y i n
= GV.)
1

, and

i During

c r e a t i n g t h e induced flow v e l o c i t y and i s e q u a l t o TV

i'

T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e t h e induced power r e q u i r e d f o r hover i s found from t h e formula

t h e induced power r e q u i r e d f o r v e r t i c a l climb i s expressed by t h e formula T(Vi

Nil c

75%

For a low climb v e l o c i t y (2-3 m/sec) t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i f f e r s v e r y l i t t l e from t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n hovering, i . e . ,

vi But t h i s i m p l i e s vi cl hov t h a t t h e induced power i n a climb i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e h o v e r i n g power by t h e

Bearing i n mind t h a t t h e p r o f i l e power i n climb i s

magnitude AN ( t h e e x c e s s power r e q u i r e d f o r climb i n comparison w i t h t h e hovering power r e q u i r e d ) . p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e p r o f i l e power i n h o v e r , w e can e x p r e s s t h e formula f o r t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r v e r t i c a l climb through t h e hovering power formula

120

N c l - Nhov

+ AN.
To t r a n s i t i o n

Vertical climb i s p o s s i b l e o n l y i f e x c e s s power i s a v a i l a b l e .

from hover t o climb, t h e p i l o t i n c r e a s e s t h e main r o t o r p i t c h w i t h t h e a i d of

the "collective-throttle" hover t o v e r t i c a l climb.

lever; i n t h i s p r o c e s s t h e main r o t o r rpm remains

The h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s i t i o n s from
I n t h i s case
The t h r u s t i n a v e r t i c a l climb can b e determined

nearly constant while t h e t h r u s t increases.

from t h e formula of i d e a l r o t o r momentum t h e o r y T = 2PFV1Vi.

I l decrease.

= V.

+ VY .

A s t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s t h e induced v e l o c i t y w i l l
Thus, i n

/83

T h e r e f o r e , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t a g a i n d e c r e a s e s t o t h e v a l u e t h e

r o t o r had i n h o v e r i n g p r i o r t o i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h .

t r a n s i t i o n i n g from hover t o climb t h e p i l o t a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e s t h e power

s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r , b u t t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e remains n e a r l y unchanged.
Theref o r e ,

TCl=

Thov,

b u t Ncl

Nhov

+ AN.

Vertical climb v e l o c i t y .
~~

The v e r t i c a l climb v e l o c i t y i s t h e h e i g h t

through which t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y d i s p l a c e s i n one second. For v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t o f any body i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o perform work e q u a l t o t h e product o f t h e weight of t h e body by t h e h e i g h t change, i . e . ,

A = GH.

Work performed p e r second i s power.

T h i s means t h a t t o perform a

climb a d d i t i o n a l power must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r , which i s expended i n creating the vertical ve ocity. Hence w e f i n d T h i s power i s t h e excess power AN = GV Y

The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y depends on t h e excess power and t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s h e a v i l y overloaded, t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t e n g i n e

121

#A

Nhov

F i g u r e 56.

Aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e climb regime.

power o n l y f o r h o v e r i n g i n t h e a i r cushion zone and i n t h i s case v e r t i c a l climb i s n o t p o s s i b l e .

The e x c e s s power used f o r v e r t i c a l climb i s e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e power a v a i l a b l e and t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r hover

Usually t h e h e l i c o p t e r e x c e s s power i s n o t l a r g e and n e a r sea l e v e l does n o t exceed 10-15% of t h e t o t a l e n g i n e power. The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y a t sea level amounts t o 2-3 m/sec. t h e a l t i t u d e t h e v e r t i c a l climb v e l o c i t y w i l l a l s o change. The power

a v a i l a b l e and engine power depend on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , and w i t h change of The v a r i a t i o n of

t h e v e r t i c a l climb v e l o c i t y i s determined by t h e a l t i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e engine and i s shown g r a p h i c a l l y ( F i g u r e 56a).

will e i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s e of a l t i t u d e from sea l e v e l t o t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e .

The power r e q u i r e d a l s o i n c r e a s e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e x c e s s power may i n c r e a s e A f t e r reaching t h e Since t h e s l i g h t l y o r remain c o n s t a n t up t o t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e .

For a supercharged r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e power N

e n g i n e ' s c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e t h e e x c e s s power decreases r a p i d l y .

v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y depends on t h e e x c e s s power, i t w i l l a l s o d e c r e a s e .
122

Using t h e graph of t h e v a r i a t i o n of e n g i n e power and power r e q u i r e d f o r h o v e r i n g as a f u n c t i o n of a l t i t u d e , w e can u s e (25) t o c a l c u l a t e V various a l t i t u d e s . On t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s w e can p l o t t h e v e r t i c a l

/84

for

v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n of a l t i t u d e ( F i g u r e 56b), from which w e see t h a t t h e

vertical v e l o c i t y reaches i t s m a x i m a l value a t t h e engine's c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e ,

and t h e n d e c r e a s e s . The a l t i t u d e a t which t h e v e r t i c a l climb v e l o c i t y e q u a l s z e r o i s c a l l e d the helicopter's static ceiling. power AN = 0. However, s i n c e b o t h AN and AV approach z e r o as t h e h e l i c o p t e r approaches Y t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o reach an a l t i t u d e equal t o t h e theoretical s t a t i c ceiling. duced on t h i s b a s i s . The " p r a c t i c a l c e i l i n g " concept h a s been i n t r o The p r a c t i c a l c e i l i n g i s t h e a l t i t u d e a t which t h e The s t a t i c c e i l i n g i s t h e h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e
A t t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g t h e excess a t which t h e h e l i c o p t e r can b e hovered.

v e r t i c a l climbing v e l o c i t y e q u a l s 0.5 m/sec. The s t a t i c c e i l i n g i s d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of r a t e d e n g i n e power. power r e q u i r e d c o r r e s p o n d s t o each v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y . v e l o c i t i e s ( F i g u r e 56c).

A specific

T h e r e f o r e , w e can p l o t

t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r climb as a f u n c t i o n o f a l t i t u d e f o r d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l From t h i s graph w e can f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l climb The a l t i t u d e v e l o c i t y a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s f o r d i f f e r e n t power r e q u i r e d . given v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y .

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c can be used t o e v a l u a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of climbing w i t h a

5 42.

H e l i c o p t e r Vertical Descent With O p e r a t i n g Engine

H e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t downward a l o n g a v e r t i c a l t r a j e c t o r y i s termed t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t regime. c o p t e r ( F i g u r e 57):

tail rotor thrust T

I n t h i s case t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r c e s act on t h e h e l i

t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight G , main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e T , and

t.r'

123

The v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n s

/85

are expressed by t h e e q u a l i t i e s
T = G;

F i g u r e 57. F o r c e s a c t i n g on h e l i copter i n vertical descent.

EM

cg

= 0.

Here w e must b e a r i n mind t h a t w e n e g l e c t t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e i n view of i t s s m a l l magnitude, and w e

assume t h a t as a r e s u l t of t h e s m a l l t i l t of t h e cone a x i s t o t h e s i d e

T5Zy

I n t r a n s i t i o n i n g from t h e hovering regime t o t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t regime, t h e main r o t o r p i t c h must b e decreased and i n so d o i n g t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e i s a l s o reduced. However, as soon as t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s i t i o n s i n t o

d e s c e n t t h e b l a d 6 element a n g l e s of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of the t h r u s t f o r c e t o t h e value present p r i o r t o reducing t h e p i t c h . c o n d i t i o n T . = G h o l d s f o r b o t h h o v e r i n g and v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t . The power r e q u i r e d f o r v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i s d e f i n e d j u s t as i n t h e o t h e r v e r t i c a l regimes Ndes = N 1 . Thus, t h e

+ Np r y
A t constant

i.e.,

i t i s e q u a l t o t h e sum of t h e induced and p r o f i l e powers.

rpm t h e p r o f i l e power i s p r a c t i c a l l y independent of main r o t o r p i t c h , con sequently N Prdes

= N
Prhov

The induced power i n d e s c e n t i s d e f i n e d as

Ni des

T(Vi

Vdes)

During d e s c e n t l e s s power i s r e q u i r e d t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n T = G t h a n

i s r e q u i r e d i n hover.

124

F i g u r e 58.

Formation of v o r t e x r i n g .

5 43.

Vor-tex Ring R e g i m e
~~

During h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t t h e a i r flow a c c e l e r a t e d downward by t h e r o t o r i n c r e a s e s i t s v e l o c i t y from V r o t o r e q u a l t o about 2R. ( F i g u r e 58a). equals t h e h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l descent v e l o c i t y 3 t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow a c c e l e r a t e d by t h e r o t o r V = 0, i . e . , t h e 3 'des' r o t o r e s s e n t i a l l y "catches" t h e a i r which i t h a s a c c e l e r a t e d . A s a r e s u l t I f t h e flow v e l o c i t y V of i n f l o w above t h e r o t o r t h e r e w i l l b e a n " i n t e r f a c e " where t h e r o t o r e s s e n t i a l l y "runs away" from t h e i n f l o w i n g a i r w i t h t h e s a m e v e l o c i t y . means t h a t two i n t e r f a c e s are formed: below and above t h e r o t o r . This
A t these

t o 2V. a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e main i 1 With f u r t h e r d i s t a n c e from t h e main r o t o r t h e flow

d e c r e a s e s i t s v e l o c i t y t o V3 as a r e s u l t of " f r i c t i o n " w i t h t h e opposing a i r

186

s u r f a c e s t h e flow l e a v i n g t h e r o t o r t u r n s and forms c l o s e d v o r t i c e s , which have n e a r l y no e f f e c t on t h r u s t f o r m a t i o n , s i n c e they are f a r from t h e r o t o r .

125

A s t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e i n t e r f a c e s where

3 - 'des ' unstable.

approach t h e main r o t o r .

The v o r t i c e s become more i n t e n s e and

The r o t o r expends t h e power o b t a i n e d from t h e e n g i n e on r o t a t i o n The main r o t o r t h r u s t d e c r e a s e s s h a r p l y , s i n c e a i r i s n o t The v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t

of these v o r t i c e s .

e j e c t e d from t h e c l o s e d v o r t e x system ( F i g u r e 58b). velocity increases still further.

The h e l i c o p t e r b e g i n s t o t o s s from s i d e t o

s i d e , c o n t r o l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r becomes d i f f i c u l t , and heavy b u f f e t i n g appears. T h i s f l i g h t s t a t e corresponds t o t h e developed v o r t e x r i n g regime. The v o r t e x r i n g regime o c c u r s w i t h v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t a t a v e l o c i t y more t h a n 2-3 m/sec w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g . The most e f f e c t i v e technique f o r r e c o v e r y from t h e v o r t e x r i n g s t a t e i s t o t r a n s i t i o n t h e main r o t o r i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime a l o n g a n i n c l i n e d trajectory. But t h i s r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a l t i t u d e and t h e absence of

o b s t a c l e s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e v o r t e x r i n g regime is dangerous and must b e avoided. Programmed. T e s t i n g Questions and Answers Question 1. hovering? Answer 1. For t h e h o v e r i n g h e i g h t t o be c o n s t a n t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t How i s c o n s t a n t h e i g h t maintained d u r i n g h e l i c o p t e r

G = T.
With i n c r e a s e of t h e s p e c i f i e d h o v e r i n g a l t i t u d e o r w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e

a i r t e m p e r a t u r e t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r d e c r e a s e s , t h e r e f o r e , e i t h e r
t h e main r o t o r p i t c h o r rpm must b e i n c r e a s e d , o r b o t h may b e i n c r e a s e d a t t h e same t i m e . Answer 2. t h a t T = G. violated; To a s s u r e c o n s t a n t h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g h e i g h t i t i s n e c e s s a r y With i n c r e a s e of t h e h o v e r i n g a l t i t u d e t h i s c o n d i t i o n w i l l b e

t o r e s t o r e t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r must

b e increased. Answer 3. Constancy of t h e hovering h e i g h t r e q u i r e s t h a t T = G , and

t h i s i s p o s s i b l e when t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o v e r i n g e q u a l s t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r from t h e engine.

126

Question 2. Answer 1.

E f f e c t of change of a i r parameters on t h e power r e q u i r e d I n c r e a s e of t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e

f o r h e l i c o p t e r hovering.
= o f i t s d e n s i t y and, consequently, t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t o r q u e r e q u i r e d M tor 2 = mtorF (wR) R and i n c r e a s e of t h e power r e q u i r e d .

Answer 2. the air density.

With i n c r e a s e of t h e h o v e r i n g a l t i t u d e t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n of T h e r e f o r e , t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r hovering i n c r e a s e s , s i n c e

Nr

Mtoru

mtorF

5 (wR)3 .
+

Answer 3 . hover a l t i t u d e . power N

I n c r e a s e of t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e and r e d u c t i o n of i t s p r e s s u r e The power r e q u i r e d f o r h o v e r i n g e q u a l s N

l e a d t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e d e n s i t y , which a l s o d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e
N the profile i pr i s p r a c t i c a l l y independent of a l t i t u d e ; t h e induced power e q u a l s

Pr

With r e d u c t i o n of t h e a i r d e n s i t y t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n of t h e Ni 2 and t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o n d i t i o n T = G i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h r u s t f o r c e T = 2FpV i Then t h e power r e q u i r e d w i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e . t o increase V i

= TVi.

Question 3 . Answer 1.

Why does a h e l i c o p t e r have d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regimes The e q u a l i t y T = G i s approximate.

I t does n o t t a k e i n t o

i f T = G i n a l l t h e regimes? account t h e e f f e c t of t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e X f o r c e i n h o v e r i n g , climb, and d e s c e n t T

. =: G + X . Par
Par

With account f o r t h i s But t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g

f o r c e w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e d i f f e r e n t regimes: v e r t i c a l climb and l e a s t i n a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t . hovering T = G Answer 2.

i t w i l l be g r e a t e s t i n a

Therefore, the t h r u s t i s

a c t u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e weight d u r i n g climb and less d u r i n g d e s c e n t ; i n

+ Xp a r
A l l t h e v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regimes a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by absence

of v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , i . e . ,

constant v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y .

According t o t h e

l a w of i n e r t i a , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n w i l l b e z e r o i f no f o r c e a c t s on t h e body. The e q u a l i t y T = G i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e e q u a l i t y T
i t is v a l i d f o r a l l regimes.

G = 0, which means t h a t

1 27

But i n t h e d i f f e r e n t regimes t h e r o t o r performs d i f f e r e n t work; i n climb t h e main r o t o r work N

N . = T(Vi
1

= T(V. V ) ; i n h o v e r i n g N = TVi; i n d e s c e n t i 1 Y Vdes ) ; t h e r e f o r e , more power i s r e q u i r e d f o r climbing t h a n f o r

h o v e r i n g and d e s c e n t . Question 4 . Answer 1. I n what s e a s o n of t h e y e a r can a h e l i c o p t e r climb t o t h e

h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e and l i f t t h e g r e a t e s t l o a d ? The a i r d e n s i t y i s h i g h e r i n w i n t e r t h a n i n summer. With

i n c r e a s e o f t h e a i r d e n s i t y t h e induced power r e q u i r e d f o r h o v e r i n g de

creases w h i l e t h e e n g i n e power i n c r e a s e s .
e x c e s s power AN = Answer 2.

Consequently, in t h e w i n t e r t h e

- Nr e q i s g r e a t e r , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e o f t h e Navail s t a t i c c e i l i n g and l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

The a i r d e n s i t y i s h i g h e r i n w i n t e r t h a n i n summer. Increase
= mtorF

req - Nr e q d e c r e a s e s , a n d t h i s l e a d s t o avail r e d u c t i o n of t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g and l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

T h i s means t h a t t h e e x c e s s power AN = N Answer 3 . The a i r d e n s i t y i s h i g h e r i n w i n t e r t h a n i n summer. With

of t h e a i r d e n s i t y l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e power r e q u i r e d N

5 (wR)3 .

increase of t h e f l i g h t weight i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e main r o t o r

t h r u s t f o r c e , b u t t h i s i n v o l v e s i n c r e a s e of t h e r e a c t i v e moment, which w i l l be the l a r g e r , t h e higher t h e air density. The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t i n t h e the

w i n t e r t h e h e l i c o p t e r must develop more power t h a n i n t h e summer, i . e . , h e l i c o p t e r l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y and s t a t i c c e i l i n g d e c r e a s e i n t h e w i n t e r .

128

HELICOPTER HORIZONTAL FLIGHT

5 44.

General C h-a -a - r i s t i c s of- H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t r cte __ - - _.

R e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i s termed h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . regime f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r . T h i s i s t h e primary f l i g h t But t h e r a d i u s of Since the Earth is a sphere, f l i g h t a t constant

a l t i t u d e t a k e s p l a c e along a c u r v i l i n e a r t r a j e c t o r y . s u r f a c e can b e n e g l e c t e d i n f l i g h t .

c u r v a t u r e of t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s s o l a r g e t h a t t h e c u r v a t u r e of t h e E a r t h ' s

Only i n f l i g h t s on s u p e r s o n i c a i r p l a n e s a t a speed 2-3 t i m e s t h a t of sound i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e E a r t h ' s c u r v a t u r e . example t o demonstrate t h i s . of 1000 m / s e c o r 3600 km/hr. surface
W e s h a l l use an
An a i r p l a n e i s f l y i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y a t a speed

The a i r p l a n e weighs 10,000 k g f .

L e t us f i n d t h e

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e which arises as a r e s u l t of c u r v a t u r e of t h e E a r t h ' s

= -mV

where m

i s t h e a i r p l a n e m a s s , kg;

V
R

i s t h e a i r p l a n e speed, m / s e c ; i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h , e q u a l t o 6 370 000 m.

Then

129

Fc

- lo o0 O

'Ooo2 6 370 000

= 1570 N , o r Fc = 1 6 1 k g f .

W see from t h e example t h a t t h e E a r t h ' s c u r v a t u r e should b e c o n s i d e r e d e

when f l y i n g a t 1000 m/sec, s i n c e t h e a i r p l a n e l i f t becomes 1 6 1 kgf less t h a n

i t s weight.

But o r t h e same f l i g h t weight and a v e l o c i t y of 180 km/hr t h e

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s 0.4 k g f .

Therefore, i n t h e following w e s h a l l consider t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t o b e flat.

The f o l l o w i n g f o r c e s a c t on t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t :

weight

/89

f o r c e G , main r o t o r t h r u s t T, p a r a s i t e drag X , and t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t Tt . r Par (Figure 59). The h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e e q u a l i t i e s

Y = G
P='x

or or
Or

G - Y = 0 ; P - X Par

Tt.r - ' s

Par

=O;
= 0;

E C 0. Mg
=

Tt.r

ss

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n e n s u r e s c o n s t a n t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e second p r o v i d e s c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y , and t h e - t h i r d s p e c i f i e s l i n e a r i t y of f l i g h t i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l plane.

The f o r c e s Y, P , S

are t h e components of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t .

Accordingly, t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n h o r i z o n t a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t performs t h e f u n c t i o n s of p r o p u l s i v e , s i d e , and l i f t i n g f o r c e s .

130

and Power 5 45. T h r u s t- . ..__ Required

--

f o r =--. o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t H

I n horizontal f l i g h t the thrust f o r c e v e c t o r i s t i l t e d forward from t h e v e r t i c a l and t o t h e s i d e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e .

VG

The r e s u l t o f t h e l a t e r a l t i l t of
t h e t h r u s t force v e c t o r i s t h e for-

mation o f t h e s i d e f o r c e S s = Tt.r F i g u r e 59. Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r in horizontal flight. and t h e r e s u l t of t h e forward t i l t of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r i s t h e forma t i o n of t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P = T s i n y, which p u l l s t h e h e l i c o p t e r forward, overcoming t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g . W r e c a l l t h a t h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e drag i s t h e e r e s i s t a n c e of a l l t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s ( o t h e r t h a n t h e main r o t o r ) . The p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e on t h e v e r t i c a l y i e l d s t h e l i f t f o r c e

Y = T cos y.

T h e r e f o r e , t o g e n e r a t e t h e l i f t and p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e s i t i s

n e c e s s a r y t o have t h e t h r u s t f o r c e T h y which can b e found from t h e f o r c e diagram (see F i g u r e 5 9 ) .

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t depends on i t s weight and p a r a s i t e d r a g , which can b e found from t h e formula

--

Par

i s found ( a f t e r wind t u n n e l t e s t s of t h e Par h e l i c o p t e r model) from t h e formula

The d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t C

/90

131

cx

- par. ppv2

2x

par

For t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r Cx

= 0.009

0.01.

Par
The p a r a s i t e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t depends b a s i c a l l y on t h e shape and a t t i t u d e of t h e f u s e l a g e , and a l s o on t h e c o n d i t i o n o f i t s s u r f a c e . The p a r a s i t e drag 2 = f (V ) .

is proportional t o t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y squared, i.e., X

Par

With i n c r e a s e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t v e l o c i t y t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d increases. I n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t h e r e i s a change n o t only of t h e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d , b u t a l s o of i t s d i r e c t i o n , i . e . , t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r from t h e v e r t i c a l . t h e a n g l e y of d e f l e c t i o n of

I n c r e a s e of t h e a n g l e

y i s necessary

i n order t o increase t h e propulsive force P while leaving t h e l i f t force Y unchanged.

T i l t of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r and i n c r e a s e of t h e a n g l e a r e accomplished

i n t h r e e ways:

1 ) by d e f l e c t i n g t h e main r o t o r cone o f r e v o l u t i o n a x i s forward;

2) by t i l t i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r forward;

3) by e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e main r o t o r s h a f t a t some a n g l e f3 r e l a t i v e t o t h e
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f u s e l a g e s t r u c t u r a l a x i s ( t h e l i n e running along t h e f u s e l a g e ) , F i g u r e 60.

T i l t i n g t h e cone axis forward through t h e a n g l e q i s accomplished by d e f l e c t i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l s t i c k forward. The main r o t o r cone a x i s

t i l t s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d . T i l t i n g t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r through t h e a n g l e 0 ( p i t c h a n g l e ) i s h accomplished by d e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k forward. The main r o t o r s h a f t

132

i n s t a l l a t i o n angle r e l a t i v e t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t r u c t u r a l axis always remains t h e s a m e . Thus, t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r forward t i l t a n g l e w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e sum of t h e a n g l e s 17, Oh,

B.

The

l a r g e r t h e a n g l e y, t h e l a r g e r t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P , and t h e h i g h e r t h e F i g u r e 60. Techniques f o r t i l t i n g t h r u s t force vector. h e l i c o p t e r speed. The work which must b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r s h a f t p e r u n i t t i m e

i s c a l l e d t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r
helicopter horizontal flight.
~

The power r e q u i r e d i s made up of t h r e e p a r t s : t h e work expended p e r u n i t t i m e i n d i s p l a c i n g

1.

Motion power, i . e . ,
t
=

the helicopter ,

PV.

2.

Induced power, i . e . , t h e work expended p e r u n i t t i m e i n o b t a i n i n g

I91

t h e l i f t f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight

3.

Power r e q u i r e d f o r overcoming t h e main r o t o r b l a d e p r o f i l e drag

Using ( 2 6 a ) , w e f i n d t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r

(G = 2200 k g f , H = 0).

V = 0; N

mot

0;
(continued)

133

V = 20 m / s e c ;

Nmot

37-20 =-75

1 hp; 1

V = 30 m/sec;

Nmot

-- = - 83'30
75

37 hp;

V = 40 m/sec;

Nmot

147'40 = 79 hp;
75

V = 50 m / s e c ;

Nmot

230'50 = 1 5 3 hp. 75

These v a l u e s make i t p o s s i b l e t o p l o t a graph of t h e v a r i a t i o n w i t h f l i g h t speed of t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ( F i g u r e 6 1 a ) . Since N and t h e p a r a s i t e drag X = f (V ) , t h e motion power r e q u i r e d mot Par 3 = f ( V ) and i n c r e a s e s more s h a r p l y w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed.

"ot The average induced v e l o c i t y f o r t h e main r o t o r o f t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed ( F i g u r e 61b).

Using t h i s f i g u r e and t h e Formula (27)

, we

c a l c u l a t e t h e induced power,

i.e.,

t h e power expended i n c r e a t i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r l i f t f o r c e

V = O ; /Vi=

2209'75
75

= 24-5 hp;
22r33.4.5

V = 10

m/sec:

A$=

75

= 147

hp;

From t h e s e r e s u l t s w e can p l o t t h e induced power as a f u n c t i o n of f l i g h t speed ( F i g u r e 6 1 c ) .

The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e induced power w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed i s e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t t h e r o t o r i n t e r a c t s w i t h a l a r g e r m a s s of a i r ; t h e r e f o r e , less downwash i s r e q u i r e d t o create a l i f t f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e 134

K mlsec
F i g u r e 61.

!r

mlsec

Power components v e r s u s f l i g h t speed.

h e l i c o p t e r weight.

The power expended i n overcoming p r o f i l e drag i n c r e a s e s The i n c r e a s e o f t h e p r o f i l e In t h e

w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed ( F i g u r e 61d).

power i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e i n c r e a s e of t h e a i r f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i n t h e b l a d e boundary l a y e r w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e b l a d e s . blades ( W = U forward f l i g h t regime t h e flow relative v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s o r t h e advancing

-- \'sin !

11.;

, while

but since X Pr i n c r e a s e s more r a p i d l y t h a n t h e d r a g of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e d e c r e a s e s . r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r

(IY=,

- k i n I)),

i t decreases f o r t h e r e t r e a t i n g blades 2 = f (W ) t h e drag of t h e advancing b l a d e

After

c a l c u l a t i n g t h e component p a r t s of t h e power r e q u i r e d , w e f i n d t h e power

= N

mot

+Ni+N

Pr'

V = O ; N

= Nmot

381 hp;
( continued)

135

V = 10 m/sec; Nh = 4

147+ 140 = 2 9 1 hp;

V = 30 m / s e c ; Nh = 37

62

160 = 259 hp;

V = 50 m/sec; Nh = 153

42

180 = 375 h p ,

(28)

Using t h e s e v a l u e s , w e p l o t t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t speed f o r t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r ( H = 0; G = 2200 k g f ) (Figure 62).

W e see from t h i s f i g u r e t h a t w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e v e l o c i t y from

The speed

z e r o t o 80 km/hr t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t d e c r e a s e s . h e l i c o p t e r ' s economical speed.

f o r which t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s minimal i s c a l l e d t h e

5 46.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c H e l i c o p t e r H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Speeds
~

/93

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t s p e e d s d e f i n e t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e degree t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t q u a l i t i e s . C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e s e s p e e d s , and t h e n

t h e i r v e r i f i c a t i o n i n f l i g h t , i s one of t h e i m p o r t a n t problems o f h e l i c o p t e r aerodynamic d e s i g n . The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speeds i s most

o f t e n made u s i n g t h e power method, f i r s t s u g g e s t e d by Zhukovskiy.

To c o n s t r u c t t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e c u r v e s w e u s e t h e curve of

F i g u r e 62.

W e f i n d the power a v a i l a b l e a t r a t e d and t a k e o f f engine rpm from

t h e formulas

Navail rat

= 430-0.78 = 336 hp;

= 575-0.78 = 448 h p ; N a v a i1 to

W e u s e t h e s e v a l u e s t o p l o t a curve ( F i g u r e 6 3 a ) , which p e r m i t s d e t e r

mining t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h o r i z o n t a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t speeds: 136

F i g u r e 62.

Power r e q u i r e d v e r s u s f l i g h t speed.

A! hP

f0 20 30 40 9 ,

F i g u r e 63. Power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e as a f u n c t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r weight and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e :

1) N

a
a

f o r H = 0 , n = 2200 rpm; f o r H = 0 , n = 2050 rpm;

2) N

3) Nh f o r H = 0 , G = 2200 k g f ; 4 ) Nh f o r H = 0, G = 2300 k g f .

1.

The m a x i m a l speed, which corresponds t o t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n When u s i n g r a t e d e n g i n e power,

of t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e c u r v e s .

t h e maximal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed a t sea l e v e l w i l l be about 165 km/hr; when u s i n g t a k e o f f p o w e r , t h i s speed w i l l be 208 km/hr.

137

2.

The o p t i m a l v e l o c i t y a t which t h e l o n g e s t f l i g h t range i s o b t a i n e d .

This speed corresponds t o t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t of a t a n g e n t drawn from t h e c o o r d i n a t e o r i g i n t o t h e power r e q u i r e d c u r v e ( f o r t h e M i - 1 ,

V

OP t

= 90-95 km/hr).

3.

The economical s p e e d , i . e . ,
e c '

t h e speed c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o minimal power

required ( f o r t h e Mi-1,

= 80 km/hr).

4.

The minimal speed.

When u s i n g r a t e d power a t a f l i g h t weight of

I t can o n l y perform h o r i

/94

2200 k g f , t h e h e l i c o p t e r cannot hover a t sea level. z o n t a l f l i g h t w i t h a speed of about 20 km/hr.

However, heavy v i b r a t i o n

develops a t low s p e e d ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n s t r u c t o r h a s e s t a b l i s h e d speed l i m i tations: minimal p e r m i s s i b l e i s 40 km/hr, m a x i m a l p e r m i s s i b l e i s 170 km/hr. The h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed r a n g e , i . e . , t h e speeds a t which horizon

5.

t a l f l i g h t is possible.

When u s i n g r a t e d power t h e speed range i s

"rat

'max

'min

165

20 = 145 km/hr.

When u s i n g more t h a n r a t e d power, t h e t o t a l speed range i s V

=

tot

= 170

170 km/hr. 6. The e x c e s s power, i . e . , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e power a v a i l a b l e Each speed i s a s s o c i a t e d

and r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t a given speed. w i t h a given e x c e s s power AN = N avail Nh occur f o r f l i g h t a t t h e ecopomical speed.

- .
~~

The maximal e x c e s s power w i l l

47.

E f f e c t of H e l i c o p t e r Weight and F l i g h t A l t i t u d e on P e r f o m - a n s s

With i n c r e a s e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e power F i g u r e 63b shows curves of r5 t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r f o r f l i g h t w e i g h t s of 2200 kgf and r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , s i n c e 2300 kgf. I n comparing t h e s e curves w e can s a y t h a t w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e

GVI N,=- r.

f l i g h t weight:

138

t h e m a x i m a l h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed d e c r e a s e s ; t h e minimal speed when u s i n g r a t e d power i n c r e a s e s ; t h e economical and o p t i m a l speeds increase, a l t h o u g h only s l i g h t l y ; t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed range d e c r e a s e s ; t h e excess power decreases; hovering of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o u t s i d e t h e a i r cushion i n f l u e n c e zone i s i m p o s s i b l e even when u s i n g t a k e o f f power. These v a r i a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s h o u l d always be taken i n t o a c c o u n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e cases when a l a r g e f u e l supply is carried. I f t h e f l i g h t performance i s based on t a k e o f f w e i g h t , t h e v a l u e s T h e r e f o r e , i f a l a r g e f u e l supply i s c a r r i e d , t h e o b t a i n e d w i l l b e t o o low. f o r t h e f u e l consumption

f l i g h t performance i s based on t h e average f l i g h t weight w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n

where

Gav
Gto Gfuel

i s t h e average f l i g h t w e i g h t ;

i s the takeoff f l i g h t weight; i s t h e f u e l weight ( t a n k s completely f u l l ) .

-f f e c t of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . E

The h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s depend The a i r

on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e and a l s o on t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity. d e c r e a s e s , as does t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion

d e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g

"ot
H

A
"ot 0

where

139

S i n c e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion h a s a l a r g e v a l u e a t speeds above t h e economical speed, a change o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e w i l l have an e f f e c t on t h i s speed

I n s t u d y i n g t h e h o v e r i n g regime, i t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e main r o t o r depends on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , i . e . , t h i s t h r u s t d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e , and t h i s means t h a t t h e l i f t f o r c e

w i l l decrease.

But s i n c e t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f y t h a t Y = G ,

Consequently, t h e induced i' - c 1 The power N = GV. w i l l i n c r e a s e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o l / A , i . e . , ]v:.~~= i.'ii0 i 1 p r o f i l e power changes v e r y l i t t l e w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e .

i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e induced v e l o c i t y V

-;-.
L)

Thus, w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion d e c r e a s e s , while t h a t required or c r e a t i n g t h e l i f t f o r c e increases. These c o n c l u s i o n s

are i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e p l o t of power r e q u i r e d f o r d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s ( F i g u r e
63c). T h i s f i g u r e shows a l s o how t h e power a v a i l a b l e v a r i e s w i t h a l t i t u d e .

For t h e supercharged e n g i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e power i n c r e a s e s up t o t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e and then d e c r e a s e s . A s a r e s u l t of t h i s v a r i a t i o n of t h e

power a v a i l a b l e and t h e v a r i a t i o n d i s c u s s e d above of t h e motion power and t h e induced power, w e can s a y t h a t w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e up t o t h e c r i t i c a l altitude:

1.

For speeds lower than optimal, t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l

f l i g h t i n c r e a s e s owing t o t h e i n c r e a s e of t h e induced component of t h i s power.

2.

For s p e e d s above optimal, t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t

d e c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of d e c r e a s e of t h e motion power. The magnitude of t h e o p t i m a l speed changes v e r y l i t t l e w i t h change

3.

of t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

140

4.
5.

The m a x i m a l and minimal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speeds i n c r e a s e . The excess power i n c r e a s e s up t o t h e e n g i n e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e and

then d e c r e a s e s .

Consequently, i f f l i g h t must be accomplished a t h i g h speed, t h i s should b e done a t h i g h a l t i t u d e . I n c r e a s e of t h e a i r temperature i s e q u i v a l e n t t o i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e , s i n c e t h e a i r density decreases as i t s temperature increases. Increase of t h e a i r humidity l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of e n g i n e power and of t h e maximal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed.
A l l t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s are v a l i d i f w e i g n o r e t h e f a c t o r s which r e s t r i c t

/96

t h e maximal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed.

5 48.

F a c t o r s L i m i t i n g M a x i m a l H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Speed and- W x s t o I n c r e a s e T h i s Speed

~

It was e s t a b l i s h e d above t h a t t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l i g h t speed w e must i n c r e a s e

t h e a n g l e y of d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r ( s e e Figure 60) and t h e magnitude o f t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e . i n two ways: The t h r u s t f o r c e can b e i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y O ; and by i n c r e a s i n g t h e T

main r o t o r p i t c h , s i n c e t h i s l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t c (see Figure 16).

I n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e rpm i n v o l v e s i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e d r a g p r o f i l e , and consequently i n c r e a s e of t h e f u e l consumption p e r u n i t r o t o r t h r u s t developed. up t o a d e f i n i t e l i m i t .

It i s well-known

T h i s approach i s n o t a d v i s a b l e .

Moreover, i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t o r rpm i s p o s s i b l e o n l y

t h a t i n c r e a s e of t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s t h e I n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e r e s u l t a n t

c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y u = uR.

141

b l a d e element v e l o c i t y i s W = u

+V

sin

I i . e . , a t t h e azimuth 90" W = u ) ,

+ V.

With i n c r e a s e of t h e rpm t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y and t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y ; consequently, t h e r e s u l t i n g v e l o c i t y W w i l l i n c r e a s e . I n c r e a s e cf t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h e flow p a s t t h e b l a d e elements i s permissible only u n t i l t h e v e l o c i t y reaches t h e c r i t i c a l value, i.e., u n t i l t h e appearance on t h e b l a d e of a l o c a l flow v e l o c i t y e q u a l to t h e speed of sound (compression shocks develop, and b l a d e shock s t a l l m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f ) .

Thus, t h e f i r s t t e c h n i q u e f o r i n c r e a s i n g main r o t o r t h r u s t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e rpm i s l i m i t e d by t h e appearance of shock s t a l l a t t h e t i p of t h e b l a d e when t h e b l a d e i s l o c a t e d a t t h e 90" azimuth.

L e t us examine t h e second approach.

I n c r e a s e of main r o t o r t h r u s t by

i n c r e a s i n g t h e p i t c h and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c i n v o l v e s i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e T element a n g l e s of a t t a c k . It i s well-known t h a t i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s o f a t t a c k v a r y i n azimuth: t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k are The

smallest a t t h e 90" azimuth, and they are l a r g e s t a t t h e 270" azimuth.

h i g h e r t h e f l i g h t s p e e d , t h e l a r g e r t h e a n g l e s o f a t t a c k of t h e b l a d e t i p

elements a t t h e 270" azimuth.

of t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k .

I n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h l e a d s t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e

/97

I f t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k a t t h e t i p elements

approach t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e , flow s e p a r a t i o n analogous t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n from an a i r p l a n e wing i s formed a t t h e end of t h e b l a d e ( F i g u r e 6 4 ) . Moreover, w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y t h e r e v e r s e flow zone expands; i n accordance w i t h t h e formula d = pR, t h e d i a m e t e r of t h i s zone i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of 8he f l i g h t speed a t c o n s t a n t rpm. Expansion o f

t h e s t a l l s e p a r a t i o n and r e v e r s e flow zones l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and causes s e v e r e roughness. F l i g h t cannot b e continued

under s e p a r a t e d flow c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e f l i g h t speed can b e i n c r e a s e d only u n t i l t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e b l a d e t i p elements become c l o s e t o t h e c r i t i c a l value. T h i s f l i g h t speed l i m i t a t i o n i s c a l l e d the 270"-azimuth b l a d e Thus, t h e maximal speed f o r t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r i s l i m i t e d

stall limitation.

t o 170 km/hr, w h i l e t h e Mi-4 i s l i m i t e d t o 175 kmlhr.

142

t v'

F i g u r e 6 4 . Flow s e p a r a t i o n from b l a d e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of f l i g h t speed.

