Dispute Resolution: Issues