ReconstructionandtheNewSouth

Chapter15

 TheeraofReconstructionwasoneofthemost controversialinournationshistory SouthernersinterpreteditasavindictiveNorth exactingrevengewhileNorthernersviewedThe Southasunrepentantandunwillingtoabandon itsslaveculture ForAfricanAmericansthroughoutthenation, Reconstructionbeganaslowandtortured processtogaincivilrightsandfreedomsin America

 AstheCivilWarended,thephysicaldestructioninthestatesofthe formerConfederacywasunparalleledinAmericanHistory Approximately258,000Confederatesoldiersdied,andasubstantial proportionofprivateandpubicpropertywasdestroyed Initsdefeat,theSouthembracedamythofthelostCause, which lookedbacknostalgicallytotheSouthbeforethewar Almost200,000AfricanAmericanhadservedintheUnionarmies andotherslaboredinConfederateservice Attheendofthewar,manylefttheirformerplantationstolookfor economicopportunitiesandtounitebrokenfamilies,buttheyhad nopropertyandnowheretogo In1865,theSouthwasindisarray

WhatfreedomwouldmeaninthepostwarUnitedStateswasunclear MostAfricanAmericanswantedtherightsandfreedomenjoyedbywhites,but therewasdisagreementaboutwhatthismean TheThirteenthAmendmentabolishedslavery,butnoonewasquite surehow societywastobestructuredandthelaborforcereestablished Americanswerenotfamiliarwithalargeandintrusivenationalgovernment BoththegovernmentandtheAmericanpeoplewereunsureofhowtoproceedto turnthecivilwarvictoryintolastingchangesinAmericansociety Fortheirpart,AfricanAmericanformerslaveswantedlandandopportunityfor education Somefoughtforaredistributionofpropertyasameanstoachievethatend Whitesouthernerswantedfreedomtorestoresomesemblanceofantebellum Southernsociety,freefromNortherninterference CongressestablishedtheFreedmansBureauin1865todistributefood,establish schools,provideeconomicassistance,andreunitefamiliesofbothblackandwhite Southerners

TheRepublicanPartyhadestablishedanambitiouseconomicprogram favoringanationalindustrialeconomy Itwasnotclearhowthiswouldbedevelopedintheagricultural landsof theSouth Thepoliticalsystem,whichRepublicanshaddominatedduringthe war, wascertaintobealteredasSouthernDemocratsrejoinedtheunion Republicansworriedaboutlosingtheirpoliticalmajorityifaunited DemocraticPartyemergedafterthewar Republicansweredividedamongthemselvesabouthowtoreconstruct thenation Conservativeswantedtheabolitionofslaveryandaminimumofchangein theSouth RadicalRepublicanslookedtopunishtheConfederacy,guaranteefull politicalandcivilrightsforAfricanAmericans,andstrengthen the RepublicanPartyinthesouthinordertomaintaintheirpoliticalpowerin thenation

Lincolnwasamoderateandproposedalenientreconstructionpolicyknownasthe10percentplan HeproposedageneralamnestyformostSouthernersandwouldallowstatestoreentertheUnion when10percentofthenumberof1860voterstookanoathofloyaltyandacceptedtheabolition ofslavery In1864,threestatesLouisiana,ArkansasandTennesseefulfilledtheseconditions RadicalRepublicansrefusedtoseattherepresentativesfromthe reconstructed statesorto counttheirelectoralvotesthatyear TheycounteredbypassingtheWadeDavisBill,whichauthorizedthepresidenttoappointa provisionalgovernorforeachconqueredstate Whenamajorityofthosewhohadvotedinthe1860electiontook anoathofloyaltytotheUnited States,astateconstitutionalconventionconsistingofdelegateswhosworepastloyaltytothe county,theironcladoath,couldwriteaconstitutionthatabolishedslavery,repudiated Confederatedebts,anddisenfranchisedConfederateleaders LikeLincolnsplan,politicalrightsfroAfricanAmericansweretobedeterminedbythestates Lincolnpocketvetoedthismeasurein1864