I f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s d i d n o t e x i s t , t h e power a v a i l a b l e would p e r m i t a

m a x i m a l speed a t a l t i t u d e of 205 kmlhr f o r t h e M i - 1

a t an a l t i t u d e of 1500 m f o r t h e M i - 4 .

and a speed of 225 km/hr

How can t h e m a x i m a l f l i g h t speed o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r b e i n c r e a s e d ? I n o r d e r t o avoid b l a d e t i p s t a l l a t t h e 270" azimuth w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e forward s p e e d , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o reduce t h e main r o t o r p i t c h . (-AY> and o f t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e (-AP) ( F i g u r e 6 5 ) . But t h i s l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t and c r e a t i o n of a d e f i c i e n c y o f t h e l i f t f o r c e I n o r d e r t o avoid t h e s e phenomena, u s e i s made of an a u x i l i a r y wing, which creates t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e AY. n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e speed i s

The a d d i t i o n a l p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e propellers.

AP

/98

c r e a t e d e i t h e r by i n c r e a s i n g t h e e n g i n e t h r u s t o r by t h e t h r u s t o f a d d i t i o n a l H e l i c o p t e r s w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l wing and a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r s I n t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r s t h e r e i s an unloading Helicopters of t h i s type include the

are c a l l e d compound h e l i c o p t e r s .

of t h e main r o t o r s such t h a t t h e y can o p e r a t e w i t h lower i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s ,

and b l a d e s t a l l o c c u r s a t h i g h e r speeds.

143

Mi-6 and Kamov's prop-wing d e s i g n w i t h

side-by-side km/hr. backs: rotors. The speed of t h e compound h e l i c o p t e r s r e a c h e s 400-450 However, t h e y a l s o h a v e draw i n c r e a s e d s t r u c t u r a l weight

and i n c r e a s e d p a r a s i t e drag as a r e s u l t of t h e s l i p s t r e a m from t h e main r o t o r flowing o v e r t h e wing. T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y characF i g u r e 65. Techniques f o r unloading main r o t o r .

teristic f o r t h e vertical f l i g h t
regimes w i t h low h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t i e s .

49.

H o r i z o n t a l F l i g h t Endurance and Range

H o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t endurance i s t h e t i m e i n t h e c o u r s e of which t h e h e l i c o p t e r can perform h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t u s i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e f u e l supply. endurance i s found from t h e formula Flight

where Gfuel
C

i s t h e f u e l supply f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , l i t e r s ; i s t h e f u e l consumption p e r h o u r , l i t e r s l h r .

This formula shows t h a t t h e endurance depends on t h e f u e l supply and

t h e h o u r l y consumption. The f u e l s u p p l y f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t Gfuel

is t h e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e amount o f f u e l s e r v i c e d i n t o t h e t a n k s G and t h e t

amount of f u e l expended i n t h e o t h e r f l i g h t regimes: t a x i i n g , t a k e o f f , climb, d e s c e n t , and l a n d i n g . The f u e l consumption i n t h e s e f l i g h t regimes is i n d i c a t e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g f l i g h t endurance and range, which

are p r e p a r e d f o r each h e l i c o p t e r t y p e on t h e b a s i s of c a l c u l a t i o n s and f l i g h t

tests

144

The h o u r l y f u e l consumption i s t h e amount of f u e l which t h e e n g i n e consumes p e r h o u r of o p e r a t i o n .

It i s found from t h e formula

where

c e
Ne

i s t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption; i s t h e e f f e c t i v e e n g i n e power;
i s t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t .

and 3 change o n l y s l i g h t l y w i t h v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t s p e e d , e t h e i r r a t i o can b e assumed c o n s t a n t and (29) takes t h e form Since c

This formula shows t h a t t h e h o u r l y f u e l consumption depends on t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , and consequently, on t h e f l i g h t speed. Using t h e curve of power v e r s u s speed (see F i g u r e 6 2 ) , w e can s a y t h a t t h e minimal power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t corresponds t o t h e economical speed; t h e r e f o r e , t h e minimal h o u r l y f u e l consumption corresponds t o t h i s speed. In order f o r t h e helicopter t o stay i n the a i r f o r the m a x i m a l t i m e , f l i g h t must b e performed a t t h e economical speed. on h e l i c o p t e r w e i g h t : t h e f l i g h t endurance d e c r e a s e s . The economical speed depends

t h i s speed i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e w e i g h t , and S i n c e t h e economical speed changes v e r y l i t t l e

w i t h a l t i t u d e , t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t endurance d e c r e a s e s somewhat w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e a l t i t u d e as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s e d f u e l consumption i n climb and d e s c e n t . H e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t range i s t h e d i s t a n c e which t h e h e l i c o p t e r can f l y w h i l e u t i l i z i n g t h e f u e l s u p p l y f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t

145

L h =k c
where

Gfuel

ck

i s t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r , literslkm.

The h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t range i s l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e f u e l supply and t h e lower t h e consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r . t h e f l i g h t endurance c a l c u l a t i o n . from t h e formula The f u e l s u p p l y i s d e f i n e d as i n The consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r i s found

The minimal f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r w i l l b e achieved w i t h t h e minimal r a t i o Nh/V.

L e t us examine t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e curves f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t (Figure 6 6 ) . speed V1, Any p o i n t on t h e power r e q u i r e d curve corresponds t o For example, t h e p o i n t 1 corresponds t o t h e The r a t i o of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s i s e q u a l d e f i n i t e v a l u e s of V and N .

and t h e power r e q u i r e d N

1 '

t o t g y , and t h e r e f o r e , t h e consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r i s

c,

r=

const tg 71.

This means t h a t t g y must b e minimal i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e minimal f u e l con sumption p e r k i l o m e t e r .

This corresponds t o t h e a n g l e between t h e t a n g e n t t o

The p o i n t of tangency w i l l

t h e power r e q u i r e d c u r v e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s .

correspond t o t h e o p t i m a l h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed. Thus, t h e m a x i m a l h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t range i s achieved a t t h e o p t i m a l speed, which corresponds t o t h e minimal f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r only i f t h e engine i s c a r e f u l l y adjusted. I n t h i s case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e

1100

maximal range i s made u s i n g t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r curves p l o t t e d

146

on t h e b a s i s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l h e l i c o p t e r operational data. The speed o b t a i n e d from t h e s e c u r v e s and t h e corresponding minimal consumption w i l l b e c l o s e t o t h e optimal values. The consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r i s t h e f u e l burned p e r k i l o m e t e r of a i r F i g u r e 66. Dependence o f N/V on f l i g h t speed. d i s t a n c e (relative t o t h e a i r ) . Con sequently, t h e f l i g h t range c a l c u l a t i o n made u s i n g (30) is v a l i d o n l y i f t h e r e

i s no wind.

I f t h e r e is wind, t h e The so-

f l i g h t range w i l l v a r y , depending on t h e wind d i r e c t i o n and v e l o c i t y .

c a l l e d n a v i g a t i o n a l f u e l s u p p l y , amounting t o 10-15% of t h e r e q u i r e d f u e l , i s

set a s i d e as r e s e r v e i n case t h e weather c o n d i t i o n s change.

S i n c e t h e power

r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t depends on h e l i c o p t e r weight and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r i n c r e a s e s , and t h e range d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e weight. calculations The average f l i g h t weight i s used f o r exact range

where

Gto Gfuel

i s t h e t a k e o f f weight;

i s t h e f u e l supply f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

With i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e t h e o p t i m a l speed i n c r e a s e s somewhat, and t h e power r e q u i r e d d e c r e a s e s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r a l s o decreases. But t h e climb t o a h i g h e r a l t i t u d e r e q u i r e s more f u e l . For t h e M i - 1 , In p r a c t i c e , t h e l o n g e s t f l i g h t range w i t h o u t account f o r wind i s o b t a i n e d a t an a l t i t u d e from 1000 t o 2000 meters. a i r s p e e d of 130 km/hr. t h e minimal f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r i s 0.56 l i t e r s / k m a t an a l t i t u d e of 1000 meters and an i n d i c a t e d The f l i g h t range w i t h t h i s f u e l consumption r a t e i s

370 km.

147

Programmed Testing-Questions a n d Answers

Question 1. How does t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t developed v a r y w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed? Answer 1. f l i g h t speed. t h e speed.

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l T h e r e f o r e , t h e t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e must b e i n c r e a s e d t o i n c r e a s e

Moreover, t h e t i l t of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e

v e r t i c a l must b e i n c r e a s e d i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P w h i l e
l e a v i n g t h e l i f t f o r c e Y unchanged.

Answer 2 .

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i n c r e a s e s w i t h The t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e a l s o i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of

i n c r e a s e of t h e speed. t h e f l i g h t speed.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e must b e

l e f t unchanged w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g t h e t i l t a n g l e y r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l .

Answer 3.

During hover and i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t any speed, t h e The

/lo1

t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r must be e q u a l t o t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d .

t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e , o r t h e t h r u s t which t h e main r o t o r develops a t c o n s t a n t power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r , i n c r e a s e s more r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e speed than does t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d . T h e r e f o r e , w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed

up t o t h e economical speed t h e t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e must b e d e c r e a s e d , w h i l e upon f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed t h e t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e must b e i n c r e a s e d .

A t t h e same t i m e , w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed t h e t i l t of t h e t h r u s t
f o r c e v e c t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l must b e i n c r e a s e d . Question 2. f l i g h t speed? Answer 1. With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion and t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r overcoming p r o f i l e drag. The induced power d e c r e a s e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e n g i n e power remains c o n s t a n t .

How must t h e engine power b e v a r i e d w i t h change of t h e

1 48

A n s w e r 2.

The power r e q u i r e d and t h e power developed must b e e q u a l f o r With i n c r e a s e of t h e speed from 0 t o V

, t h e power r e q u i r e d ec d e c r e a s e s ; t h e r e f o r e , i n t h i s range t h e e n g i n e power developed must b e reduced. any f l i g h t speed. With i n c r e a s e of t h e speed from V t o Vmax t h e power r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e s , ec t h e r e f o r e , t h e power developed must a l s o b e i n c r e a s e d . Answer 3. With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed t h e h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e The p r o f i l e d r a g power a l s o i n c r e a s e s w i t h

drag i n c r e a s e s a s t h e speed squared, w h i l e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion i n c r e a s e s a s t h e speed cubed. i n c r e a s e of t h e speed, w h i l e t h e induced power d e c r e a s e s only s l i g h t l y .
of t h e f l i g h t speed.

Con

s e q u e n t l y , t h e power developed by t h e engine must b e i n c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s e

Question 3 . f l i g h t weight ?

How does h e l i c o p t e r performance v a r y w i t h change of t h e

Answer 1. With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t w e i g h t , t h e power r e q u i r e d t o develop t h e l i f t f o r c e Y = G i n c r e a s e s . However, t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i f t f o r c e ,

As a r e s u l t of t h i s , t h e r e i s

t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r t i l t must b e reduced.

a r e d u c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e d r a g , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e

of t h e m a x i m a l h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed and i n c r e a s e o f t h e speed range. Answer 2 . force required. I n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t weight l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t But s i n c e t h e t h r u s t developed b y t h e main r o t o r i n c r e a s e s T h e r e f o r e , t h e maximal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed,

f a s t e r t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d t h r u s t .with i n c r e a s e of t h e speed, t h e engine power developed must b e reduced. speed range, and e x c e s s power i n c r e a s e w i t h h e l i c o p t e r weight i n c r e a s e . Answer 3 . power N With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t weight t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r

h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i n c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e of t h e induced
= GVi. The power a v a i l a b l e i s independent o f h e l i c o p t e r weight. i The power r e q u i r e d c u r v e i s s h i f t e d upward. As a r e s u l t , t h e m a x i m a l horizon

t a l f l i g h t speed i s reduced, and t h e minimal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed i s

increased.

The speed r a n g e and t h e excess power d e c r e a s e .

149

Question 4 .

E f f e c t o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e and a i r t e m p e r a t u r e on h e l i c o p t e r

flight characteristics.

Answer 1. I n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n v o l v e s r e d u c t i o n of t h e a i r
density. T h i s l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e main r o t o r . S i n c e t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n i s t h e e q u a l i t y G = Y , w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e t h e induced v e l o c i t y V. must b e i n c r e a s e d ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e
1

induced power Ni = GV. w i l l i n c r e a s e .

1

The power r e q u i r e d c u r v e i s s h i f t e d

upward f o r low f l i g h t s p e e d s .

A t h i g h f l i g h t s p e e d s , t h e induced power i n c r e a s e s o n l y s l i g h t l y , w h i l e
t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e ; t h e r e f o r e , a t h i g h speeds t h e power r e q u i r e d curve i s s h i f t e d downard.

As a r e s u l t
Above
I102

of t h i s change of t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e , t h e minimal and maximal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speeds i n c r e a s e up t o t h e e n g i n e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e . t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e t h e maximal f l i g h t speed w i l l d e c r e a s e . t h e a i r temperature i s e q u i v a l e n t t o i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e . Answer 2 . With i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r The power developed by t h e e n g i n e d e c r e a s e s . The

I n c r e a s e of

horizontal f l i g h t increases. s h i f t e d downward.

power r e q u i r e d curves a r e s h i f t e d upward and t h e power a v a i l a b l e curves a r e A s a r e s u l t of t h i s displacement of t h e c u r v e s , t h e maximal

speed d e c r e a s e s and t h e minimal i n c r e a s e s ; t h e speed r a n g e and t h e e x c e s s power decrease. I n c r e a s e of t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e power

r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e . Question 5. F a c t o r s l i m i t i n g maximal h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed

and ways t o i n c r e a s e t h i s speed.

A n s w e r 1. The m a x i m a l h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed of a h e l i c o p t e r i s l i m i t e d
by t h e engine power a v a i l a b l e . F l i g h t a t speeds h i g h e r t h a n t h e m a x i m a l i s n o t p o s s i b l e , s i n c e more power i s r e q u i r e d f o r s u c h f l i g h t t h a n t h e e n g i n e develops. Powerful gas t u r b i n e e n g i n e s a r e i n s t a l l e d on t h e new h e l i c o p t e r s , and M i - 8 , t o i n c r e a s e t h e m a x i m a l f l i g h t speed. f o r example, t h e Mi-2, Mi-6,

150

Answer 2 .

With i n c r e a s e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t s p e e d , t h e forward t i l t This leads t o reduction

of t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n must b e i n c r e a s e d . of t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k .

As a r e s u l t o f t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e a n g l e
T h i s i s t h e n t h e reason f o r t h e

of a t t a c k , t h e r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e d e c r e a s e s . m a x i m a l speed l i m i t a t i o n .

To i n c r e a s e t h e maximal speed w e must i n c r e a s e t h e

main r o t o r rpm, which r e q u i r e s t h e more powerful gas t u r b i n e engines. Answer 3. The r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e must b e i n c r e a s e d i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e I f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i s i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e rpm, I f we increase t h e t h r u s t

t h e f l i g h t speed.

l o c a l compression shocks develop on t h e b l a d e s . b l a d e elements a t t h e 270" azimuth i n c r e a s e .

f o r c e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e main r o t o r p i t c h , t h e n t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e The speed i s l i m i t e d by t h e o n s e t To i n c r e a s e t h e

of b l a d e s t a l l a t a n g l e s of a t t a c k above t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e .

speed t h e main r o t o r must b e unloaded by i n s t a l l i n g an a d d i t i o n a l wing o r t h r u s t i n g p r o p e l l e r s , i . e . , compound h e l i c o p t e r s such as t h e Mi-6, Kamov rotor-wing, and s o on must b e c o n s t r u c t e d .

151

CHAPTER V I 1

CLIMB ALONG INCLINED TRAJECTORY

5 50.

General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e C l i m b Regime Along a n I n c l i n e d T r a j e c t o r y

Climb a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y i s r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y and c o n s t a n t a n g l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e . I n t h i s f l i g h t regime t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s s u b j e c t t o t h e weight f o r c e , main r o t o r and t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e s , and t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e (Figure 67). To determine t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e
G

LO:

can b e broken down i n t o components: G 2

p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f l i g h t p a t h , and 1 p a r a l l e l t o t h e f l i g h t p a t h and d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e motion.

The main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e can also b e r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e components Y ( l i f t f o r c e ) , P ( p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e ) , Ss ( s i d e f o r c e ) . s t e a d y climb are e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a l i t i e s The c o n d i t i o n s f o r

Y = G
P=G2+X

- (rectilinear

f l i g h t and c o n s t a n t climb a n g l e ) ;

Tt.r - 's CM = 0
cg

Par

- (constant v e l o c i t y ) ; - (absence o f l a t e r a l displacment of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ) ;

- (absence

of helicopter r o t a t i o n about i t s c e n t e r of gravity).

152

F i g u r e 67.

Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r i n climb.

5 51.

Thrust- and Power Required f o r Climb _.

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r climb can b e found by u s i n g t h e diagram of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r ( F i g u r e 6 7 ) ,

Tcl

= I/Y2

P2 = {G:

(X

Par

G2) 2

where

GI= G cos 0.; G, = Gsin 8.

Comparing (31) w i t h (26),
w e can s a y t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e drag i n

climb i s p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e p a r a s i t e drag i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t t h e same speed. For example, f o r t h e M i - 1 i n climb (Vcl = 85 km/hr; 8

9") t h e

= 55 k g f , and i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t X = 47 k g f . The p a r a s i t e drag X Par Par s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t d u r i n g climb t h e a i r flow

approaches t h e f u s e l a g e a t a l a r g e n e g a t i v e a n g l e , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e p a r a s i t e drag f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t from 0.009 t o 0.0097. The l i f t f o r c e i s

less d u r i n g climb t h a n i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

The p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e d u r i n g

climb w i l l b e g r e a t e r than t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t by t h e

153

magnitude G s i n 8.

Consequently, i n (31) t h e f i r s t term of t h e r a d i c a n d i s

smaller t h a n i n ( 2 6 ) , w h i l e t h e second term i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e second term of

(26). T h e r e f o r e , t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r climb along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y

is p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same as t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t t h e

same speed.
I f a h e l i c o p t e r can hover, t h e n i t can climb a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y . This c o n c l u s i o n i s confirmed by t h e f a c t t h a t e x c e s s t h r u s t appears i n t h e forward f l i g h t regime ( F i g u r e 6 8 ) . Consequently, even w i t h some t h r u s t

d e f i c i e n c y f o r hovering (dashed c u r v e i n F i g u r e 681, climb along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y a t a speed g r e a t e r t h a n t h e minimal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed i s possible. T h i s circumstance i s u t i l i z e d i n t h e running h e l i c o p t e r t a k e o f f . /lo4

The power r e q u i r e d f o r climb i s found from t h e same formula as used t o f i n d t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t

N c l - "ot

+ N i + N

Pr'

But i n t h i s formula t h e terms may d i f f e r from t h e corresponding terms f o r t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

w i l l n o t d i f f e r from t h e p r o f i l e power f o r h o r i z o n t a l Pr f l i g h t i f t h e rpm and f l i g h t speed are t h e same.

During climb N The induced power i n climb i s p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e induced power f o r horizontal f l i g h t , since cos 8
' L

Ni = YVi,

and Y

cl

= G

n ,

G.

But t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion d u r i n g climb d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h e motion power f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t

154

If
since

- 'h$

then

% I

Nmoth)

I. i
F i g u r e 68. T h r u s t r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e v e r s u s f l i g h t speed.

then

equating
G2Vcl
= AN

we obtain

" 0

tc l

"oth

AN.

C l i m b i s p o s s i b l e i f t h e r e i s excess power AN ( i . e . ,

t h e power a v a i l a b l e

exceeds t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t )
Ncl
= Nh

AN

52.

Vertical Rate of Climb

During climb t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y moves along t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y with the v e l o c i t y V sented a s the v e c t o r s m u

Vel = - + -Y) Vh v

cl'

The climbing v e l o c i t y v e c t o r can b e r e p r e

where

V i s t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb. Y

Vh

i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y ;

cl climb a n g l e i s u s u a l l y s m a l l and does n o t exceed 10"-12",

The h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y e q u a l s V

cos 0 , b u t s i n c e the then V h

% I

1105

Vcl.

155

T h i s means t h a t t h e same power i s expended on h o r i z o n t a l displacement of t h e h e l i c o p t e r d u r i n g climb as i s expended i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t t h e same speed. Analyzing (32) from t h i s viewpoint, we can s a y t h a t t h e excess power
AN = GV i s expended on v e r t i c a l displacement o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Hence, Y knowing t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight and t h e e x c e s s power, w e f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l rate

of climb

The e x c e s s power can b e found from t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e curves f o r h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ( s e e F i g u r e 63a). power corresponds t o t h e economical speed ( f o r t h e M i - 1 , about 23 m/sec). speed. The m a x i m a l e x c e s s
Vec = 80 km/hr o r

T h e r e f o r e , climbing s h o u l d b e performed a t t h e economical

Moreover, from t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e curves f o r t h e M i - 1 ,

w e can conclude t h a t v e r t i c a l climb i s i m p o s s i b l e when u s i n g r a t e d engine power.

T h i s means t h a t t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g when u s i n g r a t e d power i s e q u a l t o z e r o ,

i . e . , h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g is p o s s i b l e o n l y i n t h e a i r cushion i n f l u e n c e zone.
When u s i n g t a k e a f f power v e r t i c a l climb i s p o s s i b l e , b u t t h e r a t e of climb w i l l b e lower t h a n when climbing a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y . Conse

q u e n t l y , t h i s once a g a i n confirms t h a t climbing s h o u l d b e performed along an inclined trajectory. Vertical climbing i s performed o n l y when i t i s n e c e s s a r y
It must b e k e p t i n mind t h a t t a k e o f f power

t o clear s u r r o u n d i n g o b s t a c l e s .

can b e used o n l y f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d , n o t t o exceed f i v e minutes.

I n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n v o l v e s change o f t h e power r e q u i r e d and t h e power a v a i l a b l e , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , change of t h e v e r t i c a l rate of c l i m b .

5 53.

V a r i a t i o n of V e r t i c a l R a t e of Climb w i t h A l t i t u d e

I f we c a l c u l a t e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s and c o n s t r u c t curves of t h e s e powers, and i f w e f i n d t h e power a v a i l a b l e a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s from t h e e n g i n e a l t i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

then w e can u s e t h e s e curves t o draw i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s on a l t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

L e t us examine such curves f o r t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r ( F i g u r e 6 9 a ) .

W e see

/lo6

from t h e curves t h a t :

1) f o r f l i g h t speeds less t h a n o p t i m a l t h e power r e q u i r e c curves are s h i f t e d upward; 2 ) f o r f l i g h t s p e e d s g r e a t e r t h a n o p t i m a l t h e s e curves are s h i f t e d downward ;

3) t h e power a v a i l a b l e l i n e s s h i f t upward up t o t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e of 2000 meters and t h e n s h i f t downward; t h i s s h i f t causes i n c r e a s e o f t h e m a x i m a l speed up t o t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e and r e d u c t i o n a t a l t i t u d e s above c r i t i c a l ;

4 ) t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e minimal speed and an i n i t i a l i n c r e a s e and

subsequent d e c r e a s e of t h e excess power ( s e e T a b l e ) . W e o b t a i n e d t h e s e d a t a u s i n g r a t e d engine power. I f t a k e o f f power i s u s e d , v e r t i c a l climb can b e performed up t o an a l t i t u d e o f about 1000 m , and t h e m a x i m a l speed a t s e a l e v e l w i l l b e about 210 km/hr.

ALTITUDE VARIATION OF FL,IGHT CHARACTERISTICS

The t a b u l a r d a t a can b e used t o p l o t two graphs which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e helicopter f l i g h t characteristics : a l t i t u d e dependence of t h e v e r t i c a l rate of climb; a l t i t u d e dependence of t h e m a x i m a l and minimal speeds.

157

F i g u r e 69.

H e l i c o p t e r aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

1, 2 , 3 - N h ; H = 2000 m;

4 6

- Navail

- Navail for

H = 0;

5 -N

avail

for

f o r H = 3000 m.

The p l o t of- v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb v e- u s a1.titud.e ( F i g u r e 69b) shows rs

~~ ~~

t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l rate of climb i n c r e a s e s up t o t h e e n g i n e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e . Above t h i s a l t i t u d e t h e rate of climb d e c r e a s e s . The a l t i t u d e a t which t h e v e r t i c a l rate of climb f o r f l i g h t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y e q u a l s z e r o i s c a l l e d t h e h e l i c o p t e r dynamic c e i l i n g . More p r e c i s e l y , t h i s a l t i t u d e i s c a l l e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g . S i n c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r does n o t a c t u a l l y climb t o t h i s a l t i t u d e , t h e p r a c t i c a l 158

c e i l i n g concept i s i n t r o d u c e d , at which t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb e q u a l s

0.5 m / s e c .

The maximal and minimal speed p l o t ( F i g u r e 69c) shows t h e i n c r e a s e

A t a l t i t u d e s above c r i t i c a l t h e m a x i m a l

of t h e h e l i c o p t e r m a x i m a l h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed w i t h a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e from zero t o t h e engine c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e . speed d e c r e a s e s . The minimal speed i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e .

A t t h e dynamic c e i l i n g a l t i t u d e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r can perform f l i g h t o n l y a t a

/lo7

s i n g l e speed, which w i l l b e b o t h m a x i m a l and minimal a t t h e same t i m e . o f s p e e d s i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t from minimal t o maximal. F i g u r e 6 9 c shows two c u r v e s :

During

f l i g h t a t a l t i t u d e s less t h a n t h e dynamic c e i l i n g , t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s a range

one of them corresponds t o f l i g h t u s i n g In the maximal

r a t e d e n g i n e power; t h e o t h e r corresponds t o u s e of t a k e o f f engine power. t h e l a t t e r case, w e see t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t a t i c c e i l i n g , i . e . , a l t i t u d e f o r h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r i n g o u t of t h e a i r cushion e f f e c t . The graph showing t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e maximal and minimal h o r i z o n t a l

f l i g h t speeds as a f u n c t i o n o f a l t i t u d e i s c a l l e d t h e h e l i c o p t e r aerodynamic "passport". This "passport" characterizes the helicopter f l i g h t data. Thus, f o r t h e M i - 1 In many c a s e s , t h e f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have v a r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s , which e n s u r e s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h o r an a c c e p t a b l e v i b r a t i o n level. from 0 t o 3000 m e t e r s . The c e i l i n g of t h e M i - 1 i s l i m i t e d t o an a l t i t u d e of 3000 meters. Record speeds f o r l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s ( V = 210 km/hr and H helicopter. I f t h e v e r t i c a l rate o f climb i s used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e t o climb t o v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s , w e can p l o t t h e s o - c a l l e d climb barogram, which a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( F i g u r e 69d)
% %

h e l i c o p t e r , t h e maximal f l i g h t speed must n o t exceed 170 km/hr a t a l t i t u d e s

/lo8

6000 m) have

been e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g f l i g h t tests and i n s p e c i a l f l i g h t s on t h e Mi-1

159

CHAPTER V I 1 1

HELICOPTER DESCENT A O G INCLINED TRAJECTORY LN

5 54.

General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Descent Regime

1=

R e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t a t c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y i s termed t h e h e l i c o p t e r d e s c e n t regime w i t h o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e . A characteristic of t h i s regime i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t and t h e speed along t h e t r a j e c t o r y by v a r y i n g t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e main rotor.

I n t h i s regime t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r c e s a c t on t h e h e l i c o p t e r :

weight,

main r o t o r t h r u s t , p a r a s i t e d r a g , and t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t ( F i g u r e 7 0 ) .

The h e l i c o p t e r motion t a k e s p l a c e a l o n g a t r a j e c t o r y which i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e h o r i z o n a t t h e a n g l e 8 , termed t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e .

W r e s o l v e t h e weight f o r c e G and t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e T i n t o e

components p e r p e n d i c u l a r and p a r a l l e l t o t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y . weight f o r c e components G
W e obtain the
= G cos 8 and G2 = G s i n 8. The main r o t o r t h r u s t 1 components w i l l b e t h e l i f t f o r c e Y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y ,

and t h e f o r c e Px p a r a l l e l t o t h i s t r a j e c t o r y .

The f o r c e P

may b e d i r e c t e d

e i t h e r o p p o s i t e t h e h e l i c o p t e r motion d i r e c t i o n o r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h i s mot i o n .

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e P

depends on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e cone axis I f t h e cone a x i s i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o

and t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . 160

.r

F i g u r e 70.

Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r i n d e s c e n t .

t h e t r a j e c t o r y , t h e n Px = 0. and w i l l r e t a r d t h i s motion. be a propulsive force. attack.

I f t h e cone a x i s i s i n c l i n e d a f t r e l a t i v e t o I f t h e cone axis i s t i l t e d forward, t h e f o r c e

t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r , t h e n Px w i l l b e d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e h e l i c o p t e r motion Px w i l l be d i r e c t e d along t h e motion and t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e component G2 w i l l The cone axis d i r e c t i o n i s connected w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n

of t h e r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of

Most f r e q u e n t l y , t h e main r o t o r a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s c l o s e t o z e r o o r During f l i g h t w i t h a l a r g e d e s c e n t a n g l e , t h e

X

has a s m a l l negative value.

a n g l e of a t t a c k i s p o s i t i v e and t h e f o r c e P

is d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e motion.

Steady s t a t e descending f l i g h t i s p o s s i b l e under t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s

Y = G
G2

= Gcos 8 ;

(33)

'par

+ px; -

(34)

EMcg

= 0.

161

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n a s s u r e s r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t and c o n s t a n t d e s c e n t angle. Consequently, by v a r y i n g t h e l i f t f o r c e Y w e can a l t e r t h e h e l i c o p t e r When t h e l i f t f o r c e i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e d e c r e a s e s , The second c o n d i t i o n a s s u r e s c o n s t a n t h e l i c o p t e r speed.

descent angle. and vice versa.

Let

us compare t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h t h o s e f o r climb a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y .

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n i s t h e same f o r d e s c e n t and climb. t i o n s d i f f e r fundamentally from one a n o t h e r :

The second condi

i n climb, t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e

i s t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t component P, w h i l e i n d e s c e n t t h i s f o r c e w i l l be t h e
The t h r u s t f o r c e component P may b e e i t h e r a p a r t weight f o r c e component G 2' X of t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e o r a p a r t of t h e r e t a r d i n g f o r c e , depending on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e main r o t o r cone a x i s . The t h i r d and f o u r t h d e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n s

are analogous t o t h e same c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e o t h e r f l i g h t regimes.

5 55.

T h r u s t and Power Required f o r H e l i c o p t e r Descent __

The t h r u s t developed by t h e main r o t o r d u r i n g f l i g h t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y must p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y magnitudes o f t h e l i f t f o r c e Y and i t s component P

X

p a r a l l e l t o t h e motion t r a j e c t o r y .

I n accordance w i t h t h e d i a -

gram of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r , t h e t h r u s t f o r c e From ( 3 3 ) w e f i n d Y = G1 = G cos 8, and from ( 3 4 )

T = ]/y2+
X
Par

p:.

/110

+ Px -

G2

= G sin 6

- 'par'

then

S i n c e i n most cases t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e 0 i s s m a l l ( l e s s t h a n 10') second term i s c l o s e t o z e r o .

cos 8

'L %

1.

T h i s means t h a t t h e f i r s t term of t h e r a d i c a n d i n ( 3 5 ) i s c l o s e t o one and t h e Hence, w e can conclude t h a t t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d

f o r h e l i c o p t e r d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y w i l l b e p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. For l a r g e d e s c e n t a n g l e s , when t h e a n g l e 0 approaches

'L
Q

go",

t h e f i r s t term of t h e r a d i c a n d o f ( 3 5 ) approaches z e r o , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e

G sin 8

X approaches i n magnitude t h e w e i g h t , i . e . , Par

G.

162

W e came t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n i n s t u d y i n g h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t .
Comparing t h e t h r u s t f o r c e r e q u i r e d i n t h e d i f f e r e n t h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes,

w e can s a y t h a t t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r f l i g h t i n any regime i s p r a c t i c a l l y

e q u a l t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. The power r e q u i r e d f o r d e s c e n t a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y c o n s i s t s of three parts: drag N t h e motion power N
I

f o r c e o r i n d u c t i v e power N,,

t h e power r e q u i r e d t o create t h e l i f t mot' and t h e power r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h e p r o f i l e The induced power I s

Pr f l i g h t , t h e p r o f i l e power i s t h e same i n b o t h cases. found from t h e formula N

I f d u r i n g d e s c e n t t h e v e l o c i t y and rpm are t h e same as i n h o r i z o n t a l

= YVi = G cos 8 Vi, and f o r d e s c e n t a n g l e s up t o l o o i i s p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e induced power f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , s i n c e i n t h i s

case cos 8

% %

1.

The motion power f o r d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y i s found from t h e formula

From ( 3 4 ) , G2 = Xpar c o p t e r motion, Px = Xpar

I f t h e f o r c e Px i s d i r e c t e d along t h e h e l i Px. Then ( 3 6 ) can b e w r i t t e n as G2.

"ot

"par

G2) V = X V Par

G2V.

The parasite d r a g f o r c e s are p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same f o r d e s c e n t and h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ( f o r t h e same s p e e d ) . Therefore

W e d e n o t e G V = AN ; t h e n 2 t

des "ot h

-AN

(37)

163

i.e.,

t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r d e s c e n t i s less t h a n t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r Comparing ( 2 8 ) ,

horizontal flight.

( 3 2 ) , (37), w e can s a y t h a t t h e most power

i s r e q u i r e d f o r climbing f l i g h t and t h e l e a s t i s r e q u i r e d f o r descending f l i g h t

The speed dependence of t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes can b e shown g r a p h i c a l l y w i t h t h e a i d of t h e Zhukovskiy g r i d , o r by curves of t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r v a r i o u s f l i g h t regimes, which are p l o t t e d f o r a g i v e n a l t i t u d e ( F i g u r e 71a).

.I111

56.

H e l i c o p t e r R a t e of Descent With Operating Engine

During i n c l i n e d d e s c e n t t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed along t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e

v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t may v a r y from z e r o t o t h e l i m i t i n g p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e s . I n accordance w i t h t h e second d e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n , t h e speed a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y

w i l l b e constant i f G

'x t h e magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of P

X

2 - 'par

The f l i g h t speed can b e a l t e r e d by v a r y i n g Since P

X

depends on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e

main r o t o r cone of r o t a t i o n axis, t h e r e i s a change of t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed along t h e t r a j e c t o r y when t h i s p o s i t i o n i s changed. The h e l i c o p t e r motion

v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s connected w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t

as f o l l o w s ( F i g u r e 70b)

'des

'dest

s i n 0.

The v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t i s measured w i t h t h e a i d of a s p e c i a l instrument - a variometer.

W e see from t h e f i g u r e and Formula (38) t h a t t h i s

rate depends on t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e .

d e s c e n t depends on t h e f o r c e P supplied t o t h e ro t o r. Zhukovskiy g r i d . I f w e draw on t h e Zhukovskiy g r i d , t h e l i n e s showing power a v a i l a b l e N f o r t h e given a l t i t u d e , t h e p o i n t s of t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e

The

d e s c e n t a n g l e depends on t h e magnitude of t h e l i f t f o r c e Y, w h i l e t h e rate of

X,

and t h e r e f o r e on t h e magnitude of t h e power

The h e l i c o p t e r r a t e o f d e s c e n t can b e found from t h e

; N

al

a2'

I112

power r e q u i r e d curves f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t regimes w i l l correspond t o d e f i n i t e

164

F i g u r e 71. Power r e q u i r e d v e r s u s f l i g h t speed f o r d i f f e r e n t climb and d e s c e n t a n g l e s .

f l i g h t speeds along t h e t r a j e c t o r y .
Na

Thus, from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e l i n e

w i t h t h e power r e q u i r e d c u r v e s w e can f i n d t h e maximal h e l i c o p t e r h o r i

t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb V1 f o r 0 = lo", t h e max ' v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb V f o r 0 = 30, and s o on. Drawing t h e l i n e N , w e 2 a2 zontal f l i g h t velocity V Other power a v a i l a b l e l i n e s for 0 -10'. 3 must b e drawn, i . e . , lower e n g i n e powers must b e used, t o f i n d t h e r a t e s o f f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t V descent with l a r g e r descent angles. The d e s c e n t a n g l e s and v e l o c i t i e s along t h e t r a j e c t o r y a r e o f t e n d e t e r mined f o r some a v e r a g e a l t i t u d e and some d e f i n i t e f l i g h t weight i n t h e aero dynamic a n a l y s i s . Such c a l c u l a t i o n s are made f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s of main From t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n r o t o r p i t c h , f o r example, $l; $2; $3. o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e ( F i g u r e 71b). I n t h i s f i g u r e each curve corresponds t o a d e f i n i t e v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y , i f t h i s v e l o c i t y i s p l o t t e d i n t h e form of a v e c t o r from t h e coordinate o r i g i n . The h o r i z o n t a l axis w i l l b e t h e h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y

w e p l o t a graph - t h e p o l a r c u r v e of h e l i c o p t e r d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r i e s w i t h

165

cos 8, and t h e o r d i n a t e axis w i l l b e t h e v e r t i c a l rate 'des.t of d e s c e n t V = s i n 8. The v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t i s measured i n 'i3es.t des The v e l o c i t y along t h e tra m/sec, and t h e h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y is i n km/hr. component V

j e c t o r y can b e found i f t h i s v e l o c i t y v e c t o r i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l

axis of t h e f i g u r e .

L e t us examine some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o i n t s on t h e p o l a r .

The p o i n t A l i e s a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e ( f o r

0,

= 8 " ) w i t h t h e o r d i n a t e axis.

This p o i n t corresponds t o h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l I f t h i s r a t e of d e s c e n t i s more t h a n

d e s c e n t rate w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g .

3 m/sec, t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e v o r t e x r i n g regime i s p o s s i b l e and t h i s cannot b e permitted. increased. T h i s means t h a t t h e p i t c h

and t h e e n g i n e power must b e

The p o i n t B corresponds t o descent w i t h minimal p e r m i s s i b l e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y , and t h e p o i n t C corresponds t o d e s c e n t w i t h t h e minimal v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t . I n t h i s case, t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y

corresponds t o t h e economical v e l o c i t y f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . and i n The p o i n t D corresponds t o f l i g h t w i t h t h e minimal d e s c e n t a n g l e 9 min ' t h i s case, t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e o p t i m a l h e l i c o p t e r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed. Programmed T e s t i n g Questions and A n s w e r s Question 1. What i s t h e l i f t f o r c e and how does i t v a r y i n t h e d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes? Answer 1. The l i f t f o r c e i s t h e p a r t o f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e developed by In I n climb

t h e main r o t o r which i s d i r e c t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y . h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t h e l i f t f o r c e e q u a l s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight Y = G .

and d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y t h e l i f t f o r c e w i l l be less t h a n t h e weight, i.e.,

Y = G1 = G cos 8.
The h e l i c o p t e r l i f t f o r c e i s t h e f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e main r o t o r I n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t h e l i f t f o r c e Y = G = T ; i n climb t h i s

Answer 2 . t h r u s t force.

/113

166

f o r c e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e h e l i c o p t e r w e i g h t ; i n an i n c l i n e d d e s c e n t i t i s

less t h a n t h e weight.
Answer 3 . The l i f t f o r c e i s t h e p a r t of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e I n horizontal f l i g h t I n climb and i n c l i n e d d e s c e n t

which b a l a n c e s t h e normal component of t h e weight f o r c e . t h e l i f t f o r c e e q u a l s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. t h e l i f t f o r c e is less t h a n t h e weight. Question 2 .

T h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r v a r i o u s f l i g h t regimes and i t s v a r i a t i o n

i n t h e d i f f e r e n t regimes.

A n s w e r 1. The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r a given regime i s t h e f o r c e n e c e s s a r y

t o provide f l i g h t along t h e given t r a j e c t o r y a t t h e required v e l o c i t y . f l i g h t , climbing f l i g h t , and descending f l i g h t . Answer 2 . force. regime. Answer 3 . The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d o r a given regime i s t h e f o r c e n e c e s s a r y
A t a c o n s t a n t speed t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d w i l l

For

c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same f o r h o r i z o n t a l

The t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r a given f l i g h t regime i s t h e f o r c e

r e q u i r e d n e c e s s a r y t o b a l a n c e t h e a i r p l a n e weight and c r e a t e t h e p r o p u l s i v e I n a climb t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d w i l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r , and d u r i n g d e s c e n t i t w i l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t

t o overcome t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g .

b e t h e same f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , i n c l i n e d climb, and i n c l i n e d d e s c e n t . Question 3 . Power r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r climb and d e s c e n t along an

inclined trajectory. Answer 1. The power r e q u i r e d f o r climb and d e s c e n t c o n s i s t s of t h r e e parts: t h e power r e q u i r e d t o overcome p r o f i l e d r a g , f o r h o r i z o n t a l motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , and f o r v e r t i c a l motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

167

During c o n s t a n t - v e l o c i t y regimes.

f l i g h t t h e p r o f i l e power remains t h e same i n a l l

The power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a l s o remains c o n s t a n t The power expended on The

b o t h f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and f o r climb and d e s c e n t . sum of a l l t h e s e p a r t s , i . e . ,

v e r t i c a l displacement w i l l b e more d u r i n g climb, and less d u r i n g d e s c e n t .

t h e power f o r t h e g i v e n regime, w i l l b e p r a c t i

c a l l y t h e same i n a l l regimes and v a r i e s w i t h v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t speed.

Answer 2.

The power r e q u i r e d f o r climb and d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t h e power r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h e p r o f i l e

t r a j e c t o r y c o n s i s t s of t h r e e p a r t s :

d r a g ; t h e power t o create t h e l i f t f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r w e i g h t ; and t h e power t o overcome h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e d r a g . During f l i g h t a t c o n s t a n t speed t h e p r o f i l e power remains c o n s t a n t i n a l l regimes. The power r e q u i r e d t o create t h e l i f t f o r c e d u r i n g climb w i l l b e I f the

more, and d u r i n g d e s c e n t w i l l b e less than i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

v e l o c i t y i s unchanged, t h e n t h e power r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h e p a r a s i t e drag

w i l l remain unchanged.

Consequently, t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r climb i s more than

t h a t f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , w h i l e t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r d e s c e n t i s less.

Answer 3 .

The power r e q u i r e d f o r climb and d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t h e power r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h e p r o f i l e

t r a j e c t o r y c o n s i s t s of t h r e e p a r t s :

d r a g , t h e power f o r c r e a t i n g t h e l i f t f o r c e , and t h a t f o r motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r along t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y .

The p r o f i l e power remains p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged i f t h e main r o t o r rpm remains t h e same i n t h e v a r i o u s f l i g h t regimes. During climb and d e s c e n t

(climb and d e s c e n t a n g l e s no more t h a n 1 0 " ) t h e induced power remains unchanged and p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e induced power f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . The power 1114

r e q u i r e d f o r motion d u r i n g climb i s more t h a n t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t by t h e magnitude of t h e e x c e s s power AN, i . e . , Ncl r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t by t h e amount 4N.
= Nh

AN,

and t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r motion d u r i n g d e s c e n t i s less than t h e power

168

Question 4 .

Vertical r a t e of climb and i t s v a r i a t i o n w i t h change of

f l i g h t v e l o c i t y and a l t i t u d e . Answer 1. weight. The v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i c o p t e r T h i s r a t e depends on t h e excess power and t h e h e l i c o p t e r

g a i n s p e r second. and l a t i t u d e . Answer 2 . weight. increase.

The v e r t i c a l rate of climb d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed

The v e r t i c a l rate of climb i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i c o p t e r The r a t e depends on t h e e x c e s s power and on t h e h e l i c o p t e r Consequently, t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb w i l l

gains per u n i t t i m e .

The e x c e s s power i n c r e a s e s as t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d from The v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb d e c r e a s e s w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e o f t h e

z e r o t o t h e economical speed. v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y .

The v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e from z e r o t o t h e e n g i n e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e . above t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e . Answer 3 . The v e r t i c a l rate of climb i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i c o p t e r This r a t e w i l l b e t h e h i g h e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e e x c e s s power The e x c e s s power d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e The r a t e d e c r e a s e s a t a l t i t u d e s

g a i n s p e r second.

AN and t h e l e s s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight.

of t h e f l i g h t s p e e d ; consequently, t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb a l s o d e c r e a s e s . The power a v a i l a b l e and t h e e x c e s s power d e c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t altitude. T h i s means t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e a l t i t u d e , t h e lower t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb. The a l t i t u d e a t which t h e v e r t i c a l climbing v e l o c i t y e q u a l s zero i s c a l l e d t h e h e l i c o p t e r dynamic c e i l i n g . Question 5. Answer 1. H e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t and what i t depends on. The v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i 'des

c o p t e r l o s e s p e r second, i . e . ,

- 'des.t

s i n 8.

It depends on t h e

v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e .

The f l i g h t v e l o c i t y

along t h e t r a j e c t o r y depends on t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e component +P directed p a r a l l e l t o the f l i g h t trajectory. l i f t f o r c e Y, i.e.,

- x,

The d e s c e n t a n g l e depends on t h e

on t h e magnitude of t h e main r o t o r p i t c h .

The l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r p i t c h f o r t h e same rpm and t h e l a r g e r t h e back ward t i l t of t h e cone axis, t h e smaller t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e , v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y , and h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t . Answer 2 . The v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i des s i n 8. T h i s r a t e depends on t h e v e l o c i t y 'des.t and t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e . The v e l o c i t y along t h e
=

c o p t e r l o s e s p e r second V along t h e t r a j e c t o r y V

des. t trajectory w i l l be the larger, the l a r g e r the propulsive force G p a r t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e (G

= G

sin

e).

2'

which i s a

T h i s means t h a t t h e l a r g e r t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e , t h e l a r g e r t h e p r o p u l s i v e force G the larger the f l i g h t velocity V 2' des.t' rate of d e s c e n t . Answer 3. copter l o s e s and t h e h i g h e r t h e v e r t i c a l

The v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t i s t h e a l t i t u d e which t h e h e l i

p e r second (V = s i n 6 ) . It i s l a r g e r , t h e h i g h e r ; h e r des 'des.t t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e l a r g e r t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e . The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y depends on t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e G t h e p a r a s i t e drag f o r c e X propulsive force G par' and 2 The l a r g e r t h e d e s c e n t a n g l e , t h e l a r g e r t h e

= G s i n 6.

The l a r g e r t h e a n g l e between t h e f u s e l a g e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis and t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , t h e l a r g e r t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e and t h e lower t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y . T h i s means t h a t , b y a l t e r i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e

h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e relative t o t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y and by a l t e r i n g t h e d e s c e n t angle,we can a l t e r t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent.

170

CHAPTER IX

HELICOPTER FLIGHT I N MAIN ROTOR AUTOROTATIVE R Gm E I

57.

V e r t i c a l Descent

So f a r w e have examined h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g .

In

/115

powered f l i g h t t h e t h r u s t f o r c e developed by t h e main r o t o r performs t h e f u n c t i o n s o f l i f t i n g and p r o p e l l i n g f o r c e s . But how i s f l i g h t continued i n

case of e n g i n e f a i l u r e ?
I n case of e n g i n e f a i l u r e t h e h e l i c o p t e r can c o n t i n u e f l i g h t only i n a descent ( v e r t i c a l l y downward o r along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y ) . parallel t o the flight trajectory. b l a d e s r a t h e r t h a n from t h e engine. In this sort of f l i g h t t h e p r o p e l l i n g f o r c e w i l l b e t h e weight f o r c e o r i t s component The main r o t o r w i l l t u r n , b u t t h e t u r n i n g
W e s h a l l f i r s t examine h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t

moment i s s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r by t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime along a v e r t i c a l t r a j e c t o r y ( F i g u r e 7 2 ) . During s t e a d y s t a t e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i v e

regime, t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s a c t e d on by t h e weight f o r c e G, main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e T , drag f o r c e X of t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , and t h e t a i l rotor thrust force T velocity V des t h i s same speed. The h e l i c o p t e r t r a v e l s v e r t i c a l l y downward w i t h t h e t.r' The u n d i s t u r b e d flow approaches t h e h e l i c o p t e r from below a t

As t h i s flow p a s s e s through t h e area swept by t h e main

The b l a d e s o f t h e r o t a t i n g However, s i n c e t h e

r o t o r , i t i s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e b l a d e s .

r o t o r t e n d t o d e f l e c t t h e approaching stream downward.

171

i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e induced v e l o c i t y V. which t h e des 1 main r o t o r b l a d e s create, t h e flow i s o n l y r e t a r d e d r a t h e r t h a n d e f l e c t e d

downward.

vertical f l o w v e l o c i t y V

As a r e s u l t of t h i s r e t a r d a t i o n , t h e flow v e l o c i t y V

above t h e

r o t o r i s less t h a n t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y and i s e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e

V1

Vdes

- Vi.

Consequently, t h e m a s s of a i r flowing p e r u n i t t i m e through

which t h e area swept by t h e r o t o r a c q u i r e s a n e g a t i v e momentum increment m V S i i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w of momentum c o n s e r v a t i o n w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e main rotor thrust per unit t i m e , i.e., T = m V

S iy

b u t mS = VdesFPy t h e n

T = FVdesPVi.

(39)

Thus, t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime w i l l b e l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t and t h e l a r g e r t h e flow r e t a r d a t i o n induced v e l o c i t y .

W e s h a l l c l a r i f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s t e a d y s t a t e d e s c e n t i n t h e autoro

t a t i v e regime on t h e b a s i s of t h e diagram of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p
ter.
These c o n d i t i o n s are expressed by t h e e q u a l i t i e s :
G = T + X ;

Tt,,

ss;

cg

= 0 .

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n e n s u r e s a c o n s t a n t r a t e of d e s c e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The f o r c e X i s t h e d r a g of a l l t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and

acts i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e ; consequently, i t retards t h e down

ward motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , and t h e r e f o r e , i n t h i s case, i t cannot b e termed t h e p a r a s i t e d r a g f o r c e . The l a r g e r t h e f o r c e X, t h e lower t h e v e r t i c a l

rate of d e s c e n t .

But t h e d r a g f o r c e of t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s i s comparatively Therefore,

small and h a s no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t .
i t can be n e g l e c t e d .

Then t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e

approximate e q u a l i t y
G

T.

172

For t h i s c o n d i t i o n t o b e s a t i s f i e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r descend a t a d e f i n i t e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y . Formula (39) shows t h a t t h e t h r u s t f o r c e e q u a l t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight can b e o b t a i n e d w i t h a lower v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i f t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e main r o t o r pitch. But t h e main r o t o r p i t c h i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime cannot b e i n c r e a s e d
Its magnitude must b e s t r i c t l y d e f i n e d .

arbitrarily.

It h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l aerodynamics t h a t the main r o t o r

t h r u s t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime i s approximately e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l aero dynamic f o r c e R of a f l a t p l a t e having an area e q u a l t o t h e area swept by t h e main r o t o r a t an a n g l e of a t t a c k o f 90" ( F i g u r e 73). T h e r e f o r e , t h e r o t o r t h r u s t must b e d e f i n e d u s i n g t h e formula f o r t h e t o t a l aerodynamic f o r c e

/1 17

I Vdes
F i g u r e 72. Vertical d e s c e n t i n a u t o r o t a t i v e regime. 'des

where

CR

i s t h e t o t a l aerodynamic
f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t of a f l a t p l a t e , equal t o 1.2;
i s t h e helicopter vertical

velocity.

Using ( 4 0 ) and ( 4 1 ) , w e f i n d t h e h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t

S i n c e G/F = P ( s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g p e r u n i t area swept by t h e r o t o r ) , t h e formula t a k e s t h e form

173

des. F i g u r e 73. T h r u s t i n a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

W e see from t h i s formula t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t

depends on t h e s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g on t h e area swept by t h e r o t o r (on t h e h e l i c o p t e r w e i g h t ) , and on t h e a i r d e n s i t y , and t h e r e f o r e on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . The v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g (helicopter weight). T h i s r e l a t i o n can be e x p r e s s e d by t h e formula

where

'des2 'desl

i s t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r h e l i c o p t e r weight G2; i s t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r h e l i c o p t e r weight G 1'

With i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e a i r d e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s , which

means t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t i n c r e a s e s and can b e expressed by t h e

equality

174

where

'des

i s t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y a t t h e a l t i t u d e H;
H

'desO
h

is t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y a t sea level; i s t h e relative air d e n s i t y .

1 2 4 k R = 1.2; and o , , ~ g / s e c /m

Formula ( 4 2 ) can b e s i m p l i f i e d i f w e c o n s i d e r G Substituting these values i n t o ( 4 2 ) , we obtain

W e f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t o f t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e
a u t o r o t a t i v e regime i f

1118

Then Vdes

3.6

43 -

m/sec.

T h i s answer shows t h a t a h i g h v e r t i c a l There are h e l i

rate of d e s c e n t i s o b t a i n e d even f o r a low s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g .

c o p t e r s f o r which t h e s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g on t h e main r o t o r r e a c h e s v a l u e s a s 2 For such h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y i s h i g h as 25 kgflm

18 m/sec o r 65 km/hr.
W e s h a l l use t h e formula t o f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r a t an a l t i t u d e H = 3000 m, where A = 0.742.

Thus, d u r i n g v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i v e regime t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a v e l s w i t h a h i g h v e l o c i t y , and l a n d i n g i s dangerous. t h e f l i g h t conditions with t h e engine operating. The c o n d i t i o n s f o r s t e a d y state f l i g h t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime d i f f e r fundamentally from The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e r e The b l a d e aero

i s no main r o t o r reactive moment i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

moment.

dynamic f o r c e s do n o t r e t a r d r o t o r r o t a t i o n ; r a t h e r t h e y create t h e t u r n i n g T h e r e f o r e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h the case of f l i g h t w i t h 175

t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g , w i l l t u r n about t h e v e r t i c a l axis i n the d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . To e l i m i n a t e t h i s t u r n i n g , t h e t a i l r o t o r must

create a t h r u s t d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e l y t o i t s t h r u s t d u r i n g f l i g h t w i t h t h e engine
operating. The main r o t o r s i d e t h r u s t f o r c e S
s

w i l l a l s o b e reversed i n

comparison w i t h t h e s i d e f o r c e d u r i n g f l i g h t w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g .
0 58.

Blade Aerodynamic Forces

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e s s e n c e of main r o t o r o p e r a t i o n i n t h e autor o t a t i v e regime, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s which a r i s e on t h e b l a d e element. velocities: I n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, each b l a d e element has two t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y u = u r and t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t

u ( F i g u r e 74a). The s m of t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s y i e l d s t h e r e s u l t a n t velocity V desv e l o c i t y ii = u + ides. a i r stream approaching t h e b l a d e from t h e s i d e h a s The

a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e b l a d e element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r .

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s flow p a t t e r n , t h e a i r p r e s s u r e on t h e bottom of t h e
b l a d e w i l l b e h i g h e r t h a n t h a t above t h e b l a d e .
A R i s c r e a t e d on t h e b l a d e element.

The t o t a l aerodynamic f o r c e /119

T h i s f o r c e may b e d i r e c t e d forward a t t h e

a n g l e y r e l a t i v e t o t h e main r o t o r hub r o t a t i o n axis ( F i g u r e 74b); p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub axis ( F i g u r e 74c) ; o r back a t t h e a n g l e y relative t o t h e hub axis (Figure 74d). I n t h e f i r s t case, t h e p r o j e c t i o n (

AQ) of t h e f o r c e A R on t h e

hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d along t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r and forms a t u r n i n g moment under t h e a c t i o n of which t h e main r o t o r rpm w i l l increase. I n t h e second case, t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e A R on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e w i l l b e z e r o (AQ = 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r c e A R w i l l have no r e t a r d i n g o r

a c c e l e r a t i n g e f f e c t on t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . I n t h e t h i r d case, t h e p r o j e c t i o n AQ of t h e f o r c e A R on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d a f t , o p p o s i t e t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n , and c r e a t e s a r e t a r d i n g moment under t h e i n f l u e n c e of which t h e main r o t o r rpm d e c r e a s e s . This

176

F i g u r e 74. T i l t of f o r c e AR as a f u n c t i o n of main rotor pitch.

means t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e main r o t o r r o t a t i o n i s determined by t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e s which develop on t h e b l a d e .

5 59.

Main Rotor A u t o r o - a t i o n Conditions and Regimes .. . -_ t

The main r o t o r b l a d e element may b e compared w i t h an a i r p l a n e wing element. L e t us examine t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on a n a i r p l a n e wing and t h e n t r a n s f e r these forces t o t h e blade. The f l i g h t f o r c e Y and t h e d r a g f o r c e X develop on t h e a i r p l a n e wing a t t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k a. f o r c e s w i l l b e t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e The geometric sum of t h e s e
R =

y + x.

The a n g l e between

t h e l i f t f o r c e Y and t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e R v e c t o r s i s c a l l e d t h e The l a r g e r t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e , aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e ( 9 ) K t h e lower t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y of t h e wing, s i n c e t h e minimal aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e corresponds t o m a x i m a l wing aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y c t g 9
= Y / X = K.

Reduction of t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e means a s o r t of

i t means r e d u c t i o n of t h e backward t i l t of AR r e l a t i v e t o t h e

" a t t r a c t i o n 1 ' of t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e v e c t o r AR t o t h e l i f t f o r c e vector Y, i.e., normal t o t h e u n d i s t u r b e d flow.

177

1120

F i g u r e 75.

Blade element a u t o r o t a t i - v e c o n d i t i o n s .

Now l e t us t u r n t o examination of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e b l a d e .

We

draw t h r e e s t r a i g h t l i n e s through t h e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e of t h e b l a d e element:

a-a is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n p l a n e ; b-b i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
b l a d e element chord; y-y is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ( F i g u r e 75a). The a n g l e between t h e l i n e s y-y and b-b and t h e a n g l e
c1

are

e q u a l , s i n c e t h e y are formed by mutually p e r p e n d i c u l a r s i d e s . a n g l e 9. 178

On t h i s same

b a s i s , t h e a n g l e between t h e l i n e s a-a and b-b i s e q u a l t o t h e i n c i d e n c e

The r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e v e c t o r i s a p p l i e d a t t h e b l a d e element c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e . f o r c e AX. angle 0

W e r e s o l v e t h i s f o r c e i n t o t h e l i f t f o r c e AY and t h e d r a g

The a n g l e between t h e v e c t o r s AY and AR i s t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y The a n g l e between t h e v e c t o r AR and t h e l i n e b-b w i l l be e q u a l t o

K '

t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e a n g l e s ( a blade incidence angle, then

- eK).
(a

I f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s less t h a n t h e t h e angle y i s p o s i t i v e . This

OK) = y , i . e . ,

means t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i o n AQ o f t h e f o r c e AR on t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i l l b e d i r e c t e d a f t and creates a r e t a r d i n g moment which reduces t h e r o t o r rpm. The main r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e i n t h e d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, which l e a d s t o s t o p p i n g of t h e r o t o r . d e c e l e r a t i n g moment. I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k and t h e aerodynamic e f f i ciency angle i s g r e a t e r than t h e incidence angle, i.e.,
(a

The l a r g e r t h e b l a d e element i n c i d e n c e a n g l e

o r p i t c h , t h e l a r g e r t h e a n g l e y, and t h e l a r g e r t h e f o r c e A Q and i t s

- eK)

>

4, then
I121

(a

0,)

-y .

The a n g l e y i s n e g z t i v c , which means t h a t t h e v e c t o r hR The p r o j e c t i o n

i s d i r e c t e d forward relative t o t h e hub axis ( F i g u r e 75b). a t u r n i n g moment which accelerates t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

AQ of t h e f o r c e AR on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e i s d i r e c t e d forward and creates

The main r o t o r w i l l

o p e r a t e i n t h e a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i v e regime. angle

The s m a l l e r t h e i n c i d e n c e

4 , t h e l a r g e r t h e forward

t i l t of t h e v e c t o r AR, and t h e h i g h e r t h e

speed a t which t h e r o t o r t u r n s . I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e (a ( F i g u r e 75c). be e s ta b l is h e d . From t h e s e examples w e conclude:

- e,),

then 4

(a -

e,)

= 0 , i. e . , t h e f o r c e AR i s

p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub a x i s and i t s p r o j e c t i o n on t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e AQ = 0 I n t h i s case, t h e r e t a r d i n g o r t u r n i n g moment e q u a l s z e r o , and t h e r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i v e regime w i l l t h e r o t o r r e v o l v e s a t c o n s t a n t rpm, i . e . ,

179

- t h e t i l t of t h e e l e m e n t a l r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e v e c t o r depends
on t h e b l a d e element p i t c h ;

-with

r e d u c t i o n of t h e p i t c h , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s d e f l e c t e d forward,

and t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n becomes a c c e l e r a t e d ;

- w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e element p i t c h , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s
d e f l e c t e d a f t , and t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n becomes d e c e l e r a t e d .

The dependence of t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime on t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k and p i t c h can b e expressed g r a p h i c a l l y ( F i g u r e 76). c a l l e d t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin graph. T h i s graph i s

The a b s c i s s a i s t h e b l a d e element

a n g l e of a t t a c k , t h e o r d i n a t e s are t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s t o the difference

01

4 and t h e a n g l e s e q u a l

eK'
L e t us examine t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

(2-

9,;rj?
!fJor--.7

-.

fl,--P -7
..-- __ i \ j - c'; 1 ' 7
IC,
\#

--- 1
_-_.,
.

points i n t h i s figure.

The ascending

,9"'_.___
cob----

J . . _

,:

p o r t i o n o f t h i s c u r v e corresponds t o b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k below

-.?! / ,-Y E

i .--_/ ;<f __ c,C"

1 2

'c _ - -.-+.
,-

-!
1

stall.

The p o i n t B i s t h e s t a l l a n g l e ,

and t h e descending p o r t i o n corresponds

01 '

do

L.-.

16"

'

.?+OF

t o a n g l e s above s t a l l . I f w e draw a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e 1 t o t h e a b s c i s s a axis, i t c r o s s e s t h e curve a t t h e two p o i n t s A and C. I n the figure, t h i s straight l i n e

F i g u r e 76. M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r b l a d e a u tor0 t a t i o n margin.

p a s s e s through t h e p o i n t on t h e o r d i n a t e corresponding t o t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e

4" (such a s t r a i g h t l i n e can b e draKn through any p o i n t of t h e o r d i n a t e ) .

The p o i n t A corresponds t o t h e b l a d e
01

What do t h e p o i n t s A and C c h a r a c t e r i z e ?
element a n g l e of a t t a c k ( i n o u r example

= 7"30') which corresponds t o s t e a d y

state autorotation.

L e t us show t h a t t h i s a c t u a l l y i s t h e case.

I t was e s t a b l i s h e d above t h a t s t e a d y s t a t e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l occur when

the difference

01

OK =

4.

I n t h i s case, t h e f o r c e AR of t h e element w i l l b e

p a r a l l e l t o t h e main r o t o r hub a x i s . 180

I n o u r example 4 = 4" and

(y.

IK =

4".

I-"'-

T h i s means t h a t y = 0 (see F i g u r e 75c). of a t t a c k must e q u a l 7" 30'. F i g u r e 75a).

Therefore, i n order f o r t h e M i - 1

/122

h e l i c o p t e r b l a d e t o have s t e a d y s t a t e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i t h (p = 4" t h e b l a d e a n g l e P o i n t s of t h e c u r v e f o r which t o smaller a n g l e s of a t t a c k , i . e .

, the

K a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e d e c e l e r a t e d (see

a-8 < 4 correspond

At a n g l e s of a t t a c k between the p o i n t s A and C a l l the p o i n t s

of t h e curve correspond t o t h e i n e q u a l i t y r o t a t i o n ( s e e F i g u r e 75b).

WeK>@ , i . e . ,

a c c e l e r a t e d auto-

But a t a n g l e s of a t t a c k up t o t h e s t a l l a n g l e , t h e

a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l be s t a b l e , w h i l e a t a n g l e s above s t a l l flow s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n i s u n s t a b l e . The range of a n g l e s of a t t a c k between t h e p o i n t s A and C i s c a l l e d t h e b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n margin. S i n c e f l i g h t w i t h b l a d e element a n g l e s of in a t t a c k above t h e s t a l l a n g l e i s n o t f e a s i b l e i n p r a c t i c e , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin w i l l correspond t o t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k between t h e p o i n t s A and B the figure. With i n c r e a s e o f t h e b l a d e element p i t c h , t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e AC s h i f t s upward ( A ' C ' ) . T h i s means t h a t t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k range corresponding t o d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n i n c r e a s e s , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin d e c r e a s e s . With r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p i t c h , t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e AC s h i f t s downward, and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin i n c r e a s e s . S i n c e the a n g l e s of attack are d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t b l a d e e l e m e n t s , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e s e elements w i l l a l s o b e d i f f e r e n t , and t h e r e f o r e t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin graph h a s a somewhat a r b i t r a r y n a t u r e , i . e . ,
i t s e r v e s f o r a q u a l i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of t h i s p r o c e s s .

L e t us r e t u r n t o t h e p o i n t A on t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin graph.

I n our

example, i t corresponds t o $ = 4" and a= 7"30'. r o t a t i o n w i l l be s t e a d y - s t a t e .

c1

A t t h e s e a n g l e s , t h e auto-

But how can w e o b t a i n an a n g l e of a t t a c k

= 7'30'

w i t h an i n c i d e n c e a n g l e

4 = 4"?
T h i s means t h a t f o r

Since

a=@+Ao( s e e F i g u r e 75b), t h e n Aa=a-4.

o u r example t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment caused by t h e v e r t i c a l rate of

181

descent i s h=730'-40=3030'.

Let

US

f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t
I t i s known t h a t

a corresponding t o t h i s A i f

r=0.7; 4=4"; w 2 6 r a d / s e c . tg A = a 'des wr

hence
= wr

Vdes

tgAa

or

'des Thus, f o r Vdes

= wrR

A = 26*0.7.7.17-0.061 = 7.9 m/sec. a

= 7.9 m / s e c s t e a d y - s t a t e

a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l take place.

< 7.9 m/sec, t h e n f o r t h e g i v e n b l a d e des element the a n g l e of a t t a c k becomes l e s s t h a n 7 " 3 0 ' , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n

I f t h e vertical velocity V

w i l l b e d e c e l e r a t e d ; c o n v e r s e l y , i f Vdes
accelerated. r o t a t i o n of the element" are a r b i t r a r y .

> 7.9 m / s e c ,

t h e autorotation w i l l be /123

W e must emphasize once a g a i n t h a t t h e words " a c c e l e r a t e d autoThey mean t h a t under t h e g i v e n

c o n d i t i o n s t h e e l e m e n t a l r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s i n c l i n e d forward r e l a t i v e t o t h e hub axis and creates a t u r n i n g moment. The l a r g e r

t h e h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t , t h e l a r g e r t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment Aa, t h e l a r g e r t h e forward t i l t of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR, and t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm w i l l be.

60.

Conditions f o r A u t o r o t a t i o n of D i f f e r e n t Blade Elemen-t;

W e have examined above t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n

o f b l a d e element p i t c h and a n g l e of a t t a c k . To f a c i l i t a t e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of t h e problem,we assumed t h a t all t h e b l a d e elements o p e r a t e under t h e same

conditions, i.e.,

a l l t h e elements have t h e same i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s , v e l o c i t i e s ,

But i n r e a l i t y ,

t h e same f o r c e s AR, and t h e same i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e s e f o r c e s .

182

each b l a d e element o p e r a t e s under d i f f e r e n t a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .

L e t us

examine t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s .
The a n g l e of a t t a c k increment Aa depends n o t only on t h e vertical r a t e of d e s c e n t , b u t a l s o on t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e b l a d e element. The c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y i s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r f o r t h e t i p elements t h a n f o r t h e r o o t elements; t h e r e f o r e , t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment of t h e t i p

< Aa ( F i g u r e 77a). 1 2 But t h e n t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e v e c t o r s AR f o r t h e t i p elements are i n c l i n e d a f t

element i s less t h a n t h a t of t h e r o o t element, i . e . ,

A a

because of t h e low v a l u e of Aa and create r e t a r d i n g moments.

The b l a d e t i p The r e t a r d i n g

elements u s u a l l y o p e r a t e i n t h e d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n regime. n o t eliminated e n t i r e l y .

a c t i o n of t h e t i p e l e m e n t s i s reduced by geometric t w i s t of t h e b l a d e b u t i s

The v a l u e of Aa w i l l b e l a r g e f o r t h e r o o t elements; t h e r e f o r e , t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e v e c t o r s AR w i l l b e t i l t e d forward, and t h e i r p r o j e c t i o n s AQ p r o v i d e a t u r n i n g moment. Consequently, t h e b l a d e r o o t elements o p e r a t e under S i n c e t h e b l a d e t i p elements r e t a r d t h e accelerated a u t o r o t a t i o n conditions. o p e r a t i n g regime of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r ? With r e d u c t i o n of t h e r o t o r p i t c h and w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t , t h e r e t a r d i n g a c t i o n o f t h e t i p elements i s less t h a n t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g a c t i o n of t h e r o o t elements. moment ( F i g u r e 77b). accelerated. With i n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h o r r e d u c t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t , I f i n t h i s case The r e s u l t a n t of t h e elementary f o r c e s i s d i r e c t e d forward, i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n and forms a t u r n i n g I n t h i s case, t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime w i l l b e

r o t a t i o n w h i l e t h e r o o t elements a c c e l e r a t e t h e r o t a t i o n , what w i l l b e t h e

t h e r e t a r d i n g a c t i o n o f t h e b l a d e t i p elements i n c r e a s e s .

t h e r e s u l t a n t Q of t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e s i s z e r o , t h e r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime b w i l l b e s t e a d y - s t a t e ( F i g u r e 77c). I f t h e r e t a r d i n g a c t i o n o f t h e t i p elements 1124 exceeds t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g a c t i o n of t h e r o o t elements, t h e r e s u l t a n t Qb of t h e

183

F i g u r e 77. A u t o r o t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements

elementary f o r c e s i s d i r e c t e d a f t ( F i g u r e 77d) and c r e a t e s a r e t a r d i n g moment. The r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e i n t h e d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

L e t u s confirm t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s by an example.

Let

= 0.98;

F2

= 0.42;

r3

0.28.

The r o t o r b l a d e t w i s t

&=4"

i s provided between t h e r e l a t i v e r a d i i

r = 0.3

0.5.

The main r o t o r p i t c h i s d e f i n e d by t h e p i t c h of t h e b l a d e

184

element w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e r a d i u s

r=

0.7. Then

The main r o t o r p i t c h f o r o u r example i s 9 = 4 " .

'5: = (-"; '?a

I G " ; ?3

= 89.

The main r o t o r r a d i u s of t h e M i - l h e l i c o p t e r i s R = 7.17 m.

Then

L e t us f i n d t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s of t h e s e l e c t e d b l a d e elements

if
w = 26 r a d / s e c ;
= 8 mlsec.

'des

W e f i n d t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i n c r e m e n t s

1125

W e c a l c u l a t e t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e elements

Ih2

= 6" - j -

6" = 1' and 2

r:;=:- 8' -I-8'4ij' = 6"'+5'.

Using t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n margin graph ( s e e F i g u r e 7 6 ) , w e f i n d t h e autor o t a t i v e regimes o f t h e g i v e n b l a d e elements. To t h i s end w e t a k e t h r e e s t r a i g h t l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a b s c i s s a axis, drawn through t h e o r d i n a t e p o i n t s corresponding t o t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s rn,=4;

~ ~ = sy " = = < > The ~; .

CI

185

p o i n t D i n t h e f i g u r e corresponds t o t h e b l a d e t i p element w i t h t h e a n g l e of attack

(e

- 01;=3"15') .

T h i s p o i n t l i e s i n t h e d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n regime For t h i s b l a d e element t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e AR

<,
. '

i s t i l t e d a f t through t h e angle*;=:(; - { ! I - 2:) :

c-

=-.:'-<,s

!5'=0'.!5'

The p o i n t E , f o r which ~ i , - - ~ < ~ . x = . ' ~ ~ ~ ' , corresponds t o t h e second b l a d e element w i t h t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k z2=

ls3.

The p i t c h of t h i s element i s

.
r'-r72

T h i s means t h a t t h i s element i s i n t h e a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, and

i t s aerodynamic f o r c e AR i s t i l t e d forward by t h e angle----;=F c . :

- !tt

--

~ ~ ' = = - - ~ ' ' l T h e p o i n t B y f o r which ~'

b l a d e element ( a n g l e of a t t a c k '':T;.
c1)3=0.
no
I

r:
07%

?:--~~''~'.r'~"

.v,, -

, corresponds

"--'
. . j 7-7

t o the third

).

The p i t c h of t h i s element i s

T h i s element a l s o i s i n t h e a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, b u t i t s

a n g l e of a t t a c k i s c l o s e t o t h e s t a l l a n g l e , and t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s t i l t e d forward through t h e angle--*=So

-!??o'=

The b l a d e elements l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e hub axis w i l l have a n g l e s of a t t a c k above t h e s t a l l a n g l e , i . e . , conditions. they w i l l o p e r a t e under s e p a r a t e d flow

I n o u r example, most o f t h e b l a d e elements o p e r a t e under a c c e l e r a

t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , which means t h a t t h e main r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e i n t h e a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

I n o u r example w = 26 r a d l s e c o r n = 250 rpm.

For t h i s r o t o r t h i s rpm The main

w i l l be m a x i m a l , and f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e rpm i s n o t p e r m i s s i b l e .
r o t o r p i t c h must b e i n c r e a s e d t o o b t a i n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e

a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

It i s l e f t t o t h e r e a d e r t o c a l c u l a t e f o r h i m s e l f t h e approximate v a l u e of t h e

p i t c h corresponding t o t h i s regime. what w e have s a i d .

The f o l l o w i n g comment must b e added t o

1126

During f l i g h t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, t h e h e l i c o p t e r

w i l l t u r n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r as a r e s u l t of t r a n s
mission. s h a f t f r i c t i o n t o r q u e . I n order t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s turning, a t h r u s t moment of t h e t a i l r o t o r , which t u r n s under t h e i n f l u e n c e of main r o t o r t o r q u e , must b e c r e a t e d . Consequently, f o r s t e a d y - s t a t e a u t o r o t a t i o n t h e b l a d e s must

create a s m a l l t o r q u e , which overcomes t h e f r i c t i o n t o r q u e i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

and t h e reactive t o r q u e of t h e t a i l r o t o r .
W e recall t h a t t h e t a i l r o t o r

creates t h r u s t o p p o s i t e i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e f o r c e which i s g e n e r a t e d i n f l i g h t

with t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g ( i . e . ,

the t a i l r o t o r o p e r a t e s a t s m a l l n e g a t i v e

i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s ; t h e r e f o r e , comparatively l i t t l e d r i v i n g t o r q u e i s r e q u i r e d ) .

5 61.

Gliding

R e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y w i t h t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime is termed g l i d i n g ( F i g u r e 78). I n t h i s f l i g h t regime t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s s u b j e c t t o the f o r c e s : h e l i c o p t e r weight G, main r o t o r t h r u s t T, p a r a s i t e drag X and t a i l r o t o r par' thrust Ttar.