LincolnsreconstructionplansendedwithhisassassinationbyJohnWilkes BoothinApril1865atFordsTheatreinWashington,D.C. TherewassuspicionofaconspiracybyformerConfederates,whichwas exploitedbyextremeRepublicanstopromotetheirpoliticalagenda Theintemperate,impolitic,andwhitesupremacistAndrewJohnson,who wasaformerDemocrat,Tennesseegovernor,andUnitedStatessenator, assumedthepresidencyonLincoln'sdeath LikeLincolnsplanforreconstruction,Johnsonsplan,knownas PresidentialReconstruction,extendedamnestytoConfederates, excludinghighrankingConfederateofficialsandanySouthernerwith propertyworthmorethan$20,000,whoneededindividualpresidential pardons Otherwise,hisplanwasliketheWadeDavisplan Bytheendof1865,allformerConfederatestateshadformednew governmentsandwerereadytoreentertheUniononceCongress recognizedthem However,Congressrefusedtoseatthesegovernments

 WhenCongressconvenedinlate1865,itcreatedtheJoint CommitteeonReconstructiontoinstituteitsownpolicy ThisinauguratedtheperiodknownasRadicalorCongressional Reconstruction Southernstateshadenactedblackcodestoensurewhitecontrol overformerslavesandrestrictfreedmensmovementandlabor CongressrespondedbyextendingthelifeoftheFreedmans BureauandpassingtheCivilRightsActof1866,whichprotected freedmensrights CongressalsoproposedtheFourteenthAmendment,whichdefined Americancitizenshipandprovideddueprocess andequal protection ofthelawsbybothstateandnationalgovernments RaceriotsinSouthernCitiesincreasedNorthernSupportofthe RadicalRepublicans,whichsustainedsubstantialmajoritiesin1866 elections

Thatmajoritypassedandoverrodevetoesofthreemajorreconstructionbillsin1867 Ultimately,theformerConfederacywasdividedintofivemilitarydistricts Thecommanderofeachdistrictwastoregistervoters,including adultfreedmenandexcluding whitemaleswhohadsupportedrebelgovernments Thedistrictcommanderswerealsotocallconventionstodraftnewstateconstitutionsthat acceptedtheFourteenthAmendment By1868eightoftheformerConfederatestateshadbeenreadmitted AlaterrequirementforreadmissionwasratificationoftheFifteenthAmendment,forbiddingthe federalorstategovernmentstodenythevoteonthebasisofrace CongressalsopassedtheTenureofOfficeActdesignedtoreduce thepowerofthepresidento subvertitsplans TheactrequiredthepresidenttoobtaintheSenatesadviceandconsenttoremoveofficials, therebyprotectingRadicalsecretaryofwarEdwinStantonfromremovalbyJohnson In1867,theHouseofRepresentativesusedJohnsonsrefusaltoobeythisactasgroundsto impeachPresidentJohnsonafterhedismissedStantonwithouttheiradviceorconsent TheSenatefailedtoconvictJohnsonbyonevote,butbythenJohnsonspowertoresist congressionalwillhaddissipated

AfricanAmericansplayedasignificantroleinthepoliticsofReconstruction governmentsbutnowinthewaysnortotheextentthatcriticshaveclaimed TwentyblacksservedintheHouseofRepresentatives,twointhe Senate,and manyinstatelegislaturesandotherstateoffices Butthemythofnegrorule wasjustthat,amyth RestrictionsonwhitesuffrageweredroppedquitequicklyandonlySouthCarolina hadablackmajorityinitslowerHouseforashorttime WhiteSouthernscalawagsjoinedtheRepublicanPartybecauseitbestmatched theireconomicinterests WhiteNortherners,earningtheepithetofcarpetbaggers,servedasRepublican leadersandalsohopedtofindfortuneintheSouth Thesegovernmentswerecriticizedfortheirinefficiencyandcorruption,butthey wereprobablynomorecorruptthangovernmentsintheNorthduringthistime period Thegrowingstatedebtsresultedlargelyfromrebuildingasaresultofthewarand increasedgovernmentservices,especiallyineducation Reconstructiongovernmentsbeganbuildingapubliceducationsystemforboth blacksandwhites,andanumberofblackcollegeswerestarted