W e r e s o l v e t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e i n t o two components:

along t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , and G

G2 d i r e c t e d

perpendicular t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y .
W e r e s o l v e t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t

,A

y'

;...

f o r c e i n t o t h e l i f t f o r c e Y and t h e

t i o n s w i l l b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e equalities: F i g u r e 78. Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r i n glide.

Y
G2

= G

= G

cos 0 ; s i n 0;

= Xpar

+ Px

= G

T t . r - 's;
C%.g
=

O*

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n e n s u r e s c o n s t a n t g l i d i n g a n g l e and r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t ; t h e second a s s u r e s c o n s t a n t speed along t h e t r a j e c t o r y . t h r u s t i n t h e d e s c e n t regime w i t h t h e engine o p e r a t i n g .

The t a i l

r o t o r t h r u s t i s d i r e c t e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n i n comparison w i t h t h e The v e l o c i t y a l o n g
the t r a j e c t o r y and t h e g l i d i n g a n g l e can b e a l t e r e d by t i l t i n g t h e t h r u s t

f o r c e v e c t o r f o p a r d o r a f t , and a l s o by v a r y i n g t h e main r o t o r p i t c h .

But w e /127

r e c a l l t h a t f l i g h t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, and t h e r e f o r e t h e
p i t c h can b e a l t e r e d only w i t h i n t h e p e r m i s s i b l e rpm l i m i t s . The p i t c h cannot b e i n c r e a s e d markedly, s i n c e t h e r o t o r may t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e d e c e l e r a t e d auto-

r o t a t i o n regime, and t h e rpm may become less t h a n t h e minimal p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e . The main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s i n a g l i d e are much more complex than i n a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t . T h i s i s b a s i c a l l y t h e r e s u l t of two f a c t o r s :

a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e flow v e l o c i t y o v e r each b l a d e element and t h e p r e s e n c e of b l a d e f a l p p i n g motions caused by t r a n s v e r s e f l o w over t h e main rotor. I n a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t each b l a d e element has a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y
W =du2

+ V2des.

I n a g l i d e t h i s v e l o c i t y depends on t h e b l a d e azimuth and I n a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t w e can assume t h e absence of

changes c o n t i n u o u s l y .

f l a p p i n g motions, which s i m p l i f i e s t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e b l a d e element autor o t a t i v e conditions. The f l a p p i n g motions must b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a g l i d e . But

t h e d e r i v a t i o n s o f t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s which w e r e c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t remain v a l i d f o r t h e g l i d i n g c o n d i t i o n s as w e l l .
L e t us

recall t h e s e conclusions.
The a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s depend on t h e b l a d e element p i t c h and t h e p i t c h of t h e e n t i r e main r o t o r : t h e lower t h e p i t c h , t h e g r e a t e r t h e forward
t i l t of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r & and t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm.

The l a r g e r t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment caused by t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y , t h e l a r g e r t h e forward t i l t of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR and t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm. The l a t t e r c o n c l u s i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n c l a r i f y i n g t h e autoro t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s i n a g l i d e , t h e r e f o r e , w e s h a l l examine t h e diagram i n F i g u r e
W e see from t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e a n g l e Aa i s e q u a l t o t h e a n g l e between t h e

79.

l i n e s y-y and a-a (y-y i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r , a-a

i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , o r p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n
axis). Consequently, i f

aa>e,,

t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR w i l l be t i l t e d forward

relative t o t h e hub axis by t h e a n g l e -y, and t h e r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l be

accelerated. 188 The l a r g e r kx, t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm.

Keeping t h i s a n a l y s i s i n mind,

w e t u r n t o examination of t h e autorotation characteristics i n a glide.

W e f i r s t examine t h e i n f l u e n c e on t h e

a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s of t h e azimu t h a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t b l a d e element v e l o c i t y . Since t h e r e s u l t a n t 1128 v e l o c i t y varies c o n t i n u o u s l y i n azimuth ,

w e cannot a n a l y z e t h i s v a r i a t i o n
directly. T h e r e f o r e , w e t a k e t h e two most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c azimuths, 90 and

l/

270, and w e compare t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n

c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s e azimuths ( F i g u r e 80). The f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n along t h e The main r o t o r hub

F i g u r e 79. Dependence of a u t o r o t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s on v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t .

t r a j e c t o r y i s shown i n t h e f i g u r e by t h e arrow DF. rotation plane is horizontal, the a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r l i e s and e q u a l s t h e g l i d i n g

between t h i s p l a n e and t h e g l i d i n g v e l o c i t y v e c t o r a n g l e A = 8. t h e b l a d e element w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y found from t h e formula

A t t h e 90" azimuth i n t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e , t h e flow approaches

: i r n s . (>

( F i g u r e 80a).

The b l a d e ele

ment a n g l e of a t t a c k increment caused by t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y can b e

A t t h e 270" azimuth t h e b l a d e travels a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l i g h t ,

t h e r e f o r e , t h e flow approaches t h e b l a d e element i n t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e with t h e v e l o c i t y w r a t t a c k increment i s

V

gl

cos 8 ( F i g u r e 80b).

I n t h i s case, t h e a n g l e of

sin 8

t g Aci =

wr

~~

cos 8

(44)

189

F i g u r e 80. Dependence of a u t o r o t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s on azimuth and f l a p p i n g motions:

a, c

JI

= 90';

b, d

JI = 270'

Comparing diagrams a and b , and a l s o Formulas ( 4 3 ) and ( 4 4 ) , w e conclude t h a t t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment a t t h e 270' azimuth i s l a r g e r than a t t h e Consequently, as a r e s u l t of t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t

9' 0

azimuth.

v e l o c i t y i n t h e g l i d i n g regime, t h e r e i s a change of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment and t i l t of t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e : t h e t i l t i s a f t ; a t t h e 270'

a t t h e 90' azimuth

azimuth t h e tilt i s forward. /129

Now l e t u s examine t h e i n f l u e n c e of f l a p p i n g motions on t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n conditions

A s the advancing b l a d e f l a p s u p , t h e a n g l e s a and Aa d e c r e a s e .

v a l u e (Figure ~ O C ) , h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment becomes minimal t 190

A t the

90" azimuth, where t h e upward v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y r e a c h e s i t s maximal

sin 8-

t g Acc =

wr

+ Vg l

fl cos 8

T h e r e f o r e , t h e m a x i m a l a f t t i l t of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR and t h e m a x i m a l b l a d e r e t a r d i n g moment o c c u r a t t h i s azimuth. with t h e formula

V

The m a x i m a l down v e r t i c a l T h e r e f o r e , i n accordance

f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y w i l l o c c u r a t t h e 270" azimuth.

sin 8

Jfl

t g Aa =

or

gl

cos 8

t h e b l a d e element h a s t h e l a r g e s t a n g l e of a t t a c k increment ( F i g u r e 80d). The m a x i m a l forward t i l t of t h e e l e m e n t a l f o r c e and t h e m a x i m a l t u r n i n g moment w i l l o c c u r a t t h i s azimuth. Thus, w e draw t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n .
a s i n g l e r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

During g l i d i n g , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n

c o n d i t i o n s of each b l a d e element and t h e e n t i r e b l a d e as a whole v a r y d u r i n g The advancing b l a d e c r e a t e s a r e t a r d i n g The m a x i m a l r e t a r d i n g moment i s The r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e c r e a t e s a t u r n i n g moment T h i s means t h a t d u r i n g a g l i d e , t h e b l a d e s The r o t o r r p m i s moment, which reduces t h e r o t o r rpm. created a t the

JI

90" azimuth.

whose m a x i m a l v a l u e o c c u r s a t t h e 270" azimuth, where t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment Aa becomes maximal. a l t e r n a t e l y a c c e l e r a t e and r e t a r d t h e r o t a t i o n , and on t h e whole, t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t e s under s t e a d y - s t a t e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . r e g u l a t e d by t h e p i t c h : t h e lower t h e p i t c h , t h e h i g h e r t h e r o t o r rpm. V e r t i c a l R a t e of Descent i n a G l i d e

62.

The v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t i s t h e a l t i t u d e through which t h e h e l i c o p t e r descends p e r second ( F i g u r e 81). T h i s r a t e i s found from t h e formula

= V

'des

gl

s i n 8.

191

The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y w i l l b e c o n s t a n t

i / ,

'i

I . .
I

:.:

, --

& . 'des A
lf

f o r c o n s t a n t g l i d e a n g l e and c o n s t a n t
v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y . This

>?

i .

gl

','

m e a n s t h a t t h e propulsive f o r c e i n a

g l i d e i s t h e w e i g h t f o r c e component G = G s i n 0 . The work of t h i s f o r c e

2 p e r u n i t t i m e w i l l b e power, equiva
l e n t t o t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r
horizontal f l i g h t a t a velocity equal
t o the gliding velocity.
G V =Nh=GsinOV 2 gl gl

1130

F i g u r e 81. Rate of d e s c e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f g l i d i n g speed and angle.

Consequently,

or
N = h

GVdes , 75

(45)

T h i s means t h a t t h e work p e r u n i t t i m e o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e w i l l b e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e power s u p p l i e d t o t h e main r o t o r s h a f t i n h o r i z o n t a l

f l i g h t a t t h e same v e l o c i t y w i t h which t h e h e l i c o p t e r g l i d e s i n t h e a u t o r o t a

t i v e regime.

From (45) w e can f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t d u r i n g g l i d i n g

'des

75Nh
G

(46)

where

Nh
G

i s t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , hp; i s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight, kgf.

W e see from (46) t h a t t h e minimal v e r t i c a l rate o f d e s c e n t w i l l b e achieved

when g l i d i n g a t t h e economical speed, s i n c e V power N min '

ec

corresponds t o t h e r e q u i r e d

i.e.
V

desmin

75Nmin G

192

For rough c a l c u l a t i o n s w e can u s e t h e approximate formula Nmin

= 1/2Nrat

, but

then w e must i n t r o d u c e t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t 5, s i n c e N h - Ne5 Taking t h e v a l u e of t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t t o b e 5 = 0 . 8 , w e f i n d

V

- 7 5 . 0 . 8 - 0 . 5Nrat
desmin
G

30Nrat ,
G

(47)

W e n o t e t h a t t h e r a t i o G/N = q i s c a l l e d t h e power l o a d i n g , and t h e

e q u a l i t y t a k e s t h e form
=:-

30
'rat

'desmin

'rat

v=
rat
=

EM
P

i s t h e h e l i c o p t e r energy e f f i c i e n c y ; is the d i s k loading.

Then q

EM

W s u b s t i t u t e t h i s value i n t o ( 4 8 ) e
V

desmin

3 0 6 .

EM

The a v e r a g e v a l u e of t h e energy e f f i c i e n c y isi':.j,?29 be

Then t h e formula

1131

f o r determining t h e minimal h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g v e r t i c a l r a t e of descent w i l l '

'desmin

= 20 %

E=. 5 E, 1

W e r e c a l l t h a t t h i s formula i s approximate, b u t i t y i e l d s a d e q u a t e l y

p r n t j s e r e s u l t s , although somewhat low. Comparison of t h e v e r t i c a l rates of d e s c e n t i n g l i d e and v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t makes i t p o s s i b l e t o say t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e g l i d e w i l l b e

193

2-2.5

t i m e s less t h a n i n t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t .

T h e r e f o r e , g l i d i n g is used i n

a l l cases i f s u r r o u n d i n g o b s t a c l e s do n o t i n t e r f e r e .
However, g l i d i n g can b e performed w i t h o t h e r v e l o c i t i e s along t h e t r a j e c t o r y r a t h e r t h a n t h e economical v e l o c i t y .
A s p e c i a l graph - t h e h e l i c o p t e r

g l i d e t r a j e c t o r y p o l a r curve - i s c o n s t r u c t e d f o r determining t h e g l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s and a n g l e s .

W e use t h e power r e q u i r e d and a v a i l a b l e curves f o r

h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t o c o n s t r u c t t h i s graph. straight line N

I f w e draw on t h e s e curves a

p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , i t c r o s s e s t h e power r e q u i r e d 1 curve a t t h e p o i n t s A and B ( F i g u r e 82a). The p o i n t A corresponds t o t h e t h e p o i n t B corresponds t o t h e v e l o c i t y V

2'

h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t v e l o c i t y Vl,and

W t a k e t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s as t h e h o r i z o n t a l components V of t h e g l i d i n g e X v e l o c i t y ( F i g u r e 82b): V1 - Vx ; V = V S i n c e t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s correspond 2 . x 1 2 t o one and t h e same power r e q u i r e d N f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , w e use ( 4 6 ) t o 1 f i n d t h e v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y . I t w i l l be t h e same f o r g l i d i n g w i t h t h e

velocities V velocity
X1

and V x2

After determining Vdes

and Vx,

we find the gliding

Then w e f i n d t h e g l i d i n g a n g l e
8 = arctg

'des, ' - o r e = a r c s i n -*des

vx
Conclusion:

gl 1132

t h e same v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t corresponds t o two g l i d i n g

regimes w i t h l a r g e and s m a l l g l i d i n g a n g l e , w i t h h i g h and low v e l o c i t y a l o n g

the trajectory.

W e u s u a l l y select g l i d i n g w i t h t h e lower a n g l e b u t t h e h i g h e r

A f t e r making t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r several
From

v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y . t h i s p l o t w e can f i n d :

v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s , w e p l o t t h e h e l i c o p t e r g l i d e p o l a r ( F i g u r e 83).

- the
194

minimal v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t ;

*-

'I

- &2

F i g u r e 82.

Vertical r a t e of d e s c e n t v e r s u s g l i d i n g angle.

- the

minimal g l i d i n g a n g l e

which corresponds t o t h e v e l o c i t y Vx, numerically equal t o the optimal h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed;

- the vertical velocity i n a

/ i

v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t ( p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e p o l a r c u r v e w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l axis).

F i g u r e 83. G l i d i n g t r a j e c t o r y c h a r a c teris t i c curve.

I f w e draw through t h e p o l a r a s e c a n t p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis, t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n 1 and 2 w i l l correspond t o two g l - i d i n g regimes, f o r which t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t w i l l be t h e s a m e and t h e v e l o c i t i e s along t h e t r a j e c t o r y w i l l be d i f f e r e n t . The p o i n t M on t h e p o l a r corresponds t o t h e minimal v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y .

63.

S a f e t y Height
a t which f l i g h t i s s a f e s t i s

The minimal v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t w h i l e h o v e r i n g , t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed V = 0.

achieved when g l i d i n g a t t h e economical speed.

However, i f t h e e n g i n e f a i l s

I n order t o t r a n s i t i o n i n t o a

g l i d e a t a speed c l o s e t o t h e economical speed, some a l t i t u d e must b e l o s t i n

195

o r d e r f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o a c q u i r e a d e f i n i t e k i n e t i c energy E =

A= 2

mVL

GVL
2a

Only p a r t r a t h e r t h a n a l l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s p o t e n t i a l energy i s used i n The remaining energy goes t o overcome p a r a s i t e d r a g and main r o t o r p r o f i l e d r a g , t o t u r n t h e t a i l r o t o r and t h e a c c e s s o r i e s . of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s E,, = GH,

a c q u i r i n g t h e v e l o c i t y (approximately two t e n t h s o f t h e t o t a l p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y ) .

The t o t a l p o t e n t i a l energy

where

G H

i s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight; is the helicopter f l i g h t altitude.

W e f i n d t h e k i n e t i c energy w i t h l o s s of a l t i t u d e from t h e formula

0.2GH =

GV2

gl

,
1133

Hence, w e f i n d t h e safe h e l i c o p t e r hover h e i g h t

H =

But e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t an a d d i t i o n a l h e i g h t margin of about t e n meters

i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e Landing maneuver; t h e r e f o r e , t h e formula f o r d e t e r m i n i n g

t h e s a f e hover h e i g h t t a k e s t h e form
V2

Hsaf Example.

= g l 10. +
= 90 kmlhr

The economical f l i g h t speed f o r t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r i s V

ec

o r 2 4 . 8 m/sec.

W f i n d t h e s a f e hovering h e i g h t . e

- 24.82
Hs af

10 = 165 m.

I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r has t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n

p r i o r t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, t h e s a f e h e i g h t i s found from t h e formula 196

Hsaf

v2
4

2 Vh

+ 10.

For example, t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r i s f l y i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y a t a speed of 70 ?sm/hr o r 20 m/sec. I n t h i s case, t h e s a f e h e i g h t i s d e f i n e d as

T h e r e f o r e , i n case of e n g i n e f a i l u r e i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t o r i n climb a l o n g a n i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y , less a l t i t u d e i s r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e autor o t a t i v e regime t h a n f o r t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h i s regime from hover o r when per forming v e r t i c a l climb o r v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g .

After

determining t h e s a f e h e i g h t s f o r t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime f o r d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t s p e e d s , w e can p l o t t h e s a f e f l i g h t h e i g h t diagram ( F i g u r e 8 4 ) . This diagram shows t h e danger zone, and w e see t h a t t h e s a f e hover h e i g h t i s up t o t e n meters o r above

200 m e t e r s .

The s a f e hover and f l i g h t

h e i g h t l i m i t a t i o n a t low speeds makes zone

L
I

t h e u s e of h e l i c o p t e r s a t low a l t i t u d e s
.. - .'..----rCJ--La . 120 Y,km/hr

,,

._ ---*

d i f f i c u l t i n practice.

It i s n o t

i i j 1.0 Glt EO 170

advisable t o f l y . t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e danger zone e x c e p t i n extreme emergencies.

F i g u r e 84. zone.

H e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t danger

5 64.

T r a n s i t i o n _. F l i g h. With Engine O p e r a t i n g t o F l i g h t From - _____ t

. . - i n t h e Main Rotor. A u t o r o t a t i o n Regime

/ 134

G l i d i n g i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime is n o t an emergency f l i g h t mode; r a t h e r i t i s a normal, s t a b l e f l i g h t mode which is o f t e n used even w i t h a normally f u n c t i o n i n g , sound engine. G l i d i n g i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime i s

19 7

used f o r working o u t b a s i c p i l o t i n g t e c h n i q u e s o r f o r r a p i d l o s s of a l t i t u d e . However, i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e s a f e t y , a d e f i n i t e o r d e r and sequence of a c t i o n s must b e followed i n t r a n s i t i o n i n g from f l i g h t w i t h t h e engine o p e r a t i n g i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime. What happens w i t h t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e case of sudden engine s t o p p a g e o r i n case of r a p i d d e c r e a s e of t h e e n g i n e rpm? The main r o t o r c o n t i n u e s t o r o t a t e momentarily, and t h e rpm does n o t change, s i n c e t h e f r e e w h e e l i n g c l u t c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y disengages t h e e n g i n e from t h e transmission. a n g u l a r momentum. The r o t o r c o n t i n u e s t o t u r n by i n e r t i a , s i n c e i t h a s d e f i n i t e The g r e a t e r t h e m a s s o r w e i g h t o f t h e b l a d e s , t h e l a r g e r

t h e moment of i n e r t i a , t h e l o n g e r t i m e t h e r o t a t i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e by i n e r t i a . T h e r e f o r e , heavy b l a d e s have an advantage i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

Under t h e a c t i o n o f t h e reactive moment, t h e main r o t o r rpm d e c r e a s e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e t h r u s t d e c r e a s e s . I f t h e e n g i n e f a i l s i n t h e hovering

regime, then as a r e s u l t of main r o t o r t h r u s t r e d u c t i o n , t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l t r a n s i t i o n t o vertical descent. However, if t h e e n g i n e f a i l s i n h o r i z o n t a l

f l i g h t , r e d u c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t and l i f t w i l l c a u s e t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o descend along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y . main r o t o r from below. The p r e s e n c e of t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y causes i n c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k by t h e magnitude Aa and d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR forward, i . e . , a d r i v i n g t o r q u e appears; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e rpm o r a t l e a s t no f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n of t h e rpm. Moreover, along w i t h I n both c a s e s , t h e a i r flow w i l l approach t h e

r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r rpm, t h e r e i s r e d u c t i o n of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of each b l a d e , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r coning a n g l e , i . e . , simultaneous upward f l a p p i n g of t h e b l a d e s . When t h e f l a p p i n g a n g l e i n c r e a s e s ,

t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n of b l a d e p i t c h under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator, i . e . , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e o f t h e main r o t o r rpm.

Thus, w e conclude t h a t i n t h e case o f e n g i n e f a i l u r e , t h e r e are o b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s which f a c i l i t a t e t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime. But t h e p i l o t m u s t n o t r e l y on t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s and expect t h e r o t o r

198

i t s e l f t o t r a n s i t i o n i n t o autorotation.

T h e r e f o r e , i n case of engine f a i l u r e ,
To

/135

t h e p i l o t must immediately reduce main r o t o r p i t c h t o t h e minimal v a l u e . t h i s end, t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever i s lowered f u l l y .

The main r o t o r rpm

i n c r e a s e s , and t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e elements i n c r e a s e s . This l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n o f t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k and a f t d e f l e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e AR. steady. T h e r e f o r e , t h e main r o t o r r p m w i l l i n c r e a s e up t o some l i m i t , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n becomes and t h e n t h e c o n s t a n t rpm regime i s e s t a b l i s h e d , i . e . ,

However, i f t h e rpm i s t o o h i g h , t h e p i t c h must b e i n c r e a s e d somewhat. I n t h i s case, t h e r o t o r w i l l develop t h e m a x i m a l

During f l i g h t w i t h t h e e n g i n e n o t o p e r a t i n g , t h e rpm s h o u l d correspond t o t h e e n g i n e r a t e d power r p m . t h r u s t f o r c e , and t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t w i l l b e minimal. T r a n s i t i o n of t h e main r o t o r i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e s t a b i l i z e r mounted on t h e t a i l boom. changes w i t h change of t h e main r o t o r p i t c h : The s t a b i l i z e r i n c i d e n c e a n g l e when t h e p i t c h i s reduced t o the helicopter is
St

t h e minimal v a l u e , t h e s t a b i l i z e r i n c i d e n c e a n g l e becomes n e g a t i v e ( F i g u r e 8 5 ) . I f a t t h e t i m e o f t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime the s t a b i l i z e r . nose-up p i t c h . The moment of t h i s f o r c e M moving w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y , t h e n e g a t i v e l i f t f o r c e Y develops on

= Y L causes h e l i c o p t e r st st s t The main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k becomes p o s i t i v e , and t h e a i r

flow approaches t h e r o t o r from below. i n c r e a s e s , and t h e rpm i n c r e a s e s , i . e . , a u t o r o t a t i v e regime.

The a n g l e Act of each b l a d e element t h e main r o t o r t r a n s i t i o n s i n t o t h e

So f a r , w e have d i s c u s s e d t h e f a c t o r s which a c c e l e r a t e o r d e c e l e r a t e

a u t o r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r . f l i g h t safety. be r e c t i f i e d .

W have devoted c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n t o e

t h i s f a c t o r , s i n c e main r o t o r rpm i n a u t o r o t a t i o n i s t h e primary index of

If t h e rpm i s less t h a n t h e minimal p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e d u r i n g

a u t o r o t a t i o n , t h e r o t o r can come t o a s t o p - which i s a problem which cannot

However, d u r i n g t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, t h e p i l o t must devote some a t t e n t i o n t o f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n main r o t o r rpm. The h e l i c o p t e r b e h a v i o r a t t h i s t i m e d i f f e r s markedly from t h e b e h a v i o r i n s t e a d y - s t a t e f l i g h t : 199

F i r s t of a l l , t h e r e i s a marked r e d u c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r reactive moment.

As a r e s u l t of t h i s , t h e
Moreover, if

h e l i c o p t e r tends t o t u r n t o t h e r i g h t about t h e v e r t i c a l axis. there is a horizontal velocity, there

w i l l b e f l a p p i n g motions of t h e b l a d e s ,
F i g u r e 85. S t a b i l i z e r nose-up moment. and t h i s means t h a t t h e main r o t o r coning axis w i l l t i l t t o t h e r i g h t .

As a r e s u l t of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t
f o r c e s i d e component, t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l bank and s l i p t o t h e r i g h t .

A t t h e moment of t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, t h e p i l o t must

p r e v e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e v e r t i c a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l axes by r e v e r s i n g t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and d e f l e c t i n g t h e main r o t o r cone of rotation t o the left. The t i l t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n depends on t h e f l i g h t speed. 1136

A t low s p e e d , t h e t i l t r e a c h e s 10-15",
T h i s cannot b e p e r m i t t e d , as

i.e.,

t h e nose of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s q u i t e h i g h .

t h e h e l i c o p t e r t a i l r o t o r may come i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e ground, and t a i l r o t o r f a i l u r e may occur. I n s t e a d y - s t a t e a u t o r o t a t i o n t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s develop a d r i v i n g torque. Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h i s t o r q u e , t h e b l a d e s are r o t a t e d forward During g l i d e , t h e

relative t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e t o a n e g a t i v e l a g a n g l e .
d r i v i n g t o r q u e depends on t h e azimuth a n g l e .

Therefore, t h e l a g angle w i l l

v a r y , i . e . , d u r i n g g l i d e , t h e b l a d e s w i l l o s c i l l a t e about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s .

5 65.

G l i d i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Dual-Rotor H e l i c o p t e.r.s -.

G l i d i n g of d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime h a s c e r t a i n p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n comparison w i t h t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r machines. I n t h e dual-rotor h e l i c o p t e r w i t h tandem r o t o r s , t h e a i r flow approaches t h e forward r o t o r a t a l a r g e a n g l e of a t t a c k and t h e a f t r o t o r a t a smaller a n g l e ( F i g u r e 86a).
200

The

F i g u r e 86.

Dual-rotor h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

a n g l e of a t t a c k change t a k e s p l a c e because of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e flow by t h e forward r o t o r . I n t h e d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h c o a x i a l r o t o r s , t h e lower r o t o r d e f l e c t s t h e flow approaching t h e upper r o t o r , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e upper r o t o r ( F i g u r e 86b). The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e a f t r o t o r i n t h e tandem arrangement and of t h e upper r o t o r i n t h e c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e a x i a l component of t h e approaching flow and t o r e d u c t i o n of Aa of t h e b l a d e elements. Consequently, t h e a f t r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e under c o n d i t i o n s o f Moreover, along w i t h t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k decrease
It i s n e c e s s a r y

decelerated a u t o ro t a t i o n .

t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e a f t r o t o r . e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . d e c e l e r a t i o n of i t s r o t a t i o n .

t h a t t h e t h r u s t f o r c e s of t h e two r o t o r s b e t h e same i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n I n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r u s t f o r c e of t h e a f t r o t o r , i t s p i t c h must b e i n c r e a s e d , which l e a d s t o s t i l l g r e a t e r

S i n c e t h e two r o t o r s must r o t a t e i n e x a c t synchronism, t h e i r a u t o r o t a t i v e conditions w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t . The f r o n t r o t o r w i l l o p e r a t e under a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s w h i l e t h e a f t o p e r a t e s under d e c e l e r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s ,

i.e.,

t h e f r o n t r o t o r " l e a d s " t h e a f t r o t o r ( i t creates t h e d r i v i n g t o r q u e f o r

the a f t rotor).

As a r e s u l t of t h e d r i v i n g t o r q u e and f r i c t i o n i n t h e t r a n s The a f t

I137

m i s s i o n components, t h e f r o n t r o t o r develops a yawing moment which causes t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t u r n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e f r o n t r o t o r . r o t o r develops a reactive t o r q u e , which a l s o c a u s e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t u r n i n 201

t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of the f r o n t r o t o r . yaw when g l i d i n g . main r o t o r cones i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . during g l i d i n g i s d i f f i c u l t .

The h e l i c o p t e r w i l l t e n d t o

T h i s yawing i s e l i m i n a t e d by d e f l e c t i n g t h e axes o f t h e Therefore, c o n t r o l of the h e l i c o p t e r

The upper r o t o r of t h e c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r a l s o o p e r a t e s under d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n conditions. Consequently, t h e lower r o t o r must develop t h e

d r i v i n g t o r q u e f o r t h e upper r o t o r .

Here a g a i n , yawing o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n
This i s e l i m i n a t e d by Control o f t h e c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r i n a

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n of t h e lower r o t o r develops. deflecting the directional control.

g l i d e i s a l s o more complex t h a n c o n t r o l of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e n o t e t h a t on a l l h e l i c o p t e r s g l i d i n g i s performed a t a c o n s i d e r a b l y lower speed t h a n used f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . The r e d u c t i o n of Since t h e

t h e g l i d i n g speed i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e o n s e t of flow s e p a r a t i o n .

flow approaches t h e main r o t o r from below, t h e a n g l e s o f a t t a c k of a l l t h e b l a d e elements w i l l b e g r e a t e r than i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e b l a d e s r e a c h t h e i r s t a l l i n g a n g l e a t t h e $ = 270" azimuth a t a speed c o n s i d e r a b l y lower t h a n i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . Programmed Tes tLns Ques ti_onS a n d Answe-rs Question 1. What f a c t o r s determine t h e minimal v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i n s t e a d y v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime? Answer 1. I n s t e a d y - s t a t e vertical d e s c e n t t h e v e l o c i t y w i l l b e c o n s t a n t .

Constancy of t h e v e l o c i t y i s determined by t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n f o r v e r t i c a l descent G = T

+ X.

This e q u a l i t y i m p l i e s t h a t :

t h e h i g h e r t h e drag of t h e

n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , t h e lower t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t . The t h r u s t f o r c e depends i n t u r n on t h e rpm: t h e lower t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t . t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm,

A n s w e r 2.

The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y is c o n s t a n t i n t h e case of s t e a d y - s t a t e
It i s found from t h e formula

d e s c e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . 202

T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y depends on h e l i c o p t e r w e i g h t , main r o t o r p i t c h , area swept by t h e r o t o r , and a i r d e n s i t y .

A n s w e r 3.

The s t e a d y - s t a t e v e r t i c a l rate o f d e s c e n t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e

regime along a v e r t i c a l t r a j e c t o r y i s found from t h e approximate formula

V
=

des

36. .p
1138

Therefore, t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y depends on t h e d i s k l o a d i n g (P = G/F) o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. velocity. The h i g h e r t h e d i s k l o a d i n g , t h e h i g h e r t h e v e r t i c a l

A t h i g h l a t i t u d e t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y w i l l b e g r e a t e r t h a n a t sea

level and i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e a l t i t u d e .
Qu-est i o n 2 . What determines t h e b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s ? The b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are determined by

A n s w e r 1.
hub a x i s .

t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t a l aerodynamic f o r c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e main r o t o r I f t h e f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub axis, i t s p r o j e c t i o n on t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n e q u a l s z e r o , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e s t e a d y - s t a t e .

If t h e f o r c e v e c t o r A R i s i n c l i n e d forward r e l a t i v e t o t h e hub a x i s by t h e

a n g l e y, t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e a c c e l e r a t e d .

I f t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s The i n c l i n a

i n c l i n e d a f t by t h e a n g l e y, t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e d e c e l e r a t e d . increment(Aa = a r c t g Vdes/u).

t i o n of t h e v e c t o r AR depends on t h e b l a d e element p i t c n and a n g l e of a t t a c k The lower t h e p i t c h and t h e l a r g e r Act, t h e l a r g e r t h e forward t i l t of t h e v e c t o r AR. Answer 2 . The b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are determined by The h i g h e r t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y ,

t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y K = Y/X.

t h e smaller t h e aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e (3

k
t h e l a r g e r t h e forward t i l t '
Since t h e

of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR, and t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm w i l l be.

aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y and t h e e f f i c i e n c y a n g l e depend on t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are determined by t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k . t h e r e f o r e , t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime w i l l b e a c c e l e r a t e d .

A t the

o p t i m a l a n g l e o f a t t a c k , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR h a s t h e m a x i m a l forward t i l t ,

A t a n g l e s of a t t a c k

g r e a t e r t h a n and less t h a n t h e o p t i m a l v a l u e , t h e b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n

w i l l be decelerated.
Answer 3 . r o t o r hub axis. The b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s are determined by R r e l a t i v e t o t h e main

t h e tilt of t h e e l e m e n t a l r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e

If t h i s f o r c e v e c t o r is t i l t e d forward, t h e b l a d e element w i l l

have a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n ; i f i t i s t i l t e d a f t t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e decelerated.

I f t h e d i r e c t i o n o f AR i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub axis, t h e a u t o r o t a
The tilt of t h e f o r c e AR depends on t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k

tion is steady-state.

increment ha formed as a r e s u l t o f t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t (Aa = arc t g /wr). .The h i g h e r t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t , t h e l a r g e r h a , t h e l a r g e r 'des t h e t i l t of t h e f o r c e AR, and t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm.

Question 3. elements. Answer 1. conditions.

V a r i a t i o n of a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t b l a d e

The d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements have d i f f e r e n t a u t o r o t a t i o n

These c o n d i t i o n s are determined by t h e g e o m e t r i c t w i s t of t h e

b l a d e , i . e . , by t h e magnitude of t h e b l a d e element i n c i d e n c e a n g l e and t h e magnitude of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment caused by t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e o f descent. The i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s are l a r g e r f o r t h e r o o t elements than f o r t h e I n c r e a s e of t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s l e a d s t o d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e

t i p elements. autorotation.

/(or) depends o n l y on r, des which means t h a t i t s magnitude i s l a r g e r f o r t h e r o o t elements. The l a r g e r The a n g l e o f a t t a c k increment (Aa = arc t g V

Aa, t h e more a c c e l e r a t e d t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e .

The e f f e c t of t h e a n g l e o f

a t t a c k increment on a u t o r o t a t i o n i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n f l u e n c e of g e o m e t r i c a l

twist, t h e r e f o r e , t h e r o o t elements w i l l have a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n w h i l e

t h e t i p elements w i l l have d e c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n .

204

Answer 2.
b l a d e elements. element.

The a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t The a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are determined by t h e t i l t of t h e

f o r c e v e c t o r AR, and t h i s t i l t , i n t u r n , depends on t h e p i t c h of t h e g i v e n Consequently, t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are determined by t h e p i t c h of t h e given element. h a s i t s own p i t c h .

As a r e s u l t of t h e g e o m e t r i c t w i s t , each element

The p i t c h f o r t h e r o o t elements i s l a r g e r , and t h i s means The t i p elements have lower p i t c h , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y I139

t h a t f o r t h e s e elements t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s t i l t e d a f t more, and t h e autor o t a t i o n is decelerated. have a c c e l e r a t e d a u t o r o t a t i o n .

A n s w e r 3.

The a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b l a d e elements A s a r e s u l t of geometric t w i s t , t h e r o o t

are determined by t h e g e o m e t r i c t w i s t , c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y w r of t h e b l a d e
element, and t h e induced v e l o c i t y . b l a d e elements have more p i t c h and h i g h e r induced v e l o c i t y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y w i l l have a lower v e r t i c a l flow v e l o c i t y . increment (Aa = acr t g V tilted aft.

As a r e s u l t of t h e h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e

a n g l e and lower v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y , t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k / u r ) , and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s des. e The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n o f t h e r o o t elements w i l l

b e d e c e l e r a t e d , w h i l e t h a t of t h e t i p elements i s a c c e l e r a t e d . Question 4 . Azimuthal v a r i a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e element a u t o r o t a t i o n

conditions i n h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g . Answer 1. During h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i v e

regime, t h e flow c o n d i t i o n s about t h e b l a d e element change continuously. Therefore, t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s w i l l a l s o change. The r e s u l t a n t velocity ('!-'-- ' - - u Y~ i n q) w i l l i n c r e a s e c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r t h e advancing b l a d e . *~ -J This
I

l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e elementary f o r c e AR and t o a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e autorotation. The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of each b l a d e element of t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e d e c r e a s e s and r e a c h e s t h e minimum (W = u ted.

V) a t t h e JI = 270'

azimuth. Most

T h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r c e AR a l s o d e c r e a s e s , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e d e c e l e r a Each b l a d e element becomes a l t e r n a t e l y " d r i v i n g " , t h e n "driven". of t h e elements of t h e advancing b l a d e w i l l b e "driving"; t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e w i l l b e "driven". most of t h o s e of

Answer 2.

During h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g , t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s of each With change of t h e azimuth t h e r e i s a azimuth

element depend on t h e b l a d e azimuth.

change o f t h e element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y (W=u+V s i n $>. . A t t h e 90' ment i s minimal ( A a = arc t g V

this v e l o c i t y r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l v a l u e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k i n c r e
t i l t s a f t , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e d e c e l e r a t e d . A t t h e 270'
azimuth t h e element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y is minimal (Aa = arc t g

s i n 8/wr

+ Vg l

cos

e).

The f o r c e v e c t o r A R

V s i n e/u V cos e ) . The forward t i l t of t h e f o r c e v e c t o r A R w i l l b e gl gl m a x i m a l , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e a c c e l e r a t e d . The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t

d u r i n g g l i d i n g t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e creates a d r i v i n g t o r q u e and " d r i v e s " t h e advancing b l a d e , which develops a r e t a r d i n g t o r q u e . Answer 3.

The b l a d e element c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d u r i n g h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g a z i m u t h a l v a r i a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t a n t flow

are determined by two f a c t o r s :

vertical flapping velocity.

v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e b l a d e element, and t h e p r e s e n c e of f l a p p i n g motions and

A t t h e 90" azimuth t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y is m a x i m a l ; t h e vertical

f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y is a l s o m a x i m a l and d i r e c t e d upward. The a n g l e

A a = arctg

'gl u

+ vg l

sin

COS

'fl

i s minimal; t h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r A R i s t i l t e d a f t , and t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n
w i l l b e decelerated.

A t t h e 270" azimuth t h e r e s u l t a n t f l o w v e l o c i t y i s minimal, and t h e

v e r t i c a l f l a p p i n g v e l o c i t y is m a x i m a l , b u t d i r e c t e d downward. The angle

A a = arctg

'gl u

- vg l

sin

e+
COS

fl

i s m a x i m a l ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r c e v e c t o r AR i s d i r e c t e d forward, and t h e b l a d e
element a u t o r o t a t i o n w i l l b e a c c e l e r a t e d . The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e r e t r e a t i n g b l a d e develops a d r i v i n g t o r q u e w h i l e t h e advancing b l a d e develops a r e t a r d i n g t o r q u e , b u t t h e r o t o r autoro t a t i o n w i l l b e steady-state. Question 5. What determines t h e minimal v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t d u r i n g

helicopter gliding? Answer 1. The v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t d e s c e n t d u r i n g h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g

= V s i n 8 , i . e . , i t depends on t h e v e l o c i t y des gl a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e g l i d i n g a n g l e . The v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y

i s found from t h e formula V

depends on t h e forward o r a f t t i l t of t h e coning axis.

The g l i d i n g a n g l e is the larger

determined by t h e l i f t f o r c e and depends on t h e main r o t o r p i t c h : t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t . Answer 2.

t h e p i t c h , t h e l a r g e r t h e l i f t f o r c e , and t h e smaller t h e g l i d i n g a n g l e and

During h e l i c o p t e r g l i d i n g t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t i s
= V

found from t h e formula Vdes

f o r c e is t h e weight f o r c e G 2 t i m e w i l l be t h e e q u i v a l e n t power s u p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r
G V

s i n 8. S i n c e d u r i n g a g l i d e t h e p r o p u l s i v e gl = G s i n 8 , t h e work o f t h e weight f o r c e p e r u n i t

2 gl

=Nh=Gsin8V g l - GVdes

Hence
=

-.Nh
G

'des

' 'des min

N
hmin G

Thus, t h e minimal v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t i n a g l i d e depends on t h e f l i g h t weight and a l t i t u d e . The g l i d i n g v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y s h o u l d b e e q u a l t o t h e economical speed f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

CHAPTER 'X'

HELICOPTER TAKEOFF AND LANDING

9 66.

Takeoff

H e l i c o p t e r t a k e o f f i s a n unsteady a c c e l e r a t e d f l i g h t mode.

During t a k e

o f f t h e v e l o c i t y v a r i e s from V = 0 t o t h e v e l o c i t y a t which s t e a d y - s t a t e climb i s e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s climbing speed i s u s u a l l y e q u a l t o t h e economical Depending on t a k e o f f w e i g h t , a i r f i e l d a l t i t u d e

h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t speed.

above sea level, and p r e s e n c e of o b s t a c l e s , t h e t a k e o f f may b e performed helicopter-style, airplane-style

, and
'I

h e l i c o p t e r - s t y l e with o r without

u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e " a i r cushion.

Sometimes t h e h e l i c o p t e r travels o v e r t h e ground p r i o r t o o r d u r i n g takeoff, i.e., t a x i i n g i s performed. Helicopter taxiing d i f f e r s significantly

from a i r p l a n e t a x i i n g .

Helicopter t a x i i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T a x i i n g i s accomplished by means

of t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P , which b a l a n c e s t h e wheel f r i c t i o n f o r c e F (Figure 87a).

fr The reactive moment of t h e main r o t o r i s balanced by t h e t h r u s t The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e l i c o p t e r t a x i i n g are:

moment of t h e t a i l r o t o r .

(1)

P r e s e n c e of a l a r g e l i f t f o r c e , which i s a component o f t h e main

r o t o r t h r u s t and reduces t h e wheel p r e s s u r e f o r c e on t h e ground, i . e . , reduces t h e s u p p o r t r e a c t i o n .

A s a r e s u l t , wheel f r i c t i o n on t h e ground i s

/ 141

reduced,and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of h e l i c o p t e r o v e r t u r n i n g i s i n c r e a s e d ;

(2)

P r e s e n c e of s i d e f o r c e s :

t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t and t h e s i d e component

of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t ( F i g u r e 87b).

These f o r c e s develop l a r g e o v e r t u r n i n g But i f

moments about t h e wheel s u p p o r t p o i n t s , which b a l a n c e one another. balanced and can cause t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o o v e r t u r n ( F i g u r e 8 7 c ) ;

t h e r e i s a change of one of t h e s i d e f o r c e s t h e o v e r t u r n i n g moment i s un

(3)

A l a r g e nose-down moment develops as a r e s u l t of t h e p r o p u l s i v e

f o r c e P , which creates h i g h l o a d s on t h e l a n d i n g g e a r wheels (wheel).

I 1
I '

,
'

.
'

'

' 1 -

'

t.r

i '

F i g u r e 87.

Forces a c t i n g on h e l i c o p t e r i n t a x i i n g .

T h e r e f o r e , h e l i c o p t e r t a x i i n g must b e performed more c a r e f u l l y t h a n airplane taxiing. The t a x i i n g speed must n o t exceed 10

15 km/hr.

The Taxiing

s u r f a c e of t h e area o v e r which t a x i i n g i s performed must b e smooth. of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

i n a s t r o n g crosswind is n o t p e r m i t t e d , since t h i s can l e a d t o o v e r t u r n i n g

H e l i c o p t e r - s t y l e t a k e o f f i s t h e primary t a k e o f f mode ( F i g u r e 88).

a h e i g h t of 1.5

In

t h i s t a k e o f f a v e r t i c a l l i f t o f f i s made and check h o v e r i n g i s performed a t

2 m ( o p e r a t i o n o f t h e main r o t o r , e n g i n e , and equipment i s

I n t h i s p r o c e s s 'lsinkingll

checked).

Then t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s t r a n s i t i o n e d i n t o climb a l o n g an i n c l i n e d

t r a j e c t o . r y w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s i n c r e a s e of t h e speed.

F i g u r e 88.

Helicopter-type takeoff.

of t h e h e l i c o p t e r is possible, i.e.,

a r e d u c t i o n of t h e a l t i t u d e , and sometimes
T h i s phenomenon i s

t h e wheels may even come i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e ground.

caused by t i l t i n g t h e main r o t o r coning axis forward t o develop t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P, t h e r e s u l t b e i n g a d e c r e a s e of t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e main rotor thrust. T h e r e f o r e , along w i t h t i l t i n g of t h e main r o t o r coning axis

f o r w a r d , t h e r e must be an i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t o r pitch.

The t a k e o f f i s c o n s i d e r e d t e r m i n a t e d when t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e a c h e s a h e i g h t
of 20

/142

25 meters o r i s above t h e s u r r o u n d i n g o b s t a c l e s .

A t this t i m e the

a c c e l e r a t i o n , i . e . , t h e i n c r e a s e of t h e v e l o c i t y along t h e t r a j e c t o r y t o t h e o p t i m a l climbing speed, which corresponds t o t h e minimum level f l i g h t power,

i s a l s o terminated.

But t h i s t y p e of t a k e o f f cannot b e performed i f :

t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s overloaded ( i n s u f f i c i e n t e n g i n e f o r h o v e r i n g o u t s i d e t h e

" a i r cushion" i n f l u e n c e zone) ;

the a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i s h i g h (reduced e n g i n e power); t h e t a k e o f f i s made from a h i g h - a l t i t u d e a i r f i e l d ( l o w a i r d e n s i t y a t t h e given a l t i t u d e s o t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t e n g i n e power i s a v a i l a b l e ) . Under

210

t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s an a i r p l a n e - t y p e t a k e o f f i s made. During the a i r p l a n e - t y p e t a k e o f f the h e l i c o p t e r @-rpl-+s-type takeoff. accelerates on t h e ground, t h e n l i f t s o f f and t r a n s i t i o n s i n t o a climb a l o n g

an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y ( F i g u r e 8 9 ) .

In t h i s t a k e o f f u s e is made o f t h e p r i
i n c r e a s e of

mary advantage of main r o t o r o p e r a t i o n i n t h e forward f l i g h t :

stream approaching t h e main r o t o r (see F i g u r e 68).

t h e t h r u s t developed by t h e r o t o r w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e a i r

F i g u r e 89.

Airplane-type t a k e o f f .

As a r e s u l t of t h e t h r u s t i n c r e a s e t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e of t h e l i f t f o r c e . /143
When i t becomes somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n t h e weight f o r c e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r l i f t s from t h e ground and t r a n s i t i o n s i n t o a climb along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed.
W e see from t h e power r e q u i r e d

and a v a i l a b l e c u r v e s f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ( s e e F i g u r e 63a) t h a t t h e power r e q u i r e d f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t d e c r e a s e s markedly f o r even a s m a l l speed increase. I f t a k e o f f i s i m p o s s i b l e a t V = 0 because of i n s u f f i c i e n t power,

at a speed of 40

50 km/hr c o n s i d e r a b l e excess power i s developed, which

t h e n m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e climb regime w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed.

An a i r f i e l d o r a t l e a s t a s m a l l smooth area i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a i r p l a n e type takeoff. The ground r u n d u r i n g t a k e o f f w i t h f l i g h t weight exceeding by

/

211

10

15% the normal t a k e o f f weight f o r h e l i c o p t e r - t y p e t a k e o f f i s 50

100

meters,

I n t h i s case the l i f t o f f speed i s 50 70 km/hr ( w i t h a c c e l e r a t i o n 2 d u r i n g t h e ground r u n 2.2 m / s e c ) and t h e ground r u n t i m e i s 7 10 seconds.

The ground r u n i s performed on a l l wheels o f t h e l a n d i n g gear. h e l i c o p t e r s ( t h e Mi-6,

Some

f o r example) perform the l a s t p a r t of t h e ground r u n

on t h e nosewheel.

When u s i n g t h i s ground r u n t e c h n i q u e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i s

i n c r e a s e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e f u s e l a g e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis and t h e r e s u l t i n g i n c r e a s e of t h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e P. The h e l i c o p t e r t a k e o f f

i s c o n s i d e r e d complete when a s a f e h e i g h t (25 m) and a v e l o c i t y along t h e

t r a j e c t o r y c l o s e t o t h e economical speed f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t have been reached. H e l i c o p t e r - t y p e t a k e o f f u t i l i z i n g t h e a i r cushion. V i b r a t i o n s may arise Then t h e take

d u r i n g a i r p l a n e - t y p e t a k e o f f ground run on an uneven s u r f a c e . o f f i s made u s i n g t h e a i r cushion ( F i g u r e 90).

I n t h i s takeoff t h e h e l i c o p t e r

l i f t s o f f v e r t i c a l l y , u t i l i z i n g t h e i n c r e a s e d main r o t o r t h r u s t i n t h e a i r cushion i n f l u e n c e zone ( t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r e v o l u t i o n t o t h e ground does n o t exceed R). A f t e r l i f t o f f a n d h o v e r i n g i n t h e a i r cushion zone, the h e l i c o p t e r i s t r a n s i t i o n e d i n t o forward f l i g h t i . e . , of t h e speed. f l i g h t a t low h e i g h t w i t h i n c r e a s e During t h e t r a n s i t i o n maneuver t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e a i r cushion

diminishes w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e speed, b u t t h e forward f l i g h t e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n c r e a s e s ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e i n c r e a s e s , which makes i t p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s i t i o n t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t o a climb a l o n g an i n c l i n e d trajec tory. I n o r d e r t o perform s u c h a t a k e o f f i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o have a s u f f i c i e n t l y smooth a r e a , i . e .

/144

, there

must n o t be any l a r g e d i t c h e s o r d r o p o f f s , where t h e

i n f l u e n c e of t h e a i r cushion d i s a p p e a r s . I n c e r t a i n cases none of t h e t e c h n i q u e s examined above are a p p l i c a b l e b e c a u s e of o b s t a c l e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e area. Then t a k e o f f i s made w i t h o u t

212

u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e a i r c u s h i o n , i . e . , l i f t o f f and check hovering are performed and t h e n a v e r t i c a l climb i s i n i t i a t e d .

A t a h e i g h t of 5 - 10 meters above

t h e s u r r o u n d i n g o b s t a c l e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s t r a n s i t i o n e d i n t o climb along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y w i t h simultaneous a c c e l e r a t i o n t o t h e economical v e l o c i t y . Vertical t a k e o f f i s r a r e l y used, s i n c e it r e q u i r e s h i g h power and i s performed i n t h e danger zone. I f s u f f i c i e n t power i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , y e t t a k e o f f must b e made, t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight s h o u l d b e reduced.

67.

Landing

Landing i s t r a n s i t i o n a l f l i g h t from a h e i g h t of 25 o f t h e v e l o c i t y and subsequent touchdown.

50 m w i t h r e d u c t i o n

H e l i c o p t e r l a n d i n g may b e performed

i n h e l i c o p t e r s t y l e , i n a i r p l a n e s t y l e , i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime, from a g l i d e along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y , and w i t h f l a r e - o u t . The h e l i c o p t e r - s t y l e l a n d i n g i s t h e primary t e c h n i q u e f o r landiiig w i t h t h e engine operating.

It i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s ( F i g u r e 9 1 ) :

(1) g l i d e w i t h r e d u c t i o n of t h e speed a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y and v e r t i c a l

rate of d e s c e n t ;
(2) (3) (4) hover a t a h e i g h t 2 v e r t i c a l descent; touchdown.

3 m above t h e l a n d i n g a r e a ;

During t h e l a n d i n g approach t h e h e l i c o p t e r performs s t e a d y - s t a t e d e s c e n t along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g . i n g a constant descent angle.

A t a h e i g h t of 40

I145

50 m r e d u c t i o n of t h e speed a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s i n i t i a t e d w h i l e maintain I n t h i s s t a g e t h e motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s governed by t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s :

F i g u r e 90.

Takeoff on a i r cushion.

F i g u r e 91.

Helicopter-type landing.

Y = G1 = G cos 8 ( c o n s t a n t descent a n g l e ) ;

Px

+ XP a r
=

> G2 ( r e d u c t i o n of t h e s p e e d ) ;

*t.r
M

Ss (absence of l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t ) ;
absence o f

= 0 (constant d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t , i.e., cg r o t a t i o n about t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s primary a x e s ) .

= M t a r and C M

D e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s achieved by t i l t i n g t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r a f t and i n c r e a s i n g t h e t h r u s t component Px. Upon r e a c h i n g

a speed o f 50

60 km/hr, t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t i s reduced by i n c r e a s i n g

The h e l i c o p t e r d e v i a t e s from t h e

main r o t o r p i t c h and i t s t h r u s t f o r c e . h e i g h t of 2

d e s c e n t p a t h a n g l e and travels p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e ground a t a

3 m.

During t h i s i n e r t i a l motion the speed d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o

I f t h e l a n d i n g approach w a s n o t made d i r e c t l y i n t o

and t h e h e l i c o p t e r h o v e r s above t h e l a n d i n g area, o r i e n t i n g i t s e l f r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e area. i n t o t h e wind. t h e wind, t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s t u r n e d about t h e v e r t i c a l axis t o t a k e up a heading Then a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i s made a t a low rate i n o r d e r t o avoid rough c o n t a c t of t h e wheels w i t h t h e ground. The airplane-Jype o f f of t h e same t y p e . from a h e i g h t of 15 maintained. l a n d i n g is made under the same c o n d i t i o n s a s the take
It i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s ( F i g u r e 9 2 ) :

glide During

30 m, f l a r e , h o l d o f f , touchdown, and r o l l o u t .

t h e d e s c e n t a l t i t u d e i s l o s t , b u t a c o n s t a n t speed and d e s c e n t a n g l e a r e The d e s c e n t i s made w i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g . The f l a r e i s i n i t i a t e d a t a h e i g h t of 7

10 m by i n c r e a s i n g t h e t h r u s t and l i f t f o r c e s .

, '

, :, ,;

., ..
touchdown .and . r-- l l.o.. t o - u. - . . . p
I

. r _ r ._....,-.
I

. .

. .
,,

..-. ...
I,. I I

I '. '.,.~ , ,.-,,... ,

I,

,I

..?*".. - . ,
,1 '

. , . , . I
,' ,1
,..I,

/,

/ I

. < - - . . . .-

t r a n s i- t .i o n > -

.?>.

f l._ e : ar
~

. c

...

g l i.d e .

Figure 92.

Airplane-type l a n d i n g .

The f l a r e i s t e r m i n a t e d a t a h e i g h t of 1 - 0.5 m and t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y d i m i n i s h e s a t t h i s p o i n t , s i n c e t h e weight f o r c e component G2 d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o . A f t e r t h e f l a r e t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t i l l has a The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h s p e e d , which i s t h e n reduced d u r i n g t h e h o l d o f f p e r i o d .
I

touchdown i s made on t h e main g e a r wheels a t a s p e e d of 30

40 km/hr.

In

t h i s procedure care must b e t a k e n t h a t t h e t a i l does n o t g e t t o o low, s i n c e damage t o t h e t a i l s k i d and t h e t a i l r o t o r can occur. The touchdown is f o l l o w e d ' by r o l l o u t , d u r i n g which t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t i s decreased.

I146

An

a i r f i e l d o r a smooth area w i t h f i r m s o i l i s n e c e s s a r y f o r the a i r p l a n e - t y p e landing. Landing under s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . o b s t a c l e s , a helicopter-type I f t h e l a n d i n g area i s surrounded by

l a n d i n g i s made w i t h o u t u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e "air

cushion." Hovering i s performed i n t o t h e wind a t a h e i g h t of 5

10 m above
Then a

t h e o b s t a c l e s t o a l i g n t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h t h e c e n t e r of t h e a r e a .

v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t i s made a t a rate of d e s c e n t of no more t h a n 2 m/sec i n

o r d e r t o avoid t h e v o r t e x r i n g state. During t h i s d e s c e n t t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s reduced t o 0.2 touchdown.

0.3 m / s e c a t t h e moment of

T h e r e f o r e , t h i s t y p e of l a n d i n g can o n l y b e made i f there i s

s u f f i c i e n t power margin a v a i l a b l e f o r h o v e r i n g o u t s i d e t h e 'lair cushion" i n f l u e n c e zone. T h i s t y p e of l a n d i n g i s used o n l y i n case of extreme urgency,

s i n c e a s a f e l a n d i n g i s n o t guaranteed i n case o f e n g i n e f a i l u r e a t a h e i g h t of more t h a n 10 m ( i n t h e danger zone). Landing i n t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime w i t h g l i d e along an i n c l i n e d trajectory.

W e have e s t a b l i s h e d above t h a t i n case of e n g i n e f a i l u r e f l i g h t i n

t h e main r o t o r a u t o r o t a t i o n regime s h o u l d b e made a l o n g an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y

rather t h a n v e r t i c a l l y .
Landing from a g l i d e along an i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y i s similar t o t h e l a n d i n g of an a i r p l a n e and r e q u i r e s a smooth area w i t h s o l i d ground. t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s ( F i g u r e 93):
It c o n s i s t s of

(1) g l i d e a t c o n s t a n t a n g l e and c o n s t a n t speed;

d e c e l e r a t i o n ( r e d u c t i o n of g l i d e a n g l e and v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t

(2)

through use of t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e main r o t o r ) ;

216

+G
Figure 93. Autorotative landing.

(3)

touchdown; r o l l o u t and r e d u c t i o n of main r o t o r p i t c h .

(4)

The advantage of t h i s l a n d i n g i s t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y less 1147

v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y and b e t t e r c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n , during f l i g h t Therefore,

a l o n g t h e i n c l i n e d t r a j e c t o r y t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e k i n e t i c energy, which i s used t o reduce t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y p r i o r t o touchdown. along an i n c l i n e d p a t h . t h e l a n d i n g i s s a f e r and s i m p l e r when t h e h e l i c o p t e r approaches i n a g l i d e T h i s t y p e of l a n d i n g u t i l i z e s t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r , a s w e l l as t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e main r o t o r . During t h e g l i d e a c o n s t a n t d e s c e n t a n g l e i s a s s u r e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n

and c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y i s a s s u r e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n ( s e e F i g u r e 92)

= X

par + ' x

The g l i d i n g s p e e d i s c l o s e t o t h e economical speed f o r level f l i g h t , b u t i t changes as a f u n c t i o n of t h e wind v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n . When g l i d i n g

i n t o t h e wind t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed s h o u l d b e h i g h e r , t h e h i g h e r t h e wind velocity. The h e i g h t f o r i n i t i a t i o n of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n o r f l a r e i s d i f f e r e n t on different helicopters: 25 t h e higher t h e d i s k loading, t h e higher t h i s height. For example, t h i s h e i g h t f o r t h e M i - 1 i s 15

20 m; f o r t h e Mi-4 i t i s

20 m.

D e c e l e r a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d by t i l t i n g t h e main r o t o r coning a x i s

aft.

T h i s l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k and i n c r e a s e

o f t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of each b l a d e element, which t h e n l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and i t s rpm. Therefore, b o t h t h e g l i d e angle A f t e r t h e coning axis i s

and t h e v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y d e c r e a s e .

d e f l e c t e d a f t , t h e main r o t o r ' c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h must b e i n c r e a s e d t o t h e

m a x i m a l value.

T h i s l e a d s t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e and reduc. The h e l i c o p t e r w i l l travel f o r some

t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t .

t i m e p a r a l l e l t o t h e ground s u r f a c e , s i m i l a r t o t h e motion o f an a i r p l a n e
during t r a n s i t i o n . The h e i g h t a t t h e end of t h i s motion d e c r e a s e s t o 0.5

0.3 m and t h e h e l i c o p t e r touches down w i t h v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y c l o s e t o z e r o .

During t h e f l a r e and t r a n s i t i o n t h e h e l i c o p t e r n o s e i s h i g h . Touchdown

cannot b e made i n t h i s a t t i t u d e because of danger of damage t o t h e t a i l r o t o r . T h e r e f o r e , p r i o r t o touchdown t h e h e l i c o p t e r ' s n o s e i s lowered by d e f l e c t i n g t h e c y c l i c c o n t r o l s t i c k forward. The i n c r e a s e of main r o t o r p i t c h l e a d s

n o t only t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e , b u t also t o i n c r e a s e of t h e resis

tance t o r o t a t i o n ; t h e r o t o r rpm d e c r e a s e s and t h e coning a n g l e i n c r e a s e s

( b l a d e s f l a p up). I f t h e r o t o r p i t c h i s n o t reduced a f t e r touchdown,the r o t o r b l a d e may descend a b r u p t l y and s t r i k e t h e t a i l boom. Landing i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime w i t h v e r t - c a l d e s c e n t . i I f t h e landing

1148

i s made on a s m a l l area which i s surrounded by o b s t a c l e s , t h e l a n d i n g must

b e made from a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t . It w a s e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l

rate of d e s c e n t d u r i n g f l i g h t i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime along a v e r t i c a l

= 3 . 6 y P and amounts t o 1 4 - 20 m / s e c . des Touchdown a t such a v e l o c i t y l e a d s t o damage t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r and does n o t

t r a j e c t o r y i s found from t h e formula V g u a r a n t e e s a f e t y of t h e c r e w .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e l o c i t y i s reduced p r i o r t o Such a l a n d i n g The e s s e n c e of t h e o p e r a t i o n i s as

touchdown by u t i l i z i n g t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e main r o t o r .

i s c a l l e d a landing with flare-out.

f 0 llows

.
25 m t h e main r o t o r p i t c h i s i n c r e a s e d t o t h e m a x i m a l

A t a h e i g h t of 20

v a l u e , and t h e main r o t o r rpm s h o u l d b e as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o impartmaximal k i n e t i c energy t o t h e main r o t o r ( t h e k i n e t i c energy i s propor 2 t i o n a l t o w ) . As t h e p i t c h i s i n c r e a s e d t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e of main r o t o r t h r u s t flare-out, descent t o 3 which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l rate of Such a v e l o c i t y can b e abosrbed completely by t h e

5 m/sec.

g e a r shock a b s o r b e r s , a n d a s a f e l a n d i n g can be made. The l a n d i n g i s easier when t h e r e i s a wind. ( s l o p e 45'). I n t h i s case t h e h e l i c o p t e r

i s t u r n e d i n t o t h e wind and t r a n s i t i o n e d i n t o t h e i n c l i n e d g l i d e regime

The e f f e c t of t h e wind is t o c a r r y t h e h e l i c o p t e r a f t , and i t s The h e l i c o p t e r

t r a j e c t o r y r e l a t i v e t o t h e ground will b e n e a r l y v e r t i c a l . i n c r e a s e d somewhat as a r e s u l t of forward f l i g h t .

c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y i s b e t t e r i n t h i s t y p e o f g l i d e , and t h e t h r u s t f o r c e i s

A v e r t i c a l l a n d i n g i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e s k i l l

and c o o l n e s s on t h e p a r t of t h e p i l o t . t h i s t y p e of l a n d i n g :

The f o l l o w i n g e r r o r s are p o s s i b l e i n

(1) e a r l y f l a r e - o u t
(2)

( r e d u c t i o n of v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y a t a h i g h a l t i t u d e ) ;

late flare-out,

as a r e s u l t of which t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i s n o t

reduced and h a r d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e ground may r e s u l t .

It i s clear from t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y i s n o t e n t i r e l y

a r r e s t e d i n l a n d i n g from a v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t .

Even when t h e f l a r e - o u t i s

performed c o r r e c t l y , t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y may b e q u i t e l a r g e - 3 o r more.

5 m/sec

T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r , which has a

rate of d e s c e n t p r i o r t o f l a r e - o u t of 1 5
energy

expended t o arrest t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y completely.

Ek=Gvdzes) . An
2g
I

20 m/sec, h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e k i n e t i c

e q u i v a l e n t k i n e t i c energy o f t h e main r o t o r must be But t h e main r o t o r

k i n e t i c energy i s n o t e n t i r e l y u t i l i z e d f o r b r a k i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

A large

p a r t of t h e r o t o r energy is expended i n overcoming t h e p r o f i l e and induced d r a g s , on f r i c t i o n i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n , and on t h e b l a d e end l o s s e s . T h i s means t h a t t h e main r o t o r must have 5 Only one f i f t h o r s i x t h of t h e t o t a l k i n e t i c energy of t h e main r o t o r i s used f o r deceleration.

7 t i m e s the kinetic

/149

energy of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n o r d e r t o d e c e l e r a t e t h e h e l i c o p t e r completely. I n r e a l i t y t h e main r o t o r k i n e t i c energy is about t h r e e t i m e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r k i n e t i c energy. T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y cannot be a r r e s t e d completely, b u t i t

m u s t be reduced as much as p o s s i b l e , and t o t h i s end t h e main r o t o r r o t a t i o n a l

energy i s i n c r e a s e d ; t h i s energy i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e b l a d e mass and t h e s q u a r e of t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of r e v o l u t i o n

where E

w j i s t h e m a i n r o t o r moment of i n e r t i a ;

i s t h e r o t a t i o n a l k i n e t i c energy;

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of t h e r o t a t i o n a l moment of i n e r t i a i n t o t h e formula,

we obtain

W e see from t h e formula t h a t h e a v i e r b l a d e s are r e q u i r e d f o r s a f e l a n d i n g

i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

221

CHAPTER XI HFLICOPTER BALANCE, STABILITY, AND CONTROL

68.

H e l i c o p t e r Center of G r a v i t y and Balance

The h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i s t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of i t s weight f o r c e v e c t o r . The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i s t h e nominal p o i n t about which The t h r e e p r i n c i p a l axes of r o t a t i o n (body c o o r d i n a t e

1149

the helicopter rotates.

system) p a s s i n g through t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y are used t o charac t e r i z e t h e r o t a t i o n a l motions ( F i g u r e 94a). The 0 The 0

longitudinal axis

l i e s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry and r u n s along t h e f u s e l a g e p a r a l l e l t o t h e

main r o t o r hub r o t a t i o n plane.

z1 t r a n s v e r s e axis p a s s e s through t h e

c e n t e r of g r a v i t y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of symmetry and i s d i r e c t e d t o the right. The 0

y1 v e r t i c a l a x i s p a s s e s through t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ,

lies i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s , and

i s d i r e c t e d upward.
I f t h e external f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r p a s s e s through t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , i t s moment w i l l b e z e r o and t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l n o t have any r o t a t i o n a l motion. I f t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e passes o u t s i d e t h e center

1150

of g r a v i t y , i t c r e a t e s a moment r e l a t i v e t o some a x i s , under t h e i n f l u e n c e of which t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l r o t a t e .

Of t h e cargo i s a t t a c h e d r i g i d l y t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y does n o t move r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a t t i t u d e t h e h e l i c o p t e r assumes i n t h e a i r .

If t h e cargo moves, t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y w i l l a l s o move. T h e r e f o r e , we need

t o know p r e c i s e l y where t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i s l o c a t e d .

The The

center o f g r a v i t y l o c a t i o n i s determined by b a l a n c i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

h e l i c o p t e r b a l a n c e p o i n t i s t h e d i s t a n c e x from t h e main r o t o r hub axis t o t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y , e x p r e s s e d i n m i l l i m e t e r s , and t h e d i s t a n c e y from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e ( F i g u r e 94b). The d i s t a n c e x i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l cg l o c a t i o n and t h e d i s t a n c e y i s t h e

vertical cg l o c a t i o n .
I f t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y is l o c a t e d ahead of t h e hub a x i s t h e cg

i s termed forward and denoted by +x.

I f t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i s located behind t h e hub axis i t i s termed a f t and denoted by -x. Every h e l i c o p t e r h a s s t r i c t l y d e f i n e d cg t r a v e l limits. The forward cg l i m i t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r than t h e a f t l i m i t . For example, f o r t h e M i - 1 t h e forward cg l i m i t i s +x F i g u r e 94. H e l i c o p t e r b a l a n c e : a - h e l i c o p t e r cg d e f i n i t i o n ; b - h e l i c o p t e r balance: l i m i t i n g forward; x2 aft. h e l i c o p t e r loading.
lim
=

150 mm,

t h e a f t l i m i t i s -x = -53 mm. 1m i The h e l i c o p t e r cg l o c a t i o n must b e known p r i o r t o e v e r y f l i g h t . The cg l o c a t i o n changes w i t h v a r i a t i o n o f

x1

limiting

The l o c a t i o n s where t h e h e a v i e s t cargo i s t o b e l o c a t e d T h i s manual a l s o

i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e o p e r a t i n g manual f o r e v e r y h e l i c o p t e r .
ing.

d e f i n e s t h e sequence f o r f i n d i n g t h e cg l o c a t i o n , which amounts t o t h e follow The b a s i c h e l i c o p t e r weight (weight a t a d e f i n i t e l o a d i n g ) and t h e b a s i c These d a t a are p r e s e n t e d i n the h e l i c o p t e r 1151 Moreover, t h e w e i g h t s and l o c a t i o n s of t h e cargo must b e cg l o c a t i o n must b e known. specifications.

known.
The d i s t a n c e from t h e main r o t o r hub axis t o t h e cargo is measured
i n meters. The t o t a l moment about t h e main r o t o r hub axis i s c a l c u l a t e d and t h e new h e l i c o p t e r weight i s determined as t h e sum of t h e b a s i c weight and t h e weights of a l l t h e cargo. The new cg l o c a t i o n i s found from t h e formula

Example of cg c a l c u l a t i o n of M i - 1 u s i n g t h e d a t a : b a s i c h e l i c o p t e r weight 1930 k g f ;

(1)

(2)
b a s i c cg l o c a t i o n 123 mm;
(3) (4) cg l i m i t s +150, -53; a d d i t i o n a l cargo on h e l i c o p t e r :

GI = 85 kgf ( a t d i s t a n c e Z
G2 = 38 kgf ( a t d i s t a n c e

1.2 m ahead of hub a x i s ) ;

Z2

= 1.4 m behind hub a x i s ) ;

G3 = 105 kgf ( a t d i s t a n c e
(5) cargo G

Z3 = 0.5

m ahead of hub a x i s ) ;

= 72 kgf removed, w a s l o c a t e d a t d i s t a n c e

z4 = 0.6

m aft

of hub axis. Solution. each cargo

W e f i n d t h e moments of t h e b a s i c weight and t h e weight of

W e f i n d t h e new cg l o c a t i o n

Thus t h e cg l o c a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s o u t s i d e t h e forward cg l i m i t by t h e d i s t a n c e

Consequently, f l i g h t cannot b e made w i t h t h i s cg l o c a t i o n ; t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l be uncontrollable. Some of t h e cargo must b e s h i f t e d a f t .

L e t us f i n d how f a r t h e cargo G t h e cg a t +150 mm. Solution.

car

105 kgf must b e moved a f t t o l o c a t e

1. W e f i n d t h e moment r e q u i r e d t o s h i f t t h e cg 34 mm

AM

= G

new

Ax

= 2086'0.034

70.9 k g f .

2 . W e f i n d t h e d i s t a n c e which t h e cargo must be s h i f t e d

l = AM --

- -70'9 105

0.67 m.

Gear

69.

_____..

G e n e r a l A n a l y s i s of HelicoJter E q u i l i b r i u m -. -~
~~

/152 -

That s t a t e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f o r which i t travels i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y and does n o t r o t a t e about i t s p r i n c i p a l axes (about t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) i s c a l l e d e q u i l i b r i u m .

The e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s f o l l o w from t h e d e f i n i t i o n .

According t o

Newtons f i r s t l a w , a body moves uniformly and r e c t i l i n e a r l y i f no e x t e r n a l f o r c e s act on i t . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e sum of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r b e e q u a l t o z e r o

CF

cg

= 0.

The second e q u i l i b r i u m characteristic (absence of r o t a t i o n ) w i l l h o l d i f

t h e sum of t h e moments of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r e q u a l s z e r o

Moments relative t o t h e o (MZ).

z t r a n s v e r s e axis are termed l o n g i t u d i n a l

Under t h e a c t i o n of t h i s moment t h e h e l i c o p t e r p i t c h e s up (nose r i s e s ) The moments about t h e 0

o r p i t c h e s down (nose descends).

x1 l o n g i t u d i n a l

axis are termed t r a n s v e r s e o r r o l l i n g moments ( X ). M

0

The moments about t h e

y1 v e r t i c a l axis are termed d i r e c t i o n a l (M ). A g e n e r a l remark on t h e Y sign o f t h e moments: a p o s i t i v e moment c a u s e s clockwise h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n i f w e look a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e axis. E q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r exists i n a l l t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e f l i g h t regimes. The s t e a d y - s t a t e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , which w e examined p r e v i o u s l y , It i s t r u e t h a t

are t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s w r i t t e n i n expanded form.

t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e w r i t t e n i n a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e v e l o c i t y c o o r d i n a t e system. The v e l o c i t y o r wind c o o r d i n a t e system i s a system f i x e d w i t h t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y vector. I n t h i s system t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis i s denoted by 0

-x
The

and c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ( s e e F i g u r e 94a). a n g l e between t h e axes 0

x1 and 0

x of t h e body and wind c o o r d i n a t e

The a n g l e between t h e

systems i s e q u a l t o t h e main r o t o r a n g l e o f a t t a c k A.

l o n g i t u d i n a l axis of t h e v e l o c i t y c o o r d i n a t e system and t h e h e l i c o p t e r p l a n e of symmetry i s c a l l e d t h e s i d e s l i p angle. I f the f l i g h t velocity vector is I n t h e absence of

i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry,the s i d e s l i p a n g l e e q u a l s z e r o .

s i d e s l i p , t h e t r a n s v e r s e axes of t h e body and v e l o c i t y c o o r d i n a t e systems

226

coincide.

The a n g l e between t h e v e r t i c a l axes 0

- y1

and 0

-y

of t h e body

and v e l o c i t y c o o r d i n a t e system e q u a l s t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k of t h e main r o t o r .

W e take f o r example t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r h o r i z o n t a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t

1153

Y = G or Y

G = 0;

P = X o r P - 2 =O; Par Par T = Ss o r T - Ss = 0. t,r t,r

W e see from t h e s e e q u a l i t i e s t h a t t h e s m of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on the u

h e l i c o p t e r along t h e v e r t i c a l , l o n g i t u d i n a l , and t r a n s v e r s e axes o f the v e l o c i t y c o o r d i n a t e system e q u a l s z e r o .

Consequently, t h e s e t h r e e e q u a l i t i e s e x p r e s s t h e f i r s t e q u i l i b r i u m
= 0. The f o u r t h h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n (CM = 0) cg cg e x p r e s s e s t h e second e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , i . e . , t h e absence of

c o n d i t i o n CF

r o t a t i o n about t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .
9 70.

H e l i c o p t e r E q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e Hovering Regime ~

The c o n d i t i o n s of h e l i c o p t e r e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime can be a p p l i e d (with some a d d i t i o n s ) t o any f l i g h t regime Hub h o r i z o n t a l h .. . e o f f s e t . i.n g

.
between t h e hub axis and

Most modern h e l i c o p t e r s have o f f s e t of t h e

main r o t o r hub h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s , i . e .

, separation

( F i g u r e 95a). H o r i z o n t a l hh h i n g e o f f s e t h a s an e f f e c t on h e l i c o p t e r e q u i l i b r i u m , s t a b i l i t y , and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y conditions. The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r b l a d e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinges. when t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub p l a n e (no t i l t of t h e coning axis), t h e b l a d e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s are i n

t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e axis, which i s denoted by

a s i n g l e p l a n e and t h e i r moment relative t o t h e center of t h e hub e q u a l s z e r o .

F i g u r e 95.

Horizontal hinge o f f s e t

If t h e main r o t o r coning axis i s d e f l e c t e d from t h e hub axis, t h e main

r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i l l n o t b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e hub r o t a t i o n p l a n e . b l a d e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s act i n a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e main r o t o r p l a n e ( F i g u r e 95b).

The

If t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s are o f f s e t , t h e r e w i l l be an arm c between

t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e f o r c e s create t h e moment I$h
= Nc

I154

relative t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub.
t h e coning a x i s .