Concurrentwithfreedmansgainswastheestablishmentofasystemof segregationbasedonrace InitialattemptstointegrateschoolswereabandonedwhenDemocratic governmentsassumedcontrol Blacksandwhitescontinuedtobeseparatedineconomicterms Thefewattemptsattheredistributionoflandtofulfillthefreedmansdreamof fortyacresandamule wereabandonedinMississippi,Georgia,andSouth Carolina However,blacklandownershipincreasedwhilewhitelandownershipdecreased duringReconstruction Forbothracesthecropliensystemwasthemajorwaytogainaccesstolandand forfarming Merchantsorlandownerswouldloanfarmersmoneyandlandwithwhichtoplant crops,chargehighratesofinterest,andusedthecropascollateral Individualdebtgrew,andmanysmalllandownersofbothraceslosetheirlandand resortedincreasinglytocashcrops,especiallycotton Thiscouldresultformeithertenantfarmingorsharecropping

 Withoutslaverysrestraints,blackfamilies begantoadoptthestructureofwhitefamilies Womenincreasinglyinhabitedthedomestic sphereandmenworkedinthefields However,povertyrequiredmanyblack womentoworkoutsidethehomeforwages

 UlyssesS.GrantranontheRepublicanticketin1868against DemocratHoratioSeymour Aninexperiencedandsomewhatnavepolitician,Grantused patronageextensively,whichultimatelyinspiredagooddealof corruptioninhisadministrationandsplittheRepublicanParty CreditMobilier,aconstructioncompanycharteredtohelpbuildthe UnionPacificRailroad,defraudedtherailroadandthefederal government Thisscandalcametolightin1872 Anotherscandalknownasthewhiskyring involvedTreasury officialsanddistillerswhofalsifiedreportsoftaxrevenues SeveralothersmallerscandalstaintedGrantsadministration ThePanicof1873wasaseveredepressionlastingfouryears,and Grantsmonetarypolicy,whichwasfirmlybasedonthegold standard,madethedepressionworse

 Duringthistime,Alaskawasacquiredby secretaryofstateWilliamSewardfor$7.2 million,butthismovewasderidedatthetime asSewardsFolly Anactiveandforwardthinkingsecretaryof state,SewardalsoannexedtheMidway Islands

Withmountingeconomicandpoliticalproblems,thecountryturnedaway fromReconstructionsidealisticgoals,andtheoverridinggoalofthe RepublicanPartybecamecontinuedpoliticaldominance Evenso,bytheendofGrantstenure,sevenoftheformereleven Confederatestateshadbeenredeemed bytheDemocrats Inthosestates,secretsocietiessuchastheKuKluxKlan,theKnightsof theWhiteCamellia,andWhiteLeaguesusedviolenceanintimidationto solidifywhitesupremacyandtoexcludefreedmenfromexercising their politicalrights CongressattemptedtotowardthiswiththeKuKluxKlanActsin1870and 1871,whichauthorizedthefederalgovernmenttoenforceciviland politicalrightsinthestates Theseactswereineffectual Thefederalgovernmentscommitmenttoenforcetheserightswaned soonafter

NorthernsupportforReconstructiondiminishedafterratificationoftheFifteenth Amendment SomeRadicalsmoderatedtothepointofallyingwithDemocrats,andwhite SouthernRepublicansdefectedtotheDemocraticParty ThePanicof1873alsodivertedsupportfortheReconstruction ThenewphilosophyofSocialDarwinismalsoarguedthatblackswereinferiorand destinedtooccupyalowstationinsociety DemocratswonamajorityintheHouseofRepresentativesin1874,andgrowing Democraticpoliticalstrengthledtothedisputedelectionof1877 ThecontestbetweenRepublicanRutherfordB.HaynesandDemocrat Samuel Tildenwouldturnondisputedelectoralvotesfromthreestates Congressestablishedacommissiontosettlethedispute,andits Republican majorityawardedeveryquestionableballottoHayes,whobecamepresident DemocratsandtheSouthacceptedtheCompromiseof1877becauseHayes agreedtowithdrawallfederaltroopsfromtheSouth,appointaSouthernertothe cabinet,andprovidesubstantialeconomicaidtorebuildsouthernstates RepublicansvainlyhopedtheiraccommodationswouldsoreupRepublican supportintheSouth