T h i s moment r o t a t e s t h e main r o t o r hub

and consequently t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r s o as t o m a k e t h e hub axis approach

E q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r relative t o t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of r o t a t i o n can b e subdivided i n t o l o n g i t u d i n a l , t r a n s v e r s e , and d i r e c t i o n a l . Common t o

a l l t h e s e modes i s t h e f i r s t e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :

uniform r e c t i l i n e a r

motion o r , as a p a r t i c u l a r case, relative rest i n t h e hovering regime (V = 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m modes w e omit t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , assuming t h a t i t h o l d s . H e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m is t h a t s t a t e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n which i t does n o t r o t a t e about t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s . h e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l axis. Since t h e v e l o c i t y i n

t h e hovering regime e q u a l s z e r o , t h e r e w i l l b e no f o r c e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e Then t h e f i r s t e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s

228

e x p r e s s e d by t h e two e q u a l i t i e s T G or T

G = 0;

T t . r = ss

O r Tt.r

% = O -

The second e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t t h e sum of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l moments must e q u a l z e r o :

EM
Z

= 0.

L o n g i t u d i n a l moments are c r e a t e d by ( F i g u r e 96): main r o t o r thrust f o r c e

(% = T a ) ;
= YstLst) ;
=

s t a b i l i z e r l i f t f o r c e (Mst h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e moment

(%h
r

NC);

t a i l r o t o r reactive moment M

.
t.r

I f t h e cg l o c a t i o n i s f a r forward t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l hover w i t h t h e n o s e down ( F i g u r e 96a). nose-down; I n t h i s case t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e moment w i l l b e

I155

t h e moments o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s , s t a b i l i z e r , and t h e t a i l T h e r e f o r e , t h e second l o n g i t u d i n a l

r o t o r reactive moment a r e nose-up.

Q s u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a t i o n
= Mt

Mhh or
NC

+ Mr t.r

+ YstLst

-t Mr

t.r

Ta = 0.
The

To s a t i s f y t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e main r o t o r coning axis must b e t i l t e d a f t .

more forward t h e cg, t h e l a r g e r t h e coning axis d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m cannot b e achieved.

must be.

I f t h e cg moves forward beyond t h e l i m i t i n g forward p o s i t i o n , h o v e r i n g l o n g i

F i g u r e 96.

H e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m i n hover.

I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r cg i s a f t o r s l i g h t l y forward, t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l hover w i t h t h e n o s e h i g h ( F i g u r e 96b). I n t h i s case t h e main r o t o r coning

axis must be d e f l e c t e d forward r e l a t i v e t o t h e hub axis through t h e a n g l e TI.

The moment of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e may b e p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , o r zero. The moment of t h e s t a b i l i z e r and t a i l r o t o r , as i n t h e f i r s t case, w i l l b e nose-up. equality The second e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i l l b e expressed by t h e

Mst+

1 '

+ -%-

Q = 0.

I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r cg moves a f t beyond t h e p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t , t h e main r o t o r coning axis is d e f l e c t e d f u l l forward. I n t h i s case t h e h e l i c o p t e r

cannot b e t r a n s i t i o n e d i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t regime, and i f t h i s cannot b e done t h e f l i g h t speed cannot b e i n c r e a s e d t o t h e m a x i m a l v a l u e . H e l i c o p t e r hover i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l a t t i t u d e i s p o s s i b l e w i t h a s l i g h t l y forward cg l o c a t i o n . I n t h i s case t h e main r o t o r coning axis w i l l c o i n c i d e

230

w i t h t h e hub axis.

The moment of t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s w i l l b e z e r o .
(Figure 96c).

The

main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e w i l l b e nose-down

The l o n g i t u d i n a l

e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a l i t y

Mst

Mr - % = O . t.r

L o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n o t h e r f l i g h t regimes as

a f u n c t i o n of cg l o c a t i o n can b e expressed by one of t h e e q u a l i t i e s d i s c u s s e d

above. moment However, t o t h e terms o f t h e s e e q u a l i t i e s w e must a l s o add t h e h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e drag f o r c e moment, which w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e a climbing

H e l i c o p t e r t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m i s t h a t s t a t e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n which t h e r e i s no r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis. equalities: The t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s are expressed i n g e n e r a l form by t h e f o l l o w i n g

CFZ = 0 , no s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t , t h i s e q u a l i t y e x p r e s s e s t h e f i r s t

t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; EMx = 0, no r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis, t h i s e q u a l i t y e x p r e s s e s t h e second t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m

1156

characteristic.
I n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s t h e t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s through t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r d u r i n g hovering and through t h e t r a n s v e r s e moments of t h e s e f o r c e s , w e m u s t examine the c o n d i t i o n s f o r e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h o u t an a f t f i n and t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h an a f t f i n . I n t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h o u t an a f t f i n , t h e t a i l r o t o r i s located r i g h t . on t h e t a i l boom ( F i g u r e 97a).

T h i s h e l i c o p t e r can have t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e hover regime o n l y

i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a bank i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e the t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t ( F i g u r e 97c).

A s i d e component of t h e weight f o r c e G2 = G s i n y (y i s t h e

231

F i g u r e 97.

Helicopter lateral equilibrium.

bank a n g l e ) i s formed when t h e h e l i c o p t e r banks.

T h i s component b a l a n c e s t h e

t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t force.

Then t h e e q u a l i t y e x p r e s s i n g t h e f i r s t t r a n s v e r s e

e q u i l i b r i u m characteristic is w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s
= G2 = G s i n y o r T

*t.r

t.r

G2 =

0,

Hence w e f i n d t h e magnitude of t h e bank a n g l e

y = a r c s i n It.r

-- G

The t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r i s n o t d e f l e c t e d from L e hel-Lopter symmetry p l a n e , t h e r e f o r e the t h r u s t f o r c e moment about t h e h e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l

axis w i l l b e z e r o .

The moment of t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s w i l l a l s o b e z e r o .

The t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e i s a p p l i e d t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , and i t s moment w i l l a l s o b e z e r o . T h e r e f o r e , t h e second h e l i c o p t e r

I157

e q u i l i b r i u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i l l be expressed i n g e n e r a l form by t h e e q u a l i t y

EMx = 0.

232

The t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m of t h i s t y p e of h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e o t h e r f l i g h t regimes can b e achieved i n t h e same way as i n t h e hover regime, i . e . , by banking; o r i t can be o b t a i n e d by s i d e s l i p p i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t ( F i g u r e 97d). balances t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e
Tter

During t h e s i d e s l i p t h e r e

i s formed t h e s i d e a i r p r e s s u r e f o r c e Zf on t h e f u s e l a g e , and t h i s f o r c e

cp

= 0,

The advantages of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o f t h i s t y p e are:

lower l o a d i n g on

t h e t a i l boom, s i n c e t h e r e i s no t w i s t i n g moment of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e , a n d lower h e l i c o p t e r weight i n v i e w of absence of t h e v e r t i c a l f i n . The d i s a d v a n t a g e s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n c l u d e : l a r g e bank a n g l e d u r i n g h o v e r , which c r e a t e s discomfort f o r passen

(1)

g e r s and c r e w and m a k e s h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l d i f f i c u l t ; l a r g e bank a n g l e o r l a r g e s i d e s l i p i n t r a n s l a t i o n a l f l i g h t , which

(2)

increases h e l i c o p t e r p a r a s i t e drag; ( 3 ) p r o b a b i l i t y o f damage t o t h e t a i l r o t o r i n v i e w of i t s v e r y low p o s i ti o n ; danger t o s e r v i c i n g p e r s o n n e l because of t h e low t a i l r o t o r l o c a t i o n .

(4)

T h e r e f o r e , h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h o u t a v e r t i c a l f i n are seldom encountered. The p r e s e n c e of a v e r t i c a l f i n on which t h e t a i l r o t o r i s mounted elimi n a t e s t h e s e drawbacks, s i n c e t h e t a i l r o t o r i s r a i s e d above t h e ground and i t s

axis approaches t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ( F i g u r e 97b).

97d).

Let

US

examine t h e t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h v e r t i c a l f i n ( F i g u r e This h e l i c o p t e r , l i k e t h e h e l i c o p t e r without a vertical f i n , hovers w i t h

a bank a n g l e , b u t t h e bank a n g l e w i l l b e s m a l l , about lo, and is n o t n o t i c e a b l e

233

i n practice.

The n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e bank a n g l e f o l l o w s from t h e t r a n s v e r s e The bank a n g l e l e a d s t o t h e s i d e component G

equilibrium conditions.

-G

s i n y o f t h e weight f o r c e . b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a t i o r

The first transverse e q u i l i b r i u m c r i t e r i o n w i l l

T t e r = Ss

+ G2

or Ttar

(Ss

G2> = 0.

To s a t i s f y t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r (coning a x i s ) must be d e f l e c t e d by some a n g l e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t d i r e c t i o n ; t h e n t h e s i d e component Ss is c r e a t e d , which t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f o r c e G2 b a l a n c e s t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t . S i n c e t h e t a i l r o t o r is r a i s e d above t h e h e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l axis,

t.r b a l a n c e d by t h e s i d e f o r c e moment M

t h e transverse moment r o l l i n g MT

Tt.r

b i s developed.

T h i s moment i s

= Ssh and t h e moment of t h e h o r i z o n t a l

h i n g e s relative t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis. e q u i l i b r i u m c r i t e r i o n w i l l have t h e form

Consequently , t h e second t r a n s v e r s e

Ll58

b T t . r = Ssh

+ Mhh
X'

Why does t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e q u i r e a bank a n g l e i n hover?

I f t h e r e were no bank a n g l e , t h e f i r s t t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m c r i t e r i o n could b e w r i t t e n as

Tt,r

Ss o r T t e r

Ss = 0.

But t o o b t a i n t h e s i d e f o r c e S the main r o t o r cone of r o t a t i o n must be s t i l t e d , which l e a d s t o t h e appearance o f a moment of t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s and

a t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t moment.

If h

- b y then

But T t e r = Ss; t h e r e f o r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s are o b t a i n e d : f o r c e , which i s n o t p o s s i b l e ; t h e r e f o r e a s m a l l bank a n g l e and t h e s i d e weight f o r c e G2 are r e q u i r e d f o r e q u i l i b r i u m .

the

t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t must a t t h e s a m e t i m e b e l a r g e r t h a n and e q u a l t o t h e s i d e

During f l i g h t w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y , t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m i s achieved e i t h e r as a r e s u l t of a bank a n g l e , as i n h o v e r i n g , o r as t h e r e s u l t o f s i d e s l i p , which r e s u l t s i n s i d e p r e s s u r e f o r c e on t h e f u s e l a g e . The transverse e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n w i l l b e expressed by t h e e q u a l i t i e s

Tt.r

= S

+ Z

andT

t.r

b=Sh+Mhh
S

X'

H e l i c o p t e r d i r e c t i o n a l e a u i l i b r i u m i s t h e s t a t e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n which i t does n o t r o t a t e about t h e v e r t i c a l axis. c o n d i t i o n s are The d i r e c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m

To e n s u r e t h e l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e r e a c t i v e moment b e balanced by t h e moments of t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t and main r o t o r t h r u s t s i d e force. Then

= M T t.r

= Tt.rLt.r.

H e r e t h e f o l l o w i n g circumstance must b e noted.

With change of t h e main the

r o t o r t h r u s t t h e r e w i l l a l s o b e a change o f i t s reactive moment, i . e . , d i r e c t i o n a l equilibrium w i l l be disturbed. d i r e c t i o n a l equilibrium. helicopter

T h e r e f o r e , when t h e main r o t o r

t h r u s t i s c h a n g e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o change t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t t o p r e s e r v e But t h i s requirement c o m p l i c a t e s t h e c o n t r o l

.
235

I n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l f l i g h t regimes w i t h h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y , d i r e c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m i s achieved i n t h e same way as i n t h e h o v e r i n g regime

/159

= T

L +Zb, t.r t.r - 4 f t o the

where b i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e Z h e l i c o p t e r v e r t i c a l axis.

5 71.

Helicopter Static S t a b i l i t y

General a n a l y s i s of s t a t i c F t - a b i l i t y .

S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y is t h e capability

of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o r e s t o r e d i s t u r b e d e q u i l i b r i u m by i t s e l f a f t e r removal of t h e f a c t o r s c a u s i n g t h i s d i s t u r b a n c e . ity.
S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y is a t t i t u d e s t a b i l

The h e l i c o p t e r w i l l be s t a b l e i f a f t e r e q u i l i b r i u m is d i s r u p t e d s t a b i l i

z i n g moments develop on t h e h e l i c o p t e r , i . e . , moments d i r e c t e d t o r e s t o r e t h e previous a t t i t u d e . moments.

S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y i s a m p l i f i e d as a r e s u l t of damping

A damping moment i s one which i s d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e o s c i l l a t o r y

motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about some axis.

The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s t a b i l i

z i n g and damping moments i s t h a t t h e former arises as a r e s u l t of e q u i l i b r i u m d i s r u p t i o n and acts a f t e r t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s d i s r u p t i o n . opposite t h e deviation. The damping

moment acts o n l y i n t h e p r o c e s s of e q u i l i b r i u m d i s r u p t i o n and i s d i r e c t e d

I f d u r i n g and a f t e r e q u i l i b r i u m d i s r u p t i o n , moments appear on t h e h e l i c o p t e r which d e f l e c t i t s t i l l f u r t h e r from t h e p r e v i o u s a t t i t u d e , such moments are termed d e s t a b i l i z i n g . The h e l i c o p t e r on which d e s t a b i l i z i n g The h e l i c o p t e r on which no

moments a r i s e i s termed s t a t i c a l l y u n s t a b l e .

moments arise d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e e q u i l i b r i u m d i s r u p t i o n p r o c e s s h a s i n d i f f e r e n t e q u i l i b r i u m and i s termed s t a t i c a l l y n e u t r a l .

The f a c t o r s which d i s t u r b e q u i l i b r i u m are:

(1) u n s e t t l e d s t a t e of t h e a i r ( " t u r b u l e n c e t t ) ;

(2)

random d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l levers; f a i l u r e of some p a r t o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; change of t h e cg l o c a t i o n .

(3)

(4)

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of h e l i c o p t e r e q u i l i b r i u m i s t h e i n t i m a t e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n

of t h e i n d i v i d u a l e q u i l i b r i u m modes w i t h one a n o t h e r .
l o n g i t u d i n a l equilibrium i s disrupted, i.e.,

For example, i f This involves The Disrup

i f t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t e s about

t h e t r a n s v e r s e axis, t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k changes.

a change of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e and t h e r e a c t i v e moment of t h e main r o t o r .

change of t h e r e a c t i v e moment d i s r u p t s t h e d i r e c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m .

t i o n of d i r e c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m l e a d s t o change of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and change of t h e moment of t h i s f o r c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis, which means d i s r u p t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s v e r s e e q u i l i b r i u m . The i n t i m a t e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n among t h e e q u i l i b r i u m modes r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t a c t i o n from t h e p i l o t , d i r e c t e d toward r e s t o r i n g t h e d i s r u p t e d e q u i l i b r i u m , i . e . , h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l becomes more complicated. Does t h e h e l i c o p t e r have s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y ? I n o r d e r t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n w e must examine t h e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e main r o t o r , t h e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e f u s e l a g e , and t h e e f f e c t of t h e s t a b i l i z e r and t a i l r o t o r on t h e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y . Main r o t o r s t - a t i c s t a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o v e l o c i t y . t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y and t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k . reason t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d by AV. When t h e h e l i c o p t e r

1160

e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d , two motion parameters of t h e main r o t o r change:

L e t us assume t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r

i s performing h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t t h e v e l o c i t y V ( F i g u r e 98a).

For some

As a r e s u l t t h e r e i s an

i n c r e a s e of t h e f l a p p i n g motions of t h e b l a d e s , t h e main r o t o r cone axis i s d e f l e c t e d a f t from t h e p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n , which i s shown dashed i n t h e f i g u r e , by t h e a n g l e E.

T h e tilt of the coning axis l e a d s t o t h e appearance of the

f o r c e Px, d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n . t h i s f o r c e t h e main r o t o r v e l o c i t y w i l l d e c r e a s e .

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

237

Figusc 98.

Main r o t o r speed s t a b i l i t y .

I f t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s reduced by AV ( F i g u r e 9 8 b ) , t h e cone axis i s d e f l e c t e d forward, t h e f o r c e Px i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t develops, and t h e f l i g h t velocity w i l l increase. The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e main r o t o r h a s

static s t a b i l i t y with respect t o velocity.

Main r o t o r s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t to--aEg&e- of a t t a c k . The h e l i c o p t e r i s f l y i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y and t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s A . Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a v e r t i c a l a i r c u r r e n t , t h e h e l i c o p t e r drops i t s nose and t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s reduced by AA ( F i g u r e 99a). P r i o r t o dis

r u p t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r passed through t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and t h e moment of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e was zero. Upon d i s r u p t i o n of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r T i s d e f l e c t e d forward and t h e moment M = T a develops r e l a t i v e t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s v e r s e z 1 a x i s ; t h i s moment r o t a t e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e main r o t o r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n t o reduce t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k . zing. I f f o r some r e a s o n t h e main r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d ( F i g u r e 99b), t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r t i l t s a f t and a nose-up moment M c r e a t e d , which causes t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k t o i n c r e a s e . moment i s c r e a t e d .
= T a is z 1 A destabilizing thrust

Consequently, t h i s moment w i l l be d e s t a b i l i

/161

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e main r o t o r i s u n s t a b l e w i t h

r e s p e c t ' t o a n g l e of a t t a c k .

238

I/

F i g u r e 99.

Main r o t o r angle-of-attack

stability.

Helicopter fuselage static s t a b i l i t y .

The f u s e l a g e h a s t h e second l a r g e s t

i n f l u e n c e , a f t e r t h e main r o t o r , on the s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The f u s e l a g e of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r h a s s t a t i c i n s t a b i l i t y about a l l t h r e e axes.

A s m a l l s t a b i l i z e r i s i n s t a l l e d a t t h e a f t end of t h e f u s e l a g e

t o improve l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . on l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y .

I n t h e hover

regime and i n f l i g h t a t low v e l o c i t y t h e s t a b i l i z e r h a s p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t But w i t h i n c r e a s e o f t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y and w i t h r e d u c t i o n of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l i n s t a b i l i t y p r e s e n t i n a hover d e c r e a s e s , and a t n e g a t i v e a n g l e s of a t t a c k t h e f u s e l a g e p l u s s t a b i l i z e r has l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y . Thus, t h e f u s e l a g e of t h e M i - 1

A t p o s i t i v e angles

h a s s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y a t a n g l e s of a t t a c k from -10 t o -2'.

of a t t a c k , t h e f u s e l a g e h a s i n d i f f e r e n t l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m . The h e l i c o p t e r s t a b i l i z e r i s c o n t r o l l a b l e . Stabilizer control is When t h i s lever

accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever.

i s moved upward,main r o t o r p i t c h and s t a b i l i z e r i n c i d e n c e a n g l e are i n c r e a s e d .

The c o n t r o l l a b l e s t a b i l i z e r makes it p o s s i b l e t o tilt t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e t o a n e g a t i v e a n g l e a t t h e maximal s l i g h t speed. I f t h e s t a b i l i z e r angle w e r e c o n s t a n t , a l a r g e n e g a t i v e l i f t f o r c e would develop on the s t a b i l i z e r a t a n e g a t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k , and t h i s f o r c e would create a l a r g e nose-up moment t o p r e v e n t t i l t i n g of t h e f u s e l a g e . When t h e r o t o r p i t c h i s d e c r e a s e d t h e

239

s t a b i l i z e r i n c i d e n c e a n g l e becomes n e g a t i v e and a nose-up moment i s developed, which a i d s i n t r a n s i t i o n i n g the main r o t o r i n t o t h e a u t o r o t a t i v e regime. of t h e a n g l e of e a c h b l a d e element t h e r o t o r rpm increases.

The
I162

main r o t o r a n g l e of attack becomes p o s i t i v e , a n d as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s e

The t a i l r o t o r a l s o a f f e c t s t h e f u s e l a g e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y .
a c q u i r e s d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y as a r e s u l t of t h e t a i l r o t o r .

The f u s e l a g e Thus, when

directional equilibrium is disrupted, i f the helicopter turns t o t h e r i g h t f o r example ( w i t h right-hand r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r ) , t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k of t h e t a i l r o t o r b l a d e elements i n c r e a s e , and t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e i n c r e a s e s by AT. The moment of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t a l s o i n c r e a s e s and equilibrium is restored. I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r t u r n s t o t h e r i g h t , t h e b l a d e element a n g l e s of a t t a c k

w i l l d e c r e a s e and t h e r e f o r e t h e t h r u s t w i l l d e c r e a s e .
of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m .

The t a i l r o t o r moment

becomes less t h a n t h e main r o t o r reactive moment,and t h i s l e a d s t o r e s t o r a t i o n

S i n c e t h e t a i l r o t o r is mounted above t h e h e l i c o p t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s and creates a t r a n s v e r s e t h r u s t moment, t h i s l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t r a n s

verse s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y .

Therefore, t h e t a i l r o t o r gives t h e fuselage d i r e c t i o n a l

and t r a n s v e r s e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y .

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s s l i g h t s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and i n d i f f e r e n t e q u i l i b r i u m i n hover and i n t h e o t h e r

vertical f l i g h t regimes.
The s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of t w i n - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s d i f f e r s somewhat from t h a t of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r helicopter. The two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r w i t h tandem

arrangement of t h e r o t o r s h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y , w h i l e t h e two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r w i t h side-by-side transverse s t a b i l i t y . arrangement h a s h i g h e r

T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e t h r u s t of

t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s when e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d .

E f f e c t on h e l i c o p t e r s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of h o r i z o n t a l hinge o f f s e t .

I f the

main r o t o r hub h a s o f f s e t h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge moments have c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e helicopter. The l a r g e r t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e o f f s e t and t h e h i g h e r the main Thus, i n c r e a s e of t h e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y i s The appearance of t h e r o t o r rpm, t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r damping moment and t h e g r e a t e r t h e helicopter static stability. achieved by i n c r e a s i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e o f f s e t .

damping moment i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e g y r o s c o p i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e main r o t o r . A s i s w e l l known, t h e b a s i c p r o p e r t y of t h e gyroscope i s i t s a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n t h e a t t i t u d e of i t s axis of r o t a t i o n f i x e d i n space. shows up more s t r o n g l y , t h e l a r g e r t h e m a s s t h e r o t a t i n g body. t h i s question.
L e t us assume t h a t t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s been

This property of

and t h e

h i g h e r t h e rpm

What e f f e c t does t h e g y r o s c o p i c e f f e c t of t h e main r o t o r W e s h a l l u s e a n example t o i n v e s t i g a t

have on t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ?

d i s t u r b e d and i t h a s s t a r t e d t o r o t a t e about t h e t r a n s v e r s e axis i n t h e nosedown d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 100). In view

1163

<< I'
; \

damp

of i t s g y r o s c o p i c p r o p e r t i e s t h e main r o t o r w i l l l a g behind t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e t h e main r o t o r hub axis i s d e f l e c t e d from t h e cone-of r o t a t i o n axis. The h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e moment

c
I

Mhh

= N c w i l l be directed

.rY
F i g u r e 100. moment. Main r o t o r damping

!h

ha

opposite t h e t i l t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; t h e r e f o r e i t w i l l b e a damping moment. When e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d , t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l r o t a t e relative t o t h e s t a t i o n a r y cone-of-rotation

axis of

t h e main r o t o r as a r e s u l t of t h e g y r o s c o p i c e f f e c t .

And t h i s means t h a t t h e

h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y w i l l a l s o d i s p l a c e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h e l i c o p t e r

relative t o t h e cone-of-rotation

axis (shown dashed i n F i g u r e 100).

The

r e s u l t i s t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e t h r u s t moment

= Ta.

The damping moment

w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e s m of t h e two moments M u = + = N c + Ta. The damp h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm, t h e l a r g e r damping moment w i l l b e l a r g e r , t h e

I

Mhh

t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e o f f s e t , and t h e lower t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , i . e . , t h e l a r g e r t h e v e r t i c a l cg displacement. The ann a

and t h e t h r u s t f o r c e moment w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e d i s t a n c e Y from t h e h u b r o t a t i o n p l a n e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .

5 72.

H e l i c o p t e r -@Fit S t a b i l i t y

~. General a n a l y s i s - of dynapic s t s b - i l i t y .

While s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y d e f i n e s

t h e a t t i t u d e s t a b i l i t y , dynamic s t a b i l i t y d e f i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r motion a f t e r d i s r u p t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m . I n e q u i l i b r i u m t h e h e l i c o p t e r travels Such motion

i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y and w i t h o u t r o t a t i o n .

i s c a l l e d undisturbed.
c a l l e d disturbed.

I f e q u i l i b r i u m is d i s r u p t e d , t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t e s T h i s motion i s

about i t s axes and t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n change.

D i s t u r b e d motion may b e e i t h e r a p e r i o d i c o r o s c i l l a t o r y .

A p e r i o d i c motion i s motion i n one d i r e c t i o n from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n . For example, when e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s t u r b e d t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y d e v i a t e s (Figure 101, s o l i d l i n e ) . A f t e r elimination of t h e f a c t o r causing

d i s r u p t i o n of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m , the n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t u r b e d motion may d i f f e r .

F i g u r e 101.

Dynamic s t a b i l i t y .
/164

If t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y approaches t h e l i n e of unperturbed motion ( F i g u r e l o l a , dashed l i n e )

, the

helicopter has aperiodic s t a b i l i t y ; i f t h e

242

h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c o n t i n u e s t o d e v i a t e f u r t h e r from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m l i n e ( F i g u r e 101b) t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s a p e r i o d i c i n s t a b i l i t y . motion i s p e r i o d i c back-and-forth Oscillatory motion relative t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m l i n e .

I f a f t e r d i s r u p t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y travels along a wave-like c u r v i l i n e a r t r a j e c t o r y and t h i s motion i s damped, t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s o s c i l l a t o r y dynamic s t a b i l i t y ( F i g u r e 101c). i n s t a b i l i t y o r o s c i l l a t o r y i n s t a b i l i t y (Figure l o l d ) . Most f r e q u e n t l y t h e d i s t u r b e d motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r is o s c i l l a t o r y t a n e o u s l y about a l l axes. I f t h e amplitude of t h e d i s t u r b e d o s c i l l a t o r y motion i n c r e a s e s , t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s dynamic

and t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be complex, s i n c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r o s c i l l a t e s simul Moreover, t h e s h o r t and l o n g p e r i o d i c o s c i l l a t i o n s The s h o r t - p e r i o d h e l i c o p t e r o s c i l l a t i o n s are a r e superposed on one a n o t h e r .