 TheCompromiseendedthefederalefforttoestablish politicalandcivilrightsforAfricanAmericans Therewerenoimmediateorlastinggains Adeepseatedsocialconservatismandcommitmentto whitesupremacyalongwithastrongbeliefinprivate ownershipofpropertyandfreeenterprisethwarted substantialreform ThesurprisingresultisthatReconstructionaccomplished asmuchasitdid Mostsignificantly,theratificationofthethree Reconstructionamendmentsprovidedtheconstitutional basisforthecivilrightsrevolutionofthetwentiethcentury

TheRepublicangoalofestablishingaRepublicanPartyintheSouthfailed,andbytheendof1877everySouthern statewasinDemocraticcontrol Theseredeemersweremostlynottheformerplanterclassbutacommercialclassthatpromotedeconomic developmentoftheSouth Thesegovernmentsmirroredtherestofthecountryintheircorruption,andtheyloweredtaxesandreducedthe servicesthatReconstructiongovernmentshadprovided LeadershopedtobuildanindustrialeconomyandwereleadbyspokesmensuchasHenryGrady,theeditorofthe AtlantaConstitution InpromotingtheNorthernvaluesofthrift,industry,andprogressthatweresoroundlydenouncedbeforethe CivilWar,GradyhopedtotransformSouthernculture Industryexpanded,particularlyintextiles,tobaccoprocessing, ironandsteel,andrailroads SouthernproductionandincomeincreasedbutstilllaggedsignificantlybehindthatoftheNorth Agriculture,themostsignificantsectoroftheeconomy,wasimpoverishedinthepostReconstructionSouth Farmersincreasinglyreliedonafewcashcrops,andby1900,70 percentofSouthernfarmersweretenants ManyAfricanAmericanswereattractedtothenewSouthCreed ofprogressandsomeestablishedablack middleclass Acquiringproperty,establishingbusinessenterprises,andenteringprofessions,theseblacksofferedservicesto theirownrace Thisgroupembracededucationasthebasisofselfimprovement,andwiththesupportofNorthernmissionary societiescreatedanetworkofcollegesandinstitutes BookerT.WashingtonfoundedandwaspresidentofAlabamasTuskegeeInstitute,atradeschool Heurgedblackstolearntradesandadoptwhitemiddleclassvalues Oncetheygainedtherespectofwhitesintheeconomicarea,hebelieved,largersocialgainswouldfollow Heoutlinedthisprograminhis1895AtlantaCompromisespeech

Washington'sCompromiseimpliedthatthegrowingsegregationinSouthwould notbechallenged Inthe1883CivilRightsCases,theSupremeCourtruledthatthe Fourteenth Amendmentprohibitedstates,butnotprivateindividualsororganizations,from discriminatingagainstAfricanAmericans Inthe1896Plessyv.Fergusoncase,theSupremeCourtrulingdeclaredthat separatebutequalaccommodationswereconstitutional ThislegalizedwhatcametobecalledJimCrowlawsauthorizingsegregationby raceinAmerica Inaddition,Southernstatespassedlawsrestrictingblacksfrom voting;polltaxes, literacytexts,andgrandfatherlawsalltriedtoaccomplishthis Bothblackandwhitevotingdroppedsignificantly,althoughtheformerswasmore dramatic Restrictingthevoteofpoorwhitesoftenservedtheinterestsofpeopleinpower Anotherefforttomaintainwhitecontrolwaslynching,andtheriseoftheanti lynchingmovementdidlittletoslowit

 Reconstructionsolidifiedeconomicnationalismthroughout thecountry,andalthoughtheexerciseofpoliticalandcivil rightsbyAfricanAmericanswasrelativelyshortlived,a constitutionalfoundationforthoserightswasputinplace Anetworkofblackinstitutionswasalsoestablishedtohelp countertheeffectsofasocietythatbelievedinblack inferiority Althoughprimarilyagricultural,theNewSouthaccepted industryandcommerceandmanyoftherelatedvaluesit hadpreviouslydespised TheReconstructionerawasoneoflargelyunfulfilled promises,butitlaidthefoundationforsignificantchanges inAmericasfuture