t h o s e about t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y w i t h account f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e main r o t o r damping moment; t h e long-period o s c i l l a t i o n s are t h o s e about a c e n t e r l o c a t e d a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e from t h e h e l i c o p t e r . H e l i c o p t e r t r a n s v e r s e o s c i l_l_ _ i o n s i n t-~ h o v e r i n g regime. at he
L e t us

~~~

a s s u m e t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r banks t o t h e a n g l e y i n t h e hovering regime ( F i g u r e 102 a ) .

W e r e s o l v e t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight f o r c e i n t o t h e components:

a c t i n g i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry, and G

2 f o r c e G2 = G s i n y i s unbalanced and causes s i d e s l i p of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

perpendicular t o t h i s plane.

G1
The

As

The

a r e s u l t of t h e i n c r e a s e of t h e s i d e s l i p v e l o c i t y , t h e main r o t o r cone-of r e v o l u t i o n a x i s w i l l t i l t t o t h e s i d e o p p o s i t e t h e s l i p ( F i g u r e 102b). f o r c e reduces t h e bank a n g l e . f o r c e Px i s c r e a t e d , which reduces t h e s i d e s l i p v e l o c i t y and t h e moment of t h i s But t h e f o r c e Px is less t h a n t h e f o r c e G
2;

t h e r e f o r e , t h e s i d e l s i p v e l o c i t y w i l l i n c r e a s e and t h e , v e l o c i t y w i l l be maximal a t t h e moment t h e h e l i c o p t e r a r r i v e s a t t h e p o s i t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 102c. The h e l i c o p t e r c o n t i n u e s i t s motion i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 102d). Then t h e f o r c e G

changes from d r i v i n g t o r e t a r d i n g , and t h e s i d e s l i p v e l o c i t y

243

F i g u r e 102.

Helicopter lateral o s c i l l a t i o n s .

decreases.

As a r e s u l t , t h e t i l t of t h e cone-of-revolution

axis d e c r e a s e s

and t h e moment of the f o r c e Px about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis banks t h e h e l i copter i n t h e opposite d i re c t i o n . When the h e l i c o p t e r r e a c h e s i t s m a x i m a l The cone-of-revolution
=

I165

d e v i a t i o n ( F i g u r e 102e) f u r t h e r motion t e r m i n a t e s .

axis c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e hub a x i s and t h e f o r c e Px

cycle repeats.

2 r e a c h e s a maximum and causes motion i n t h e reverse d i r e c t i o n and t h e whole T h i s t r a n s v e r s e rocking of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l i n c r e a s e continuously,and t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l t u r n over i f t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s are n o t terminated i n t i m e .

0.

But t h e f o r c e G

W have examined i n t h i s example o n l y the t r a n s v e r s e o s c i l l a t i o n s , b u t e

i n r e a l i t y t h e t r a n s v e r s e o s c i l l a t i o n s are supplemented by l o n g i t u d i n a l and d i r e c t i o n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e p a t t e r n of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions w i l l b e more complex.

244

L o n g i t u d i n a l o s c i l l . a t i o n s of h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t w i t h h o r i z o n t a l velocity.

If t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m of a h e l i c o p t e r i s d i s t u r b e d ,
the helicopter w i l l The e x i s t e n c e of such o s c i l l a t i o n s i s The l o n g i t u d i n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s

l o n g i t u d i n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s develop ( F i g u r e 1 0 3 ) , i . e . ,

t r a v e l along a wave-like t r a j e c t o r y .

confirmed by f l i g h t tests i n which a u t o m a t i c i n s t r u m e n t s r e c o r d t h e n a t u r e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o s c i l l a t i o n s about a l l axes. oscillations. oscillations.

1166

have a c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r p e r i o d ( t o t a l o s c i l l a t i o n time) t h a n t h e t r a n s v e r s e The amplitude of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s i n H e l i c o p t e r o s c i l l a t i o n s about t h e v e r t i c a l axis a l s o take p l a c e ; t h e c o u r s e of t i m e , a l t h o u g h more s l o w l y t h a n t h e amplitude of t h e t r a n s v e r s e however,they are performed w i t h a p e r i o d l o n g e r t h a n t h e t r a n s v e r s e o s c i l l a t i o n s but s h o r t e r than t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s .

F i g u r e 103.

Helicopter longitudinal oscillations.

From t h i s a n a l y s i s w e can conclude t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s dynamic instability. T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s d i s t u r b e d T h i s m e a n s t h a t i n e v e r y case of

i t w i l l have an o s c i l l a t o r y motion w i t h i n c r e a s i n g amplitude and cannot by

i t s e l f eliminate these oscillations.

i.e.,

e q u i l i b r i u m d i s r u p t i o n t h e p i l o t must take measures t o r e s t o r e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m , he m u s t control t h e helicopter. 73. Concept of H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l

By t h e term " h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l " w e mean t h e a c t i o n s of t h e p i l o t d i r e c t e d toward a c h i e v i n g two o b j e c t i v e s : r e s t o r a t i o n of d i s t u r b e d e q u i l i b r i u m and d i s r u p t i o n of . e x i s t i n g e q u i l i b r i u m .

W e see t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s are

245

c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b u t i n combination t h e y l e a d t o achievement of t h e f l i g h t obj e c t ives

The a c t i o n s d i r e c t e d toward r e s t o r i n g d i s r u p t e d e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are n e c e s s a r y because f l i g h t takes p l a c e most f r e q u e n t l y i n rough

a i r , when t h e r e i s continuous d i s r u p t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m and i t must b e con

t i n u o u s l y r e s t o r e d . Otherwise t h e h e l i c o p t e r cannot f l y i n t h e r e q u i r e d d i r e c t i o n and w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d v e l o c i t y . The work done by t h e p i l o t t o This operation has r e c e n t l y Helicopter equilibrium is r e s t o r e d

r e s t o r e e q u i l i b r i u m i s t h e primary c o n t r o l work. been mechanized w i t h t h e a i d of a u t o p i l o t s .

by t h e a c t i o n of the c o n t r o l moments about t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of t h e h e l i copter. The c o n t r o l moments are c r e a t e d by t h e main and t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e s . T h i s means t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l organs are t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s . The p i l o t ' s a c t i o n s d i r e c t e d toward d i s r u p t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r e q u i l i b r i u m are r e q u i r e d when i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a l t e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o r v e l o c i t y , i . e . , t h e f l i g h t regime. alter

T o change t h e f l i g h t regime i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o change t h e

magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and change t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n s p a c e , which i s achieved by the a c t i o n o f the c o n t r o l moments c r e a t e d by the main and t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e s . T h i s means t h a t

i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l reduces t o c o n t r o l o f t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r and c o n t r o l of t h e magnitude of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t . The magnitude of t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r i s changed by changing t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h ; t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h i s f o r c e v e c t o r i s changed by changing t h e main r o t o r c y c l i c p i t c h .

74.

Change o f Main Rotor C o l l e c t i v e and C y c l i c P i t c h

Simultaneous r o t a t i o n of a l l t h e b l a d e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e axial h i n g e s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n and through t h e same a n g l e i s termed c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h change. I n c r e a s e of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e main r o t o r S e q u e n t i a l change of t h e b l a d e p i t c h i n azimuth i s termed c y c l i c

/167

t h r u s t force.

246

p i t c h change. ( F i g u r e 104a).

During c y c l i c p i t c h c h a n g e s t h e p i t c h o f each b l a d e i n c r e a s e s

o v e r a 180 azimuth range and d e c r e a s e s i n t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e c i r c l e

F i g u r e 104.

Main r o t o r c y c l i c p i t c h v a r i a t i o n .

When t h e p i t c h i s changed,the b l a d e t h r u s t changes and i t s moment about t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e changes, which l e a d s t o f l a p p i n g motions and t i l t of t h e cone-of-revolution a x i s and d e f l e c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r .

I f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r needs t o b e d e f l e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e

210" azimuth, t h e b l a d e p i t c h must be minimal a t t h i s aximuth and maximal a t

t h e o p p o s i t e azimuth - 30". Then t h e p i t c h d e c r e a s e s fran the 30" azimuth t o t h e 210" azimuth and i n c r e a s e s from t h e 210" azimuth t o t h e 30" azimuth.
A similar p i t c h change i s observed f o r each b l a d e .

Change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e

and c y c l i c p i t c h i s accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of a s p e c i a l system - t h e main rotor tilt control.

E 75.

Purpose and P r i n c i p l e of t h e Main Rotor.

~~

T i l t C o n t r o l System

The main r o t o r t i l t c o n t r o l i s designed t o c o n t r o l t h e c o l l e c t i v e and

cyclic pitch.

T h i s system i s used t o c o n t r o l t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e i n T h e r e f o r e , t h e tilt c o n t r o l i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t There are t h r e e t y p e s of main r o t o r The l a t t e r t y p e of t i l t positioning

magnitude and d i r e c t i o n .
11

u n i t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l system.
tilt c o n t r o l s : of t h e r o t o r s .
ring,

I168

s p i d e r , " and crank t y p e s .

c o n t r o l i s u s e d o n l y on two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h side-by-side

The r i n g t y p e tilt c o n t r o l can b e used on a l l h e l i c o p t e r s . ( F i g u r e 105) :

It i n c l u d e s

(1) movable r i n g ( p l a t e ) ;
(2)
fixed ring; slider; u n i v e r s a l h i n g e o r cardan; s c i s s o r s o r bellcrank;

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

v e r t i c a l c o n t r o l rods.

The movable r i n g of t h e t i l t c o n t r o l r o t a t e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e f i x e d ring.

It i s d r i v e n from t h e main r o t o r hub by means of a s c i s s o r s .

On t h e

movable r i n g t h e r e are levers which are connected w i t h t h e b l a d e p i t c h c o n t r o l h o r n s by means o f v e r t i c a l l i n k s . The f i x e d r i n g i s connected w i t h t h e s l i d e r by means of a u n i v e r s a l , which c o n s i s t s of a r i n g and two mutually perpendicu

lar shafts.
direction.

The u n i v e r s a l p e r m i t s t h e t i l t c o n t r o l r i n g s t o d e f l e c t i n any I f t h e p l a n e of t h e r i n g s i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e main r o t o r s h a f t /169

axis, when t h e movable r i n g r o t a t e s t h e v e r t i c a l l i n k s w i l l n o t have any v e r t i c a l displacement and t h e b l a d e p i t c h w i l l n o t change.

t h i s case t h e r o t o r w i l l n o t have any c y c l i c p i t c h change. I f t h e p l a n e of t h e r i n g s i s t i l t e d forward, t h e v e r t i c a l l i n k s w i l l b e Consequently, i n

a t t h e lowest p o s i t i o n a t t h e 180' azimuth and t h e b l a d e s w i l l have t h e mini

m a l p i t c h a t t h i s azimuth.

A t t h e 360' azimuth t h e l i n k s occupy t h e h i g h e s t

248

F i g u r e 105. Ring-type t i l t c o n t r o l : 1 - s l i d e r ; 2 - l a t e r a l c o n t r o l lever; 3 - f i x e d r i n g ; 4 - movable r i n g ( p l a t e ) ; 5 - lever on movable r i n g ; 6 - v e r t i c a l Pink; 7 - b l a d e p i t c h change horn; 8 - a x i a l h i n g e ; 9 - v e r t i c a l hinge; 10 - h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e ; 1 - s c i s s o r s ; 1 2 - u n i v e r s a l r i n g ; 1 1 3 - u n i v e r s a l l o n g i t u d i n a l axis; 1 4 - l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l l e v e r ; 1 5 - c y c l i c p i t c h lever; 16 - c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e l e v e r . p o s i t i o n and t h e b l a d e p i t c h w i l l be m a x i m a l . t h e l i n k s move upward and t h e p i t c h i n c r e a s e s . change t h e cone-of-revolution pitch. From 0 t o 180" azimuth t h e From 180 t o 360" azimuth C y c l i c p i t c h change i s accom

l i n k s move downward and t h e b l a d e p i t c h d e c r e a s e s .

p l i s h e d i n t h i s way. W e mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h a t as a r e s u l t of c y c l i c p i t c h

axis i s t i l t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of minimal

T h i s means t h a t , i n o r d e r t o tilt t h e cone axis i n any d i r e c t i o n , t h e

p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e movable r i n g of t h e tilt c o n t r o l must b e t i l t e d i n

t h i s same d i r e c t i o n .

The t i l t i n g is accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of two levers

The c o n t r o l system levers are connected w i t h When t h e s t i c k is moved

on t h e f i x e d t i l t c o n t r o l r i n g .

t h e c y c l i c p i t c h s t i c k , l o c a t e d i n t h e cockpit.

forward, t h e motion i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l lever on t h e f i x e d r i n g of t h e t i l t c o n t r o l , and t h e f i x e d r i n g r o t a t e s around t h e t r a n s

verse axis of t h e u n i v e r s a l s o t h a t i t s l e a d i n g edge descends.

T h i s means t h a t t h e p i t c h i s minimal a t t h e 180" azimuth,and t h e cone-of r e v o l u t i o n axis i s t i l t e d forward. When t h e c y c l i c p i t c h s t i c k i s moved a f t , t h e l e a d i n g edge of t h e t i l t c o n t r o l r i n g rises and t h e p i t c h i s minimal a t t h e 0' azimuth and t h e cone-of-revolution

axis t i l t s a f t .

The c o n c l u s i o n

is t h a t when t h e s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d t h e cone axis t i l t s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n .

When t h e s t i c k i s moved t o t h e r i g h t o r l e f t t h e motions are t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e s t i c k t o t h e l a t e r a l c o n t r o l l e v e r , and t h e t i l t c o n t r o l r i n g i s r o t a t e d about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis of t h e u n i v e r s a l . previous conclusion s t i l l holds: cone-of-revolution I n t h i s case our

when t h e s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d t h e main r o t o r C o n t r o l of t h e c y c l i c

a x i s d e f l e c t s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n .

p i t c h and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r i s accomplished from t h e c o c k p i t with t h e a i d of t h e c y c l i c p i t c h s t i c k .

On t h e t i l t c o n t r o l s l i d e r , t h e r e i s a lever which i s connected by t h e

c o n t r o l system w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever l o c a t e d i n t h e c o c k p i t . When t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever i s moved u p , t h e t i l t c o n t r o l s l i d e r rises. A l l t h e v e r t i c a l l i n k s move upward t o g e t h e r and r o t a t e a l l t h e b l a d e s t o a higher incidence angle. I n t h i s way t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h i s i n c r e a s e d . When

t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e l e v e r i s moved down, t h e t i l t c o n t r o l s l i d e r lowers and t h e main r o t o r c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h d e c r e a s e s . The t i l t c o n t r o l s l i d e r i s There connected by t h e c o n t r o l l i n k a g e w i t h t h e s t a b i l i z e r r o t a t i o n lever.

f o r e , change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h change o f t h e s t a b i l i z e r incidence angle. On some h e l i c o p t e r s t h e main r o t o r c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s coupled w i t h t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h c o n t r o l .

/I70

When t h i s c o u p l i n g i s used on h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h right-hand r o t a t i o n of t h e main r o t o r , increases o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e t h r u s t l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e o f t h e p i t c h and of the t a i l r o t o r thrust f o r c e , and c o n t r o l o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s made easier.
W i t h increase of t h e main r o t o r c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h there i s an
increase of i t s reactive moment, which c a u s e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t u r n t o the

left.

T h i s r o t a t i o n i s compensated by i n c r e a s e of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t . W e have examined a v e r y s i m p l e tilt c o n t r o l scheme of t h e r i n g t y p e .

The real tilt c o n t r o l h a s two essential c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which must b e mentioned. The f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h a t t h e h i n g e s of a l l t h e levers on t h e tilt c o n t r o l movable and f i x e d r i n g s are l o c a t e d i n t h e same pl-e, through t h e p o i E t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of the universal axes. and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r . t h e following. I n t h e f u n c t i o n a l s c h e m a t i c ( F i g u r e 106) t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l levers are l o c a t e d on t h e f i x e d r i n g o p p o s i t e t h e u n i v e r s a l axes. I n t h e real tilt c o n t r o l t h e s e levers are l o c a t e d a t some a n g l e relative t o
the u n i v e r s a l axes, w h i c h i s c a l l e d the c o n t r o l lead a n g l e

which p a s s e s

T h i s arrangement

o f the h i n g e s m a k e s p o s s i b l e independence of the a c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l

The second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c amounts t o

() . x

In the

absence of l e a d t h e cone a x i s w i l l n o t d e f l e c t i n the d i r e c t i o n of c y c l i c c o n t r o l s t i c k d e f l e c t i o n , r a t h e r at some a n g l e ahead i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of rotor rotation. T h i s l a g i n the d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e cone-of-revolution axis

i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n e r t i a of t h e b l a d e s .
A t t h e 180" azimuth t h e p i t c h i s minimal, b u t t h e b l a d e f l a p p i n g a n g l e

w i l l n o t b e minimal, since t h e b l a d e s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o f l a p down by inertia. T h i s means t h a t the cone-of-revolution d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e cone-of-revolution a x i s t i l t s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of the axis w i l l not coincide w i t h t h e stick There 210" azimuth r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e 180" azimuth, i.e., t h e d e f l e c t i o n , and t h i s makes c o n t r o l o f the h e l i c o p t e r more d i f f i c u l t . f o r e , t h e tilt c o n t r o l ring i s d e f l e c t e d w i t h a l e a d a n g l e r o t o r cone-of-revolution

= 25

30",

which t h e n l e a d s t o c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e s t i c k and t h e m a i n

axis.

251

F i g u r e 106. Main r o t o r c o n t r o l l e a d : 1 main r o t o r s h a f t ; 2 - s l i d e r ; 3 u n i v e r s a l r i n g ; 4 - universal l a t e r a l axis; 5 tilt c o n t r o l f i x e d bearing b a l l s ; 7 tilt c o n t r o l ring; 6 movable r i n g ; 8 - l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l lever; 9 - u n i v e r s a l l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ; 10 - l a t e r a l c o n t r o l lever; x1 l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l l e a d a n g l e ; x2 l a t e r a l c o n t r o l l e a d a n g l e .

8.7

76.

S i n g l e - r o t o r H e l i c o p t e r ConLrgl-PrincipLeZ

/171 -

H e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l i n v o l v e s c o n t r o i of t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r about i t s p r i n c i p a l axes and c o n t r o l of t h e v e r t i c a l displacement. On t h i s b a s i s t h e e n t i r e c o n t r o l complex c o n s i d e r e d as t h e sum of t h e p i l o t ' s a c t i o n s can be d i v i d e d i n t o l o n g i t u d i n a l , l a t e r a l , and d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l , and a l s o c o n t r o l of t h e up-and-down displacement of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . This d i v i s i o n

i s p u r e l y a r b i t r a r y , s i n c e t h e p i l o t ' s c o n t r o l a c t i o n s are u n i f i e d and are

accomplished s i m u l t a n e o u s l y and synchronously. However, t h i s d i v i s i o n f a c i l i t a t e s s t u d y of t h e c o n t r o l q u e s t i o n and corresponds t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l system, which i n c l u d e s f o u r c o n t r o l loops which are independent of one a n o t h e r and are named t h e same as t h e names of t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r o l modes.

L o n t i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l i s c o n t r o l of h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n about t h e t r a n s

verse a x i s .

It i s achieved by t h e a c t i o n on t h e h e l i c o p t e r of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l

, which are c r e a t e d w i t h fore-and-aft d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l moments M Zcont c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l s t i c k .

As a r e s u l t of t h e t i l t of t h e cone-of-revolution
axis i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t i c k d e f l e c t i o n , t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t v e c t o r

tilts.

I f p r i o r t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e s t i c k t h e h e l i c o p t e r was i n e q u i l i b r i u m ,
t h e t h r u s t f o r c e moment w a s z e r o ( F i g u r e 1 0 7 a ) , a f t e r forward d e f l e c t i o n

i.e.,

of t h e s t i c k t h e cone-of-revolution

axis d e f l e c t s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n .

The

t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r p a s s e s a t t h e d i s t a n c e a from t h e t r a n s v e r s e axis and

creates t h e t h r u s t moment

%=

T a , which w i l l b e a d i v i n g moment.

I n addition

t o t h e t h r u s t moment, t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e d i v i n g moment Mhh

= N c is created.
Z

The sum o f t h e s e two moments creates t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l moment. t i o n under t h e a c t i o n o f t h i s moment. h e l i c o p t e r n o s e rises.

The

h e l i c o p t e r w i l l be r o t a t e d about t h e t r a n s v e r s e axis i n t h e nose-down d i r e c Aft d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s t i c k l e a d s t o t h e formation of a nose-up p i t c h i n g moment, under t h e a c t i o n of which t h e

If t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y , t h e r o t a t i o n w i l l
c o n t i n u e u n t i l t h e s t a b i l i z e r l o n g i t u d i n a l moment b a l a n c e s t h e c o n t r o l moment.

1172

If t h e h e l i c o p t e r does n o t have s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y
As a

t o deflect t h e s t i c k i n t h e opposite direction t o stop t h e rotation. t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r and i t s h o r i z o n t a l component P. of t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y . of t h e f l i g h t speed.

r e s u l t of h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n t h e r e i s a change of t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e T h i s l e a d s t o a change Hence w e can conclude t h a t forward d e f l e c t i o n o f

t h e c y c l i c p i t c h s t i c k l e a d s t o lowering of t h e h e l i c o p t e r nose and i n c r e a s e Aft d e f l e c t i o n of t h e s t i c k l e a d s t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r nose I f t h e s t i c k i s moved a f t w h i l e Therefore t h e r i s i n g and r e d u c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t speed.

t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s hovering, i t w i l l s t a r t t o move backward. c o n t r o l s t i c k i n an a i r p l a n e .

o p e r a t i o n of t h e c y c l i c p i t c h s t i c k i s analogous t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e

HH
/

F i g u r e 107.

C o n t r o l of s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .

253

L a t e r a l c o n t r o l r e f e r s t o c o n t r o l of h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis.

Lateral c o n t r o l i s accomplished by d e f l e c t i n g t h e c y c l i c
The main r o t o r coning axis and t h e t h r u s t
The d e f l e c t i o n

pitch stick t o the right or left.

f o r c e v e c t o r t i l t t o t h e same s i d e as the s t i c k ( F i g u r e 107b).

of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r and t h e main r o t o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n l e a d s t o c r e a t i o n of t h e l a t e r a l c o n t r o l moment as t h e sum of t h e moments of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s . The magnitude of t h e moment w i l l b e Under t h e in

l a r g e r , t h e h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r rpm, t h e l a r g e r t h e s t i c k d e f l e c t i o n , and t h e lower t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y . f l u e n c e of t h e c o n t r o l moment, t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l r o t a t e u n t i l t h e s t i c k

i s moved i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .
D i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l r e f e r s t o c o n t r o l of h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n about t h e

v e r t i c a l axis.

The h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t e s about t h e v e r t i c a l axis under t h e

i n f l u e n c e of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l moment, which i s c r e a t e d as a r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e main r o t o r reactive moment and t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t moment

Mr

M T ~ . ~ . Change of t h e t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e and i t s moment These p e d a l s are coupled by l i n k a g e w i t h t h e

about t h e h e l i c o p t e r vertical axis i s accomplished by d e f l e c t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l pedals.

p i t c h change mechanism mounted on t h e t a i l r o t o r gearbox. I f t h e r i g h t p e d a l i s pushed, t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h i s i n c r e a s e d .

As a

r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e by t h e amount AT, i t s moment i n c r e a s e s .

The t a i l r o t o r t h r u s t moment becomes g r e a t e r t h a n t h e main r o t o r r e a c t i v e

moment and t h e h e l i c o p t e r t u r n s t o t h e r i g h t . t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h is reduced. I f t h e l e f t p e d a l i s pushed, I n view o f t h e d e c r e a s e of t h e t a i l r o t o r

t h r u s t and moment,the l a t t e r becomes smaller t h a n t h e main r o t o r reactive moment. Under the i n f l u e n c e of t h i s moment t h e h e l i c o p t e r t u r n s t o t h e l e f t .
5 77.

Dual-Rotor H e l i c o p t e r CgnJ-rol P r i n c i p l e s ~.

1173

C o n t r o l p r i n c i p l e of d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p L e r w i t h tandem arrangement o f the l i f t i n g rotors. L o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s achieved by

r!

d e f l e c t i n g t h e s t i c k f o r e and a f t .

T h i s l e a d s t o c y c l i c change o f t h e p i t c h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of the s t i c k ( F i g u r e

of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s , as a r e s u l t of which t h e axes of the cones-of-rotation

are t i l t e d forward o r backward, i . e . ,

108).

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n of t h e p i t c h t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l

change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h , i n which t h e t h r u s t of one r o t o r i s i n c r e a s e d w h i l e that of t h e o t h e r i s decreased.

?; /?

If t h e s t i c k is deflected

forward, t h e axes of t h e cones-of r o t a t i o n of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s are t i l t e d forward. The c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h of t h e f r o n t r o t o r is reduced and t h a t of t h e a f t r o t o r i s i n c r e a s e d .

As t h e t h r u s t f o r c e v e c t o r s t i l t ,
t h e r e i s a change o f t h e t h r u s t f o r c e arms r e l a t i v e t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r

9;
F i g u r e 108. C o n t r o l of tandem twinrotor helicopter.

t r a n s v e r s e axis.

The r e s u l t i s

t h e c r e a t i o n of a d i v i n g moment e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e t h r u s t moments of t h e f r o n t and rear rotors.

Mx

= Tla

T2b

cont

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h i s moment the h e l i c o p t e r nose w i l l . drop, i n c r e a s i n g t h e f l i g h t speed. I f t h e s t i c k i s moved a f t , a climbing moment

i s c r e a t e d and t h e h e l i c o p t e r n o s e w i l l rise, reducing t h e f l i g h t speed. Lateral c o n t r o l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s achieved by d e f l e c t i n g t h e s t i c k

t o t h e r i g h t and l e f t .

T h i s l e a d s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s i d e n t i c a l change of t h e

c y c l i c p i t c h of t h e f r o n t and rear l i f t i n g r o t o r s .

A l a t e r a l c o n t r o l moment

appears which t h e n causes r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r around t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l

axis.

255

D i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l , o r c o n t r o l of h e l i c o p t e r r o t a t i o n around t h e

v e r t i c a l axis, i s accomplished w i t h t h e a i d of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l p e d a l s .
D e f l e c t i o n of the p e d a l s l e a d s t o d i f f e r e n t i a l change o f t h e c y c l i c p i t c h of the l i f t i n g rotors. The, axes of t h e c o n e s - o f - r o t a t i o n d e f l e c t i n opposite

d i r e c t i o n s , forming t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l moment as a r e s u l t of s i d e f o r c e s . I f t h e r i g h t p e d a l i s pushed, t h e coning axis of t h e f r o n t r o t o r i s d e f l e c t e d t o the left. The s i d e components of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e s create I174

a p a i r , whose moment t u r n s t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t h e r i g h t .
C o n t r o l p r i n c i p l e o f - t h e d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h side-by-side rotors. l i f ti%

The c o n t r o l s t i c k i s moved f o r e and a f t f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l ,

and t h i s causes t h e same change o f t h e c y c l i c p i t c h o f t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s and d e f l e c t i o n of t h e axes of t h e cones-of-revolution displacement. i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of s t i c k T h i s creates a l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l moment ( j u s t as i n t h e case

of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r ) .

Lateral c o n t r o l i s accomplished by d e f l e c t i n g t h e s t i c k t o t h e r i g h t o r
left. T h i s d e f l e c t i o n l e a d s t o d i f f e r e n t i a l change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h I f t h e s t i c k i s moved t o t h e r i g h t , t h e c o l l e c t i v e

of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s .

p i t c h of t h e r i g h t r o t o r i s reduced and t h a t of t h e l e f t r o t o r i s i n c r e a s e d . Change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h causes change of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e s . The

d i f f e r e n c e of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e s of t h e r i g h t and l e f t l i f t i n g r o t o r s l e a d s t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a l a t e r a l moment which t h e n c a u s e s a bank t o t h e r i g h t . The h e l i c o p t e r w i t h side-by-side arrangement of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s h a s an a u x i l i a r y wing which g i v e s t h e h e l i c o p t e r l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y .

D i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s accomplished by t h e c o n t r o l moment which i s c r e a t e d by d i f f e r e n t i a l change of t h e c y c l i c p i t c h and t i l t i n g of t h e axes o f t h e c o n e s - o f - r o t a t i o n backward. i n opposite directions: forward and of I f t h e r i g h t p e d a l i s pushed, t h e axis o f t h e c o n e - o f - r o t a t i o n

t h e r i g h t r o t o r i s d e f l e c t e d a f t w h i l e t h a t of t h e l e f t i s d e f l e c t e d forward. The h o r i z o n t a l components of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e s create t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l moment which causes r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t h e r i g h t .

C o n t r o l p r i n c i p l e of d u a l - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h c o a x i a l r o t o r s .
- r

Longi

t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l i s accomplished s i m i l a r l y t o t h e c o n t r o l o f the s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r , i . e . , by c y c l i c change of t h e p i t c h of t h e upper and lower l i f t i n g r o t o r s . When t h e s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d , t h e axes of t h e cones-of r o t a t i o n d e f l e c t i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as t h e s t i c k , c r e a t i n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l o r l a t e r a l c o n t r o l moment. D i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l i s accomplished by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p e d a l s , which l e a d s t o d i f f e r e n t i a l change of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s . T h i s does n o t c a u s e any change of t h e o v e r a l l t h r u s t , b u t l e a d s t o a change of t h e reactive moments o f the l i f t i n g r o t o r s and t h e h e l i c o p t e r t u r n s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a c t i o n of the l a r g e r r e a c t i v e moment. C o n t r o l of the v e r t i c a l displacement of a l l h e l i c o p t e r s i s t h e same. When t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e l e v e r i s moved up, t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h of
a l l t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s i s i n c r e a s e d , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e t h r u s t and

upward displacement of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . I f t h e c o l l e c t i v e - t h r o t t l e lever i s fixed, the collective pitch

i s reduced,

t h e t h r u s t f o r c e d e c r e a s e s , and

t h e h e l i c o p t e r t r a n s i t i o n s i n t o descent.
5 78.

Concept of H e l i c o p t e r C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y

H e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o i t s a b i l i t y t o b e r o t a t e d about
i t s p r i n c i p a l axes under t h e a c t i o n o f the c o n t r o l moments, which a r e c r e a t e d

by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l f o r c e s on t h e command levers. Control e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

command l e v e r s .

The c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y i s charac

t e r i z e d by c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , c o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t y , c o n t r o l l a g , and t h e

By c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s w e mean t h e magnitude of C o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y Longitudinal

the c o n t r o l moment p e r d e g r e e of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e t i l t c o n t r o l and p e r d e g r e e o f

change of t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h .

as w e l l , i s d i v i d e d i n t o l o n g i t u d i n a l , l a t e r a l , and d i r e c t i o n a l .

257

c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s found from t h e r a t i o - o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l

Mz

moment t o t h e t i l t c o n t r o l l o n g i t u d i n a l d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e TI.The l a t e r a l c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s d e f i n e d by t h e r a t i o
X

2 (where x i s t h e t i l t c o n t r o l
control effectiveness is

transverse d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e ) .
M found from t h e r a t i o -Y

The d i r e c t i o n a l

(where A+ i s t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h change).

A4

L o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s depends on t a i l r o t o r rpm,

v e r t i c a l l o c a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , and h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e
offset. The h i g h e r t h e main r o t o r r p m and t h e l a r g e r t h e b l a d e t h r u s t and For t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e main r o t o r c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , t h e l a r g e r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l moments and t h e g r e a t e r t h e c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

rpm cannot b e reduced markedly, s i n c e t h e c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s d e c r e a s e s . The lower t h e h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , t h e l a r g e r t h e main r o t o r t h r u s t

arm relative t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and t h e l a r g e r t h e c o n t r o l moment and t h e

higher t h e effectiveness. possible i n the helicopter. I n s p e a k i n g o f t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e t i l t c o n t r o l relative t o t h e univer T h i s means t h a t cargo s h o u l d b e l o c a t e d as low as

s a l axis, w e must b e a r i n mind t h a t t h e d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e s are s e v e r e l y

l i m i t e d and do n o t exceed

6" i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n and

< 4" i n t h e l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n .
The l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r

is

N -

Mz
N

Mx

M 450

kgf 'm/deg.

Control s e n s i t i v i t y .

C o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t y i s e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e

a n g u l a r rate of r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r around any axis t o t h e tilt c o n t r o l d e f l e c t i o n angle.

Lateral c o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t y i s u s u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e

l o n g i t u d i n a l and d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t i e s .

The c o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t y The c o n t r o l s e n s i
The

/176

i s u s u a l l y g r e a t e r f o r l i g h t t h a n f o r heavy h e l i c o p t e r s .

t i v i t y depends on t h e c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t h e damping moment. t h e damping moment, t h e lower t h e c o n t r o l s e n s i t i v i t y .

C o n t r o l lag.

g r e a t e r t h e c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , t h e higher t h e s e n s i t i v i t y ; t h e l a r g e r

The c o n t r o l moment which l e a d s t o r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r

about any axis ( l o n g i t u d i n a l o r transverse) i s c r e a t e d by main r o t o r t h r u s t force vector deviation.

A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of t h e s e moments i s t h e
Consequently, i n o r d e r t o create

l a r g e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e and t h e small magnitude of t h e arm o f t h i s f o r c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n .

a c o n t r o l moment w e must i m p a r t t o t h e l a r g e m a s s of a i r d i s c h a r g e d by t h e
main r o t o r a d d i t i o n a l momentum i n a new d i r e c t i o n i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a new d i r e c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t f o r c e . r o t o r and amounts t o 0.2
A comparatively long t i m e i s s p e n t on t h i s .

This t i m e e q u a l s approximately t h e t i m e f o r a s i n g l e r o t a t i o n of t h e main

0 . 3 seconds.

Consequently, t h i s t i m e i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o b e g i n r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l o r l a t e r a l axes a f t e r t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k i s d i s p l a c e d . This i s then t h e c o n t r o l lag. t h e main r o t o r rpm. the l a t e r a l . arms. This l a g w i l l be longer, t h e l a r g e r the h e l i c o p t e r moment of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n and t h e lower The l a g i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n The For comparison w e take t h e c o n t r o l l a g f o r an a i r p l a n e .

a i r p l a n e c o n t r o l moment i s created by comparatively s m a l l f o r c e s w i t h l a r g e T h e r e f o r e , t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l moments f o r an a i r p l a n e r e q u i r e s T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c must about one t e n t h of t h e t i m e of t h a t for a h e l i c o p t e r . be c o n s i d e r e d i n h e l i c o p t e r p i l o t i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

An a t t e m p t i s made t o have t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s

Control s t i c k force. momentless.

T h i s means t h a t w i t h v a r i a t i o n of t h e p i t c h t h e b l a d e c e n t e r of But s m a l l moment changes s t i l l arise.

p r e s s u r e s h i f t s v e r y l i t t l e and t h e b l a d e moment about i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l axis s c a r c e l y changes a t a l l . These v a r i a t i o n s are t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l h o r n s t o t h e b l a d e s , from t h e

259

b l a d e t o t h e tilt c o n t r o l , and from t h e r e t o t h e c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l lever. High-frequency f o r c e p u l s a t i o n s develop on t h e s t i c k and i t b e g i n s t o v i b r a t e .

T o e l i m i n a t e t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s , i n e r t i a l o r h y d r a u l i c dampers which absorb

small b l a d e o s c i l l a t i o n s are connected i n t o t h e c o n t r o l l i n k a g e system.

I n t h e i n e r t i a l dampers t h e energy of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions i s expended on r o t a t i n g t h e pendulum, and i n t h e h y d r a u l i c dampers on overcoming t h e f r i c t i o n
f o r c e s of t h e p i s t o n and t h e f l u i d f o r c e d through t h e p i s t o n . t h e c o n t r o l system are used on t h e l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s . Dampers i n

Hydraulic boosters

are used on t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e and heavy h e l i c o p t e r s , which c r e a t e mechanical

f o r c e s by f l u i d p r e s s u r e on t h e h y d r a u l i c b o o s t e r p i s t o n . loop h a s i t s own h y d r a u l i c b o o s t e r . These f o r c e s are Each c o n t r o l used t o d e f l e c t t h e t i l t c o n t r o l o r change t h e t a i l r o t o r p i t c h .

/177

I r r e v e r s i b l e b o o s t e r s are most widely used a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ; t h e y can d e f l e c t t h e c o n t r o l organs w i t h o u t f o r c e s from t h e p i l o t . When moving t h e

command lever , t h e p i l o t d i s p l a c e s only t h e s l i d e valve p i s t o n , which r e g u l a t e s t h e f l u i d flowrate i n t o t h e booster. Consequently, t h e r e are no f o r c e s a t s t i c k and p e d a l s move w i t h o u t any

a l l on t h e command levers, i.e.

resistance.

, the

T h i s means t h a t t h e p i l o t does n o t f e e l t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l

and cannot d e f i n e e x a c t l y t h e magnitude of t h e command lever d e f l e c t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b o o s t e r s , a r t i f i c a l f e e l mechanisms are provided i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l system t o create d e f i n i t e f o r c e s on t h e s t i c k t o g i v e

a "control fe e l . "

These a r t i f i c i a l f e e l u n i t s are provided i n each c o n t r o l When t h e command l e v e r i s d e f l e c t e d , one of

loop and c o n s i s t of s p r i n g s .

t h e s e s p r i n g s i s compressed and p i l o t e f f o r t i s expended i n t h i s compression. The magnitude of t h e f o r c e i n c r e a s e s as t h e s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d . I f these f o r c e s are a p p l i e d f o r b r i e f p e r i o d s t h e y do n o t create any s e r i o u s inconven i e n c e ( b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e p i l o t v e r y r a r e l y d e f l e c t s t h e s t i c k f u l l y t o r e s t o r e equilibrium). However, i f i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a l t e r t h e f l i g h t regime, In this

f o r example t o t r a n s i t i o n from hover t o f l i g h t a t maximal s p e e d , then t h e s t i c k must b e moved n e a r l y f u l l forward and h e l d i n t h i s p o s i t i o n .

case t h e p i l o t must apply a l a r g e f o r c e t o t h e s t i c k f o r a long p e r i o d .

soon c a u s e s f a t i g u e . used t o remove o r r e g u l a t e the f o r c e on t h e s t i c k .

This

A trimming mechanism o r a l o a d - r e l i e v i n g mechanism i s

261

CHAPTER XI1

HEXICOPTER VIBRATIONS

79.

General A n a l y s i s of V i b r a t i o n s

/177

P e r i o d i c r e c i p r o c a t i n g motions of t h e e l e m e n t s of a n e l a s t i c system can b e termed v i b r a t i o n s o r o s c i l l a t i o n s . f l y i n g w a s not possible. The problem of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s

remained unresolved f o r a l o n g t i m e ; t h e r e f o r e , l a r g e - s c a l e h e l i c o p t e r E x p e r i m e n t a l f l i g h t s performed p r i o r t o t h e middle

1940's f r e q u e n t l y t e r m i n a t e d i n a c c i d e n t s as a r e s u l t of severe v i b r a t i o n s .

Several hundred d i f f e r e n t v i b r a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s and of t h e

e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r as a u n i t can b e counted on a h e l i c o p t e r .

Parameters o f o s c i l l a t o r y motions.

W e consider a n elastic p l a t e with

I f the

/I78
-

one end clamped and a s m a l l weight on t h e o t h e r end ( F i g u r e 109a).

end w i t h t h e weight i s d e f l e c t e d and t h e n r e l e a s e d , o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e p l a t e develop. T h i s w i l l b e t h e s i m p l e s t example of v i b r a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 109b). period, The

o s c i l l a t o r y motions a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h r e e b a s i c parameters: frequency, and amplitude.

The p e r i o d i s t h e t i m e f o r a complete o s c i l l a t i o n

(T)

Frequency i s t h e number of p e r i o d s p e r u n i t t i m e

262

Amplitude i s t h e l a r g e s t

bjy b

I,/\
T

iI

d e v i a t i o n of a n o s c i l l a t i n g p o i n t from t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n (Y> Oscil~lator_v_ motion modes. With r e g a r d t o n a t u r e of o n s e t , o s c i l l a t o r y motions can b e

F i g u r e 109. motion.

Parameters of v i b r a t i o n a l

subdivided i n t o f o r c e d , n a t u r a l , and s e l f - e x c i t e d . Forced v i b r a t i o n s are t h o s e which are caused by p e r i o d i c e x t e r n a l f o r c e s . Such f o r c e s are e x c i t i n g . Forced v i b r a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e w i t h a frequency Damping f o r c e s o r f o r c e s which a t t e n u a t e The damping f o r c e s may b e e i t h e r e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s . internal or external.

t h e v i b r a t i o n s arise d u r i n g a l l v i b r a t i o n s .

The i n t e r n a l damping f o r c e s a r i s e as a r e s u l t of

e l a s t i c i t y of t h e material i t s e l f from which t h e s t r u c t u r e i s f a b r i c a t e d . E x t e r n a l damping f o r c e s a r i s e a s a r e s u l t of r e s i s t a n c e of t h e medium i n which t h e v i b r a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e . t h e v i b r a t i o n s decay. N a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s are t h o s e which c o n t i n u e a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e a c t i o n of t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s . The b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of n a t u r a l The l a r g e r t h e damping f o r c e s , t h e f a s t e r

v i b r a t i o n s i s t h a t each s t r u c t u r e has a v e r y d e f i n i t e v i b r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , which i s independent of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e and i s determined by t h e m a s s and s t i f f n e s s of t h e s t r u c t u r e . The l a r g e r t h e m a s s of t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e lower t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency. The g r e a t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e s t i f f n e s s , t h e h i g h e r t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency. With r e g a r d t o n a t u r e of t h e amplitude v a r i a t i o n , v i b r a t i o n s can b e d i v i d e d i n t o damped and i n c r e a s i n g . I f t h e amplitude d e c r e a s e s , i n t h e N a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s a r e always c o u r s e of t i m e , t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be damped.

damped.

I f t h e amplitude i n c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e , t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i l l b e i n c r e a s i n g .

I n c r e a s i n g v i b r a t i o n s develop a t resonance.

Resonance i s c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s w i t h t h e frequency o f t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e s t r u c t u r e . h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s a re most of t e n f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s . Vibrations of

/179

9 80.

H e l i c o p t e r Forced V i b r a t i o n s

There are i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r many s o u r c e s of e x c i t i n g f o r c e s which c a u s e forced vibrations. Such s o u r c e s i n c l u d e : main and t a i l r o t o r s , powerplant,

t r a n s m i s s i o n gearboxes, and t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s .

Each of t h e s e s o u r c e s c r e a t e s e x c i t i n g f o r c e s w i t h a d e f i n i t e frequency. The l o w e s t e x c i t i n g f o r c e frequency i s t h a t of t h e main r o t o r . found from t h e formula I t may b e

n = nsk, mr where n n
k i s t h e main r o t o r e x c i t i n g f o r c e frequency;

mr
S

i s t h e main r o t o r r p s ; i s t h e number of main r o t o r b l a d e s .

The frequency of t h e main r o t o r e x c i t i n g f o r c e s varies i n t h e r a n g e of

16 v i b r a t i o n s p e r second.

The t a i l r o t o r e x c i t e s f o r c e s w i t h a frequency The t r a n s m i s s i o n s h a f t s and gearboxes from 50 t o s e v e r a l

of 1 0

60 v i b r a t i o n s p e r second.

create a s t i l l h i g h e r frequency of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s :
hundred v i b r a t i o n s p e r second. e x c i t i n g f o r c e s w i t h frequency of 600

The powerplant y i e l d s a broad spectrum o f

1000 v i b r a t i o n s p e r second.

The primary f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s o u r c e is t h e main r o t o r w i t h hinged b l a d e support. Blade o s c i l l a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o a l l t h e h i n g e s a r e a l s o t h e s o u r c e

of many v i b r a t i o n s .

264

V i b r a t i o n s from t h e b l a d e s of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e hubs and t h e airstream d e f l e c t e d by t h e b l a d e s . vibrations.

A l l p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are s u b j e c t e d t o f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s , b u t t h e

This slipstream

s t r i k e s t h e t a i l boom and t a i l f i n i n t h e form of p e r i o d i c p u l s e s and c a u s e s

amplitude of t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s d i f f e r s .

The amplitude magnitude depends on

t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e c l o s e n e s s of t h e s o u r c e of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s , t h e i r magnitude and p o i n t s of a p p l i c a t i o n , and on t h e d e g r e e of c l o s e n e s s t o resonance. The d e g r e e of c l o s e n e s s t o resonance i s determined by t h e r e l a t i v e frequency v , e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e frequency t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency
11

v =

ex
nat

The amplitude of f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s can b e e x p r e s s e d g r a p h i c a l l y , p l o t t i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e d e f o r m a t i o n v e r t i c a l l y and t h e r e l a t i v e frequency h o r i z o n t a l l y (Figure 110). The r e l a t i v e deformation i s t h e r a t i o of t h e deformation caused From t h i s /180 by t h e dynamic l o a d t o t h e deformation created by t h e s t a t i c l o a d . graph w e can draw t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s : The l a r g e s t d e f o r m a t i o n o r t h e l a r g e s t amplitude o c c u r s a t resonance
(V

= 1).

T h e r e f o r e , r e s o n a n t v i b r a t i o n s are v e r y dangerous:

they can l e a d

t o s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e due t o m a t e r i a l f a t i g u e ; For v > 0.5 t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n c r e a s e s v e r y r a p i d l y and t h e s t r u c t u r a l deformation i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y ; For v > 1 . 5 t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r a l deformation i n com p a r i s o n w i t h t h e deformation caused by a s t a t i c l o a d of t h e s a m e magnitude. Thus, t o reduce t h e s t r u c t u r a l deformation i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o reduce t h e d e g r e e of c l o s e n e s s t o resonance by a l t e r i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency.

265

I f t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e frequency i s h i g h , t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency must b e reduced. Rubber v i b r a t i o n dampers are

I 0

y \
I
I

used i n mounting t h e e n g i n e t o t h e frame t o a v o i d resonance. The u s e of

shock mounts r e d u c e s t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e

0.5

l.5

. )

frame-engine s t r u c t u r e , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n

F i g u r e 110. R e l a t i v e v i b r a t i o n amplitude v e r s u s r e l a t i v e frequency.

frequency and i n c r e a s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e frequency (v > 1.5).

Another example.

The main r o t o r p r o v i d e s low-frequency e x c i t i n g f o r c e s .

The main r o t o r gearbox i s mounted r i g i d l y t o t h e gearbox frame, w i t h o u t shock a b s o r b e r s . T h i s t y p e of mounting i n c r e a s e s t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n

frequency, and as a r e s u l t t h e r e l a t i v e frequency i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n

0.5.
The h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l l i n k a g e r o d s are most f r e q u e n t l y s u b j e c t e d t o forced vibrations. Therefore, i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o prevent To t h i s end t h e n a t u r a l frequency o f t h e rod

resonance of t h e c o n t r o l r o d s .

i s determined.

I f t h i s frequency i s c l o s e t o t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e frequency

i n t h e r e g i o n where t h e rod i s l o c a t e d , t h e n a t u r a l frequency must b e changed. T h i s frequency can b e found from t h e approximate formula

where D i s t h e rod c r o s s - s e c t i o n d i a m e t e r ;

i s t h e rod l e n g t h ;
E i s t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l e l a s t i c modulus;
y i s t h e s p e c i f i c weight of t h e material.

W see from t h i s formula t h a t t h e rod d i a m e t e r must b e i n c r e a s e d o r i t s e

l e n g t h must be reduced i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency.

I f t h e r o d s are l o n g , r o l l e r t y p e s u p p o r t s are used t o i n c r e a s e t h e frequency. When i t 'is n o t p o s s i b l e t o determine e x a c t l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f The t h e o c c u r r e n c e of resonance, u s e i s made o f r o d s w i t h i n e r t i a l dampers. i n e r t i a l damper i s a weight l o c a t e d i n s i d e t h e rod c l o s e t o i t s midpoint, between two rubber p l u g s . of t h e v i b r a t i o n s . Under normal c o n d i t i o n s t h e f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are s m a l l ; t h e i r amplitudes are measured i n hundredths o r t e n t h s of a m i l l i m e t e r . However, i n c e r t a i n cases t h e y may become hazardous i f t h e normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e exceeded. Most f r e q u e n t l y , m a g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s i s caused by t h e f a i l u r e of i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l elements ( s t i f f n e s s i s reduced and resonance o c c u r s ) , by improper t h e adjustment of s t r u c t u r a l p a r t s , and by mass unbalance. The a c c e p t a b l e v i b r a t i o n l i m i t i s determined by t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e s t r u c t u r e and on t h e human organism. (Figure 111). V i b r a t i o n s a r e considered a c c e p t a b l e i f t h e y do n o t l e a d t o s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e and do n o t c a u s e d i s c o m f o r t t o t h e p e r s o n n e l The h i g h e r t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency, t h e lower t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude which can b e endured by t h e p e r s o n n e l w i t h o u t p a i n . 81. Self-excited Vibrations The presence of t h e damper l e a d s t o r a p i d decay

/E

- - -- -..,'

- ,Unacceptab'le \G-,Unacceptab'le
'

i \

:
y
a ons v i t r a ttiions
i

. -

__

Self-excited v i b r a t i o n s a r e those which a r i s e under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s when c o n s t a n t l y a c t i n g f o r c e s are transformed i n t o p e r i o d i c f o r c e s and a s t e a d y motion becomes o s c i l l a t o r y . TO t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w e must a l s o add coin c i d e n c e of t h e p e r i o d i c f o r c e frequency w i t h t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency.

--Accept a b l e '\.
vibrations
1-

'

4u0

L' nvib/min ''

1. F i g u r e 1 1 Acceptable v i b r a t i o n graph.

There are t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c forms o f s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s i n h e l i copters: "ground resonance," " h e l i c o p t e r a u t o - o s c i l l a t i o n s i n f l i g h t , " and

v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f l u t t e r type. The combination of main r o t o r b l a d e o s c i l l a t i o n s relative t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s w i t h o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e e n t i r e h e l i c o p t e r as i t moves over t h e ground can b e termed ground resonanLe. very rapidly. The amplitude of t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s

V i b r a t i o n s o f t h e ground resonance t y p e are n o t observed on h e l i c o p t e r s having main r o t o r s w i t h o u t v e r t i c a l h i n g e s . I n t h i s case t h e b l a d e s are

p o s i t i o n e d symmetrically,and t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e e n t i r e main r o t o r
i s l o c a t e d on t h e hub a x i s .

A s t h e main r o t o r t u r n s t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l

v e l o c i t y of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y e q u a l s z e r o ; consequently t h e main r o t o r c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a l s o equals zero.

When v e r t i c a l h i n g e s are used, t h e b l a d e s perform o s c i l l a t o r y motions

1182

as a r e s u l t of change of t h e moments of t h e r o t a t i o n a l d r a g f o r c e and t h e

Coriolis force. Such o s c i l l a t i o n s l e a d t o s h i f t of t h e main r o t o r c e n t e r of The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y b e g i n s t o t r a v e l a l o n g The main r o t o r c e n t r i f u g a l g r a v i t y away from t h e hub a x i s . f o r c e N appears. way.

a sinuous c u r v i l i n e a r t r a j e c t o r y (Figure 112a).

The appearance of t h i s f o r c e can b e e x p l a i n e d i n a d i f f e r e n t

I f t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s are p o s i t i o n e d symmetrically r e l a t i v e t o t h e

hub, t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s of t h e b l a d e s t a k e n i n d i v i d u a l l y e q u a l s zero. I f t h e blades a r e positioned asymmetrically, t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e b l a d e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s w i l l be t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e o f t h e e n t i r e main r o t o r .

Under t h e a c t i o n of t h i s f o r c e a moment i s c r e a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e l a n d i n g g e a r wheel s u p p o r t p o i n t , which c a u s e s a l t e r n a t e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e gear shock s t r u t s and tires ( F i g u r e 112b). t h e g e a r develops. w i t h t h e main r o t o r rpm, resonance occurs. Rocking of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on

I f t h e frequency o f t h e s e ( n a t u r a l ) o s c i l l a t i o n s c o i n c i d e s The amplitude w i l l i n c r e a s e

F i g u r e 112. rapidly.

Occurrence of ground resonance.

A s a r e s u l t of t i p p i n g of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , moments of t h e b l a d e

weight f o r c e s about t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s develop. f o r c e of t h e e n t i r e main r o t o r .

These moments amplify t h e

o s c i l l a t o r y motions of t h e b l a d e s and l e a d t o i n c r e a s e of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l The i n c r e a s e of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n amplitude Moreover, t h e can l e a d t o o v e r t u r n i n g and d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . rotor.

v i b r a t i o n s a r e a m p l i f i e d by t h e a c t i o n o f t h e gyroscopic moment of t h e t a i l The t a i l r o t o r t u r n s a t h i g h speed and h a s a l a r g e gyroscopic moment. During o s c i l l a

It t e n d s t o r e t a i n i t s a x i s of r o t a t i o n i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n .

t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e t a i l r o t o r a x i s of r o t a t i o n changes, and t h e r e f o r e l a r g e t o r s i o n a l moments develop i n t h e f u s e l a g e t a i l boom and vertical fin. The a c t u a l p i c t u r e of ground resonance i s more complex and depends on many f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e examined h e r e . Ground resonance develops most f r e q u e n t l y when t a x i i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r over rough ground, d u r i n g t a k e o f f r o l l and l a n d i n g r u n o u t when making t a k e o f f s and l a n d i n g s of a i r p l a n e type. causes a r e t h e following: Low o r d i f f e r e n t t e n s i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e f r i c t i o n dampers; But ground resonance can a l s o occur when t h e The b a s i c o p e r a t i o n a l h e l i c o p t e r i s parked w i t h t h e main r o t o r running. 1183

I n c o r r e c t c h a r g i n g of t h e l a n d i n g g e a r shock s t r u t s and tires.

The f i r s t f a c t o r l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motions of t h e b l a d e s and t h e second l e a d s t o change o f t h e g e a r s t i f f n e s s .

As a r e s u l t of

t h e s t i f f n e s s c h a n g e , t h e r e i s a change of t h e h e l i c o p t e r n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency, and c o n d i t i o n s f o r resonance are c r e a t e d .

When resonance o c c u r s , t h e main r o t o r rpm must b e decreased and t h e engine s h u t down. Helicopter a u t o -o s c i l l a t i o n s i n f l i g h t . Helicopter auto-oscillations These v i b r a t i o n s combine o s c i l l a

are s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e t o ground resonance.

t i o n s of t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e s and o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e e l a s t i c e l e m e n t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e . During t h e b l a d e o s c i l l a

t i o n s a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e main r o t o r a r i s e s , a n d t h i s l e a d s t o whipping o f t h e s h a f t and deformation of t h e members of t h e frame s u p p o r t i n g t h e gear box and t h e s t r u c t u r a l elements of t h e f u s e l a g e .

A u t o - o s c i l l a t i o n s occur v e r y r a r e l y on s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s ; o n l y i n case of f a i l u r e of i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l elements of t h e f u s e l a g e , which r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e s t i f f n e s s , o r when t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e dampers are o u t o f a d j u s t m e n t . i n t h e dual-rotor These v i b r a t i o n s a r e observed more f r e q u e n t l y

h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h tandem arrangement of t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r s .

The bending s t i f f n e s s o f t h e f u s e l a g e of t h i s h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i s comparatively low. I f t h e r e are l a r g e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e b l a d e s

of b o t h r o t o r s , l a r g e bending moments a r e c r e a t e d , which as they change t h e i r d i r e c t i o n c a u s e marked bending v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e .

Rotor b l a d e f l u t t e r .

V i b r a t i o n s of t h e f l u t t e r t y p e are t h e most hazardous.

They are encountered on t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s and are t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e on t h e t a i l r o t o r b l a d e s , b u t i n view of t h e h i g h s t i f f n e s s of t h e l a t t e r they are n o t encountered i n p r a c t i c e .

Main r o t o r b l a d e f l u t t e r may b e of two t y p e s : ping. f o r b l a d e s w i t h r i g i d r e s t r a i n t a t t h e hub. u s u a l l y show t h e combined t y p e of f l u t t e r .

b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n and f l a p

Bending-torsion f l u t t e r i n t h e p u r e form i s observed most f r e q u e n t l y Blades w i t h hinged s u p p o r t

82.

Bending and Bendi-nE-Torsion V i b r a t i o n s of R i p i d l y R e s t r a i n e d Blade

Bending v i b r a t i o n s are t h o s e i n which t h e b l a d e chord d i s p l a c e s p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f , i.e., t h e r e i s n o t t w i s t i n g of t h e b l a d e . These v i b r a t i o n s occur when t h e l i n e of b l a d e s e c t i o n c e n t e r s - o f - g r a v i t y coincides with t h e elastic appears, el When t h e

/184

' axis.

I f t h e t i p of such a b l a d e i s b e n t down, a n e l a s t i c f o r c e P

a p p l i e d a t t h e e l a s t i c c e n t e r and d i r e c t e d upward ( F i g u r e 1 1 3 ) . under t h e a c t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e . of gravity.

d e f l e c t e d b l a d e i s r e l e a s e d , i t b e g i n s t o t r a v e l upward w i t h an a c c e l e r a t i o n A s a r e s u l t of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n t h e r e

i s formed t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e Piny d i r e c t e d downward and a p p l i e d a t t h e c e n t e r

W e a r e examining a b l a d e f o r which t h e s e p o i n t s c o i n c i d e ; t h e r e

f o r e t h e t w i s t i n g moment of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e w i l l b e zero,and t h e r e w i l l b e no t w i s t i n g of t h e b l a d e .

F i g u r e 113.

Blade bending v i b r a t i o n s .

A s t h e b l a d e element moves upward,the e l a s t i c and i n e r t i a f o r c e s w i l l

d e c r e a s e , w h i l e t h e bending motion v e l o c i t y V

w i l l i n c r e a s e . When t h e b l a d e Y element r e a c h e s t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n , t h e e l a s t i c and i n e r t i a f o r c e s w i l l b e e q u a l t o z e r o w h i l e t h e v e l o c i t y w i l l b e maximal. With f u r t h e r upward

movement of t h e b l a d e , t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e changes i t s d i r e c t i o n and w i l l cause r e d u c t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y . The element motion s t o p s i n t h e extreme upper position. A f t e r passage through t h e l i n e of e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e T h i s motion i s shown i n F i g u r e 113, p o s i t i o n s 1,

w i l l b e d i r e c t e d upward.

2. 3.

The b l a d e element w i l l t r a v e l downward from p o s i t i o n 3 ( p o s i t i o n s 3, The f o r c e s , a c c e l e r a t i o n , and v e l o c i t y w i l l v a r y j u s t as i n t h e I t f o l l o w s from t h i s a n a l y s i s t h a t t h e l a r g e s t e l a s t i c f o r c e s

4 , 5).

upward motion.

and t h e l a r g e s t a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e bending motion w i l l occur i n t h e extreme positions. The i n e r t i a f o r c e s w i l l be maximal f o r t h e l a r g e s t a c c e l e r a t i o n s , I f t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n p a s s e s through t h e

i.e.,

a l s o i n t h e extreme p o s i t i o n s .

n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n , t h e f o r c e s and a c c e l e r a t i o n change t h e i r s i g n s and t h e v e l o c i t y r e a c h e s i t s maximal magnitude. The v a r i a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y and I f t h e l i n e of

a c c e l e r a t i o n i s shown on t h e graphs of t h e v i b r a t o r y motion. centers-of-gravity

does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e e l a s t i c a x i s , t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e

of t h e given b l a d e element c r e a t e s a t o r s i o n a l moment, which t w i s t s t h e b l a d e relative to the e l a s t i c axis. torsional vibrations. For most b l a d e s t h e l i n e of c e n t e r s - o f - g r a v i t y axis. The bending v i b r a t i o n s w i l l b e supplemented by

l i e s behind t h e e l a s t i c

The n a t u r e of t h e bending-torsion v i b r a t i o n s of such a b l a d e i s shown The d i r e c t i o n and v a r i a t i o n of t h e f o r c e s , v e l o c i t y , and

A s a r e s u l t of t h e

i n F i g u r e 114.

a c c e l e r a t i o n w i l l b e t h e same as f o r bending v i b r a t i o n s .

a f t s h i f t of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e e l a s t i c c e n t e r , i n t h e case of upward bending motion of t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n t h e r e a r e c r e a t e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l p o s i t i v e twist a n g l e s (+ $), which i n c r e a s e up t o t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n and t h e n d e c r e a s e ( p o s i t i o n s 1 - 5 ) . During downward bending motion of t h e b l a d e , n e g a t i v e t w i s t a n g l e s are c r e a t e d , which f i r s t i n c r e a s e i n a b s o l u t e magnitude and t h e n d e c r e a s e (positions 5

f 185

9).

T h i s n a t u r e of t h e n a t u r a l bending-torsion v i b r a t i o n s i s determined by t h e mutual p o s i t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c a x i s and t h e l i n e of c e n t e r s - o f - g r a v i t y , and o c c u r s f o r a l l b l a d e s .

272

'I

,A

VY

1
1
I

EC

$pin

F i g u r e 114.

Blade bending-torsion v i b r a t i o n s .

W e have examined bending and bending-torsion v i b r a t i o n s of t h e b l a d e i n

s t a t i o n a r y a i r , i . e . , when t h e r o t o r i s n o t t u r n i n g .

I f the rotor turns, the The

aerodynamic f o r c e s must b e added t o t h e e l a s t i c and i n e r t i a f o r c e s .

e f f e c t of t h e s e f o r c e s on t h e b l a d e l e a d s t o f l u t t e r under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . Essence of b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n b l a d e f l u t t e r .
W e imagine t h a t bendingWe

t o r s i o n v i b r a t i o n s of a b l a d e t a k e p l a c e w h i l e t h e main r o t o r t u r n s . approaching a t t h e v e l o c i t y u ( F i g u r e 1 1 5 ) . b u t they do a c t .

r e s o l v e t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s a l o n g t h e b l a d e l i n e of motion w i t h t h e a i r flow The e l a s t i c and i n e r t i a f o r c e s

A s the

which a r i s e d u r i n g b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n v i b r a t i o n s a r e n o t shown i n F i g u r e 115,

T o t h e s e f o r c e s w e add t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e AY.

b l a d e f l e x e s upward t h e twist a n g l e s w i l l b e p o s i t i v e , and t h i s means t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e a p o s i t i v e increment (Aa = 4) of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of attack. The a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d upward. When t h e f l e x i n g

1186

motion is downward, t h e t w i s t a n g l e s w i l l b e n e g a t i v e , which means t h e r e

w i l l b e a n e g a t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment (- A = a
l i f t f o r c e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d downward.

4).

The a d d i t i o n a l

I t f o l l o w s from t h i s a n a l y s i s t h a t t h e

a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e bending motion,

i.e.,

i t w i l l b e an e x c i t i n g force.

273

yY

p-I
I

F i g u r e 115.

Blade bending-torsion

flutter.

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e t h e bending v i b r a t i o n amplitude

w i l l i n c r e a s e , which l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e of t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e s , bending v i b r a
t i o n a c c e l e r a t i o n s , i n e r t i a forces;and t h e i r t o r s i o n a l moment. The t w i s t a n g l e s and t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e s i n c r e a s e . bending v i b r a t i o n s c a u s e t w i s t i n g of t h e b l a d e . The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t I n c r e a s e of t h e t w i s t l e a d s

t o i n c r e a s e of t h e bending v i b r a t i o n s , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e o f the torsional vibrations.

A s a r e s u l t t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s so r a p i d l y t h a t
b l a d e f a i l u r e may o c c u r .

F l u t t e r occurrence conditions.

Both e x c i t i n g f o r c e s and damping f o r c e s F l u t t e r w i l l be p o s s i b l e

W e have

arise i n t h e case of b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n v i b r a t i o n s .

o n l y i f t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s are l a r g e r t h a n t h e damping f o r c e s .

a l r e a d y shown t h a t t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s a r i s e as a r e s u l t of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s , which l e a d t o i n c r e a s e of t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k .

C Y

The l i f t f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t increment AC c a n b e found from t h e p l o t of Y = f ( a ) (Figure 116a).

W e see from t h e f i g u r e

9..

t h a t t h e increment AC

depends on t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment Act and on t h e s l o p e of t h e c u r v e t o t h e a b s c i s s a a x i s , which c a n be d e f i n e d as

U

tg;3-

Lfc
A0

- G.

vfl $hamp

Hence

F i g u r e 116.

C r e a t i o n of damping f o r c e . i n t o (49), w e obtain

AC, = aAz

= a?.

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f AC

I187

Thus, t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e twist a n g l e and t h e s q u a r e of t h e b l a d e t i p c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y . The damping f o r c e s a r i s e as a r e s u l t of t h e bending v i b r a t i o n s .

a r e s u l t of t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y V

During

t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s t h e r e i s a change of t h e b l a d e element a n g l e of a t t a c k as of t h e bending motions ( F i g u r e 116b). Y I n t h e c a s e of downward bending motion, t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k increment i s I n t h e c a s e of

p o s i t i v e and t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d upward. d i r e c t e d downward.

downward bending motion, Act i s n e g a t i v e and t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t f o r c e i s Thus, i n a l l c a s e s of bending motion t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i f t

i t i s a damping f o r c e

f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d o p p o s i t e t h i s motion, i . e . ,

The l i f t f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t i n c r e a s e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a n g l e of aiLack, i . e .

,&,&=cAo.

From F i g u r e 116b

A% = -. vy t h e r e f o r e ,
u

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f AC

i n t o ( 5 0 ) , we o b t a i n

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e damping f o r c e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e bending motion and t h e b l a d e t i p c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y . This i s shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 1 1 7 , from which w e see t h a t t h e damping f o r c e s equal t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s a t a d e f i n i t e circumferential v e l o c i t y . v e l o c i t y i s c a l l e d t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r speed. speed corresponds t o t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. S i n c e u = 2~rRn
S

This the critical

A t s p e e d s below t h e c r i t i c a l
f l u t t e r speed ( f o r rpm below t h e

c r i t i c a l v a l u e ) t h e damping f o r c e s
1
I

are l a r g e r than t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s ,
t h e bending-torsion oscillations w i l l be damped, and f l u t t e r i s n o t p o s s i b l e .
A t rpm above t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e t h e

F i g u r e 117. E x c i t i n g and damping forces versus speed.

damping f o r c e s a r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e exciting forces. The bending-torsion Consequently,

v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be i n c r e a s i n g and f l u t t e r i s i n e v i t a b l e .

f l u t t e r develops i f t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n cg l i n e i s behind t h e e l a s t i c a x i s

/ 188 -

and t h e main r o t o r rpm i s above t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm.

The f i r s t of t h e s e

c o n d i t i o n s h o l d s f o r all b l a d e s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e second c o n d i t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e o n s e t of f l u t t e r . The c r i t i c a l

Dependence of g r - i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm o n v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s .

f l u t t e r rpm depends on t h e b l a d e s t i f f n e s s , mutual p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e cg l i n e and t h e e l a s t i c a x i s , mutual p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e c e n t e r - o f - p r e s s u r e line

and t h e e l a s t i c a x i s .

The h i g h e r t h e b l a d e s t i f f n e s s i n bending and t o r s i o n ,

t h e l a r g e r t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s must be i n o r d e r t o deform t h e b l a d e . High v e l o c i t y i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n l a r g e f o r c e s . T h i s means

t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e s t i f f n e s s . F l u t t e r of a m e t a l b l a d e i s p o s s i b l e a t a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r rpm t h a n f o r
a b l a d e of composite c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s a m e dimensions.

T h i s i s one of

t h e advantages of m e t a l b l a d e s . I f t h e b l a d e cg a x i s c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e e l a s t i c a x i s , t h e n a t u r a l vibrations w i l l be flexural; without t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s t h ere w i l l n o t b e any e x c i t i n g f o r c e s , and f l u t t e r w i l l n o t o c c u r . I f t h e cg axis i s ahead of t h e e l a s t i c a x i s , t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be t h e bending-torsion type. However, t h e s i g n s of t h e t w i s t a n g l e s w i l l b e o p p o s i t e t o t h o s e f o r which f l u t t e r o c c u r s , i . e . , when t h e b l a d e f l e x e s up ward t h e t w i s t a n g l e s w i l l be n e g a t i v e , a n d when t h e b l a d e bends down t h e angles w i l l be p o s i t i v e . With t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t w i s t i n g , a d d i t i o n a l damping f o r c e s are c r e a t e d and f l u t t e r i s impossible. I f t h e cg a x i s i s behind t h e e l a s t i c a x i s , t h e n t h e l a r g e r t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e s e a x e s , t h e l a r g e r t h e t w i s t i n g moment of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s , and t h e lower t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. T h i s means t h a t t h e b l a d e cg a x i s
To t h i s end

must b e moved forward i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e c r i t i c a l rpm.

s p e c i a l weights i n t h e form of m e t a l b a r s , m a s s b a l a n c e w e i g h t s , are i n s t a l l e d i n t h e l e a d i n g edge of t h e b l a d e . The mutual i n f l u e n c e of t h e c e n t e r - o f - p r e s s u r e amounts t o t h e f a c t t h a t i f t h e c e n t e r - o f - p r e s s u r e a c t i o n of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . s i g n of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e moment. f l u t t e r rpm w i l l d e c r e a s e . a x i s and t h e e l a s t i c axis

axis i s ahead of t h e

e l a s t i c a x i s , a n a d d i t i o n a l t w i s t i n g moment on t h e b l a d e i s c r e a t e d from t h e

The s i g n of t h i s moment i s t h e same as t h e Consequently, i n t h i s c a s e t h e c r i t i c a l

277

F l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b l a d e with- hinged- s u p p o r t . main r o t o r s have b l a d e s w i t h hinged s u p p o r t .

The m a j o r i t y of

The p r e s e n c e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l a combination j189

and a x i a l h i n g e s l e a d s t o t h e s o - c a l l e d f l a p p i n g f l u t t e r , i . e . , hinge. The amplitude of s u c h o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l i n c r e a s e .

of f l a p p i n g motions w i t h o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e axial These o s c i l l a t i o n s

are p o s s i b l e even f o r a n a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d b l a d e , i n t h e absence of bending

and twist. During t h e f l a p p i n g motions t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e of t h e amplitude o f t h e v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s of t h e b l a d e element. of t h e f l a p p i n g and bending d i s p l a c e m e n t s . rpm d e c r e a s e s . The amplitude i s made up

I n t h i s case t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r

Consequently, t h e hub h o r i z o n t a l h i n g e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e

onset of f l u t t e r . The a x i a l h i n g e s p e r m i t t h e b l a d e t o r o t a t e a b o u t i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e b l a d e t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s . Rotation

about t h e a x i a l h i n g e i s p o s s i b l e as a r e s u l t of e l a s t i c deformation of t h e b l a d e p i t c h c o n t r o l l i n k a g e elements. The lower t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e s e The hub a x i a l h i n g e s a l s o pro

elements, t h e lower t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. mote t h e o n s e t of f l u t t e r .

The f l a p p i n g compensator c a u s e s r e d u c t i o n of b l a d e p i t c h as they f l a p upward, and i n c r e a s e of t h e p i t c h as t h e y f l a p downward. This p i t c h change Consequently,

i s analogous t o t h e bending-torsion o s c i l l a t i o n s d u r i n g f l u t t e r .
t h e f l a p p i n g compensator a l s o promotes t h e o n s e t of f l u t t e r . compensation c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e lower t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. t h e compensation c o e f f i c i e n t K = 0.5.

The l a r g e r t h e For most hubs

I n t h e case of a l a r g e v a l u e of t h i s

c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s t o rpm v a l u e s w i t h i n t h e operational range. The c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm depends on t h e f l i g h t speed: w i t h i n c r e a s e of

t h e speed t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of t h e flow over t h e b l a d e a t t h e 90" azimuth, and t h i s promotes t h e o n s e t of f l u t t e r . T h i s means

t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e of t h e f l i g h t speed.

88

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f a c t o r s l i s t e d above, b l a d e f l u t t e r i s a f f e c t e d by centrifugal forces. stiffer.

A s a r e s u l t of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s t h e f l a p p i n g

motions and bending o f t h e b l a d e are reduced,and t h e b l a d e becomes e f f e c t i v e l y Consequently, t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n c r e a s e s under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . I n v i e w o f t h e lower b l a d e s t i f f n e s s , f l u t t e r of t h e main r o t o r b l a d e s d o e s n o t develop as v i o l e n t l y as does t h e f l u t t e r of t h e a i r p l a n e wing, and t h e r e f o r e r o t o r b l a d e f l u t t e r can b e d e t e c t e d i n t i m e and measures can b e taken t o s t o p t h e f l u t t e r . Operational sources of f l u t t e r . a i r p l a n e s and h e l i c o p t e r s . F l u t t e r i s avoided i n t h e d e s i g n of

T h i s means t h a t i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r

rpm t h e b l a d e s t i f f n e s s and cg l o c a t i o n are s e l e c t e d so t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i s made c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e maximal p e r m i s s i b l e main r o t o r rpm. However, f l u t t e r can a r i s e from o p e r a t i o n a l c a u s e s , as a r e s u l t D i s r u p t i o n of

of m a s s unbalance and r e d u c t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t i f f n e s s . skeleton construction. t h e a i r markedly.

/190

t h e mass b a l a n c e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r b l a d e s of composite I n t h e s e b l a d e s t h e wooden r i b s absorb m o i s t u r e from With i n c r e a s e of t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , t h e cg l i n e s h i f t s

a f t , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, and f l u t t e r becomes p o s s i b l e a t o p e r a t i o n a l rpm. The mass b a l a n c e may b e d i s r u p t e d as a r e s u l t of c a r e l e s s o v e r h a u l of t h e b l a d e , which a l s o l e a d s t o t h e o n s e t of f l u t t e r o Reduction of t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t i f f n e s s , which l e a d s t o r e d u c t i o n of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, o c c u r s i f t h e r e i s a f a i l u r e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l elements o r i n case of damage t o t h e bl.ade s k i n . Under o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s f l u t t e r may occur w i t h t h e main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g on t h e ground and i n f l i g h t . F l u t t e r i s d e t e c t e d by heavy v i b r a t i o n If of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and from " b l u r r i n g " of t h e main r o t o r cone o f r o t a t i o n . t h e r e a r e no b l a d e v i b r a t i o n s , t h e b l a d e s of a p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d r o t o r w i l l

279

travel a l o n g a s i n g l e t r a c k and w i l l form a d e f i n i t e cone, which i s v i s i b l e

from t h e c o c k p i t b I f v i b r a t i o n s are p r e s e n t , t h e b l a d e s travel a l o n g d i f f e r e n t vague. t r a j e c t o r i e s and t h e cone w i l l b e " b l u r r e d , "

When f l u t t e r i s d e t e c t e d , t h e main r o t o r rpm must b e immediately reduced t o t h e minimal p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e . must b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . t r a c k , i.e., A f t e r landing t h e reason f o r t h e f l u t t e r
It must b e k e p t i n mind t h a t " b l u r r i n g " of t h e cone

o c c u r s n o t o n l y i n t h e case of f l u t t e r , b u t a l s o i f t h e b l a d e s are n o t i n i n case of improper a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e main r o t o r . However, i n t h e l a t t e r case t h e " b l u r r i n g " i s independent of t h e rpm. Measures t o prevent -~ ~ vibrations of all-t y p e s .

During h e l i c o p t e r o p e r a t i o n , These

s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s devoted t o p r e v e n t i n g a l l forms o f v i b r a t i o n .

measures concern, f i r s t of a l l , s t r i c t adherence t o a l l t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and performance of a l l t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s and scheduled maintenance procedures f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r h e l i c o p t e r type. These o p e r a t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e adjustment

and alignment of a l l p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , v e r i f y i n g t h e proper adjustment of t h e v e r t i c a l h i n g e dampers, p r o p e r c h a r g i n g of t h e l a n d i n g g e a r shock a b s o r b e r s and tires, v e r i f y i n g main r o t o r t r a c k i n g , and checking t h e main rotor for flutter.

The e s s e n c e of t h e f l u t t e r check amounts t o t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a definite

weight i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge of e a c h b l a d e and t h e main r o t o r rpm

i s i n c r e a s e d ( h e l i c o p t e r parked) t o t h e rpm i n d i c a t e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s .
Then t h e rpm i s i n c r e a s e d $y 1 - 2%,and t h e r o t o r i s o p e r a t e d i n t h i s condi t i o n f o r 1 - 2 minutes. Then t h e rpm i s a g a i n i n c r e a s e d and brought up t o I f f l u t t e r d o e s n o t occur t h e maximal v a l u e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s .

w i t h t h e w e i g h t s i n s t a l l e d , t h e r e w i l l b e j u s t t h a t much more margin w i t h t h e weights removed, s i n c e t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n c r e a s e s as t h e b l a d e cg moves forward.

280

APPENDIX I

S M O LIST Y BL
A a
T

-main -blade

r o t o r a n g l e of a t t a c k
element a n g l e of a t t a c k
rotor thrust force
force a t a l t i t u d e H = 0
force a t altitude H > 0

- main

TO
TH T

- thrust
- thrust
-part -main

Y Y
P

of main r o t o r t h r u s t f o r c e d i r e c t e d along hub a x i s rotor l i f t force

r o t o r propuslive f o r c e
r o t o r drag f o r c e
component of main r o t o r t h r u s t rotor specific thrust

- main

px
sS

- main - side
-main

SP

AT

Qb

AQ
H

- b l a d e element t h r u s t
- blade r o t a t i o n a l drag f o r c e
- elemental r o t a t i o n a l drag f o r c e
- l o n g i t u d i n a l component of main r o t o r
- blade
-blade Coriolis force
centrifugal force
drag

t h r u s t force

FC
N

Par

Navail

- helicopter parasite - power a v a i l a b l e

- effective

Ne
N

e n g i n e power

req

- power
-power

required required f o r horizontal. f l i g h t r e q u i r e d f o r hovering r e q u i r e d o r climb

Nh Nhov

- power - power:

Ncl

281

llIlllllIllIlllI I1 Ill I

IIIII

Ndes

- power
-power

required f o r descent with engine operating

r e q u i r e d f o r motion
component of power r e q u i r e d
component of power r e q u i r e d

Nm
Ni

- induced
-profile

N Pr
Mtor

r Mrt.r
Mtt. r
MZ

- t o r s i o n a l moment
- reactive moment o f

main r o t o r

tail rotor

- r e a c t i v e moment of

- t h r u s t moment of t a i l r o t o r - h e l i c o p t e r p i t c h i n g moment
--helicopter r o l l i n g moment yawing moment thrust coefficient

Mx

ct

- helicopter - main r o t o r
-blade

element l i f t f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t

?J

OO

tor

mtor mtorpr X
5

- main r o t o r o p e r a t i n g regime c o e f f i c i e n t - main r o t o r r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y - t o r s i o n a l moment c o e f f i c i e n t - induced d r a g t o r s i o n a l moment c o e f f i c i e n t

- profile
-main d r a g t o r s i o n a l moment c o e f f i c i e n t r o t o r end l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
utilization coefficient
r o t o r diameter
rotor radius
element r a d i u s

- power
- main

D R

- main
-blade -blade

r r

element r e l a t i v e r a d i u s
swept by main r o t o r of b l a d e s length

- number

- area

- b l a d e element chord - h e l i c o p t e r weight

Gb
X

- main

r o t o r b l a d e weight h o r i z o n t a l cg l o c a t i o n

cg

- helicopter - helicopter - air

ycg
P

v e r t i c a l cg l o c a t i o n

density

'

B
0

'.
07
$

- relative a i r d e n s i t y - b l a d e element i n c i d e n c e a n g l e ( p i t c h ) - main r o t o r i n c i d e n c e a n g l e ( p i t c h ) - blade flapping angle

-blade azimuth a n g l e r o t o r coning a n g l e r o t o r coning a x i s fore-and-aft r o t o r coning a x i s l a t e r a l t i l t
tilt

- main
-main -main

al bl
V
vi
U

- helicopter f l i g h t velocity - induced v e l o c i t y ( i n f l o w v e l o c i t y ) - blade t i p circumferential velocity - b l a d e element r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y - vertical descent v e l o c i t y

-main r o t o r angular v e l o c i t y

'des
w

APPENDIX I1
P O R M E TESTING ANSWERS R GA MD Main Rotor O p e r a t i o n i n Vertical F l i g h t Regime

Chapter 3. Question Question Question Question Chapter 4 . Question Question Question Question Chapter 5.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Correct Correct Correct Correct

answer 2. answer 4 . answer 2. answer 1.

Question Question Question Question

5. 6. 7.
8.

Correct Correct Correct Correct

answer answer answer answer

2. 2. 1. 1.

Main Rotor O p e r a t i o n i n Forward F l i g h t Regime

1 . 2.

3. 4.

Correct Correct Correct Correct

answer 1. answer 3 . answer 2.

Q u e s t i o n 5. Question 6 . Question 7.

C o r r e c t answer 3 . C o r r e c t answer 2. C o r r e c t answer 1.

answer 1.

H e l i c o p t e r Vertical F l i g h t Regime Question 3 . Question 4 . C o r r e c t answer 2. C o r r e c t answer 1.

Question 1. C o r r e c t answer 1. Question 2. C o r r e c t answer 3 . Chapter 6 . Helicopter Horizontal F l i g h t C o r r e c t answer 3 . C o r r e c t answer 2.

Question 1. Q u e s t i o n 2.

Question 3 . Question 4 . Question 5.

C o r r e c t answer 3 . C o r r e c t answer 1. C o r r e c t answer 3 .

Chapters 7 and 8. Question 1. Question 2. Question 3 . Chapter 9.

H e l i c o p t e r Climb and Descent Along I n c l i n e d T r a j e c t o r y Question 4 . Question 5. C o r r e c t answer 2. C o r r e c t answer 1.

C o r r e c t answer 1. C o r r e c t answer 1. C o r r e c t answer 3 .

H e l i c o p t e r F l i g h t i n Main Rotor A u t o r o t a t i v e Regime Question 4 . Question 5. C o r r e c t answer 3 . C o r r e c t answer 2.

Question 1. C o r r e c t answer 3 . Question 2. C o r r e c t answer 1. Question 3 . C o r r e c t answer 1.

284

RE FERE"CE S

1.
2.

Yur'yev, B. N. Aerodinamicheskiy r a s c h e t v e r t o l e t o v ( H e l i c o p t e r Aero dynamic Design), MOSCOW, Oborongiz, 1956.

M i l ' , M. L . , A. V. Hekrasov, A. S. Braverman, L. N. Grodko and M. A. Leykand V e r t o l e t y . Raschet i p r o y e k t i r o v a n i y e . Kniga 1. Aerodinamika ( H e l i c o p t e r s . C a l c u l a t i o n and Design. Book 1. Amrodynamics) , M O S C O W , MashinostroYeniYe, 1966. ( T r a n s l a t e d as NASA TTF - 494).

3. 4.

Payne, P. R. 1963.

H e l i c o p t e r Dynamics and Aerodynamics , MOSCOW, Oborongiz ,

Zagordan, A. M. Elementarnaya t e o r i y a v e r t o l e t a (Elementary H e l i c o p t e r Theory), MOSCOW, Voyenizdat, 1960. Bodikov, K. Y e . , S. A. Ignatosyan and D. T. Ansenov. T e o r i y a i t e k h n i k a p o l e t a v e r t o l e t a ( H e l i c o p t e r F l i g h t Theory and Technique) , Moscow, Voyenizdat, 1961. Baydakov, V. B. and L . N. Ivanov-Emin. Aerodinamika l e t a t e l ' n y k h a p p a r a t o v (Aerodynamics of F l i g h t V e h i c l e s ) , MOSCOW, Mashinostroyeniye, 1965. Fadeyev, B. I. P r a k t i c h e s k a y a aerodinamika v e t t o l e t a Mi-4 ( P r a c t i c a l Aerodynamics of t h e Mi-4 H e l i c o p t e r ) , MOSCOW, Voyenizdat , 1960. Bratukhin, I. P. P r o y e k t i r o v a n i y e i k o n s t r u k t s i i v e r t o l e t o v ( H e l i c o p t e r Design and C o n s t r u c t i n n ) . MOSCOW, Oborongiz , 1955.

5.

6.

7.

8.

T r a n s l a t e d f o r N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n under c o n t r a c t No. NASw2035, by SCITRAN, P. 0. Box 5456, S a n t a Barbara, C a l i f o r n i a , 93103.

U.

S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1972

735-027/1111

N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D SPACE A D M I S T R A T I O N W A S H I N G T O N . D.C.

20546
P O S T A G E A N D FEES P A I D

__~
0 FFIC I A L B U S I N ESS
P E N A L T Y F O R P R I V A T E U S E $300

FIRST CLASS MAIL

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

AND

SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N

018 001 C t U

02 720310 50090305

D E P T OF THE A I R FORCF AF WEAPONS L A B f A F S C 1

TECH L I B R A R Y I WL@L/
ATTN: F LOU BOWMAN, C H I E F
K I R T C A N D AF3 NM 87117

If Undeliverable (Section 158 Postal Manual ) D Not Return o

The aeronautical and space activities of ihe United States shall be condzlcted so as t o contribute . . . t o the expansion of human knowl edge of phenomena in the at7iiosphere and space. The Administration shall provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of inforntation concerning its actifdies and the resiilts thereof.

-NATIONALAERONAUTICS SPACE ACT OF 1958 AND

NASA SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

TECHNICAL REPORTS: Scientific and technical information considered important, complete, and a lasting contribution to existing knowledge. TECHNICAL NOTES: Information less broad in scope but nevertheless of importance as a contribution to existing knowledge. TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS : Information receiving limited distribution because of preliminary data, security classifica tion, or other reasons. CONTRACTOR REPORTS: Scientific and technical information generated under a NASA contract or grant and considered an important contribution to existing knowledge. TECHNICAL TRANSLATIONS: Information published in a foreign language considered to merit NASA distribution in English. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS: Information derived from or of value to NASA activities. Publications include conference proceedings, monographs, data compilations, handbooks, sourcebooks, and special bibliographies. TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION PUBLICATIONS: Information on technology used by NASA that may be of particular interest in commercial and other non-aerospace applications. Publications include Tech Briefs, Technology Utilization Reports and Technology Surveys.

Details on the availability of these publications may be obtained from:

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION OFFICE

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington,

D.C. 40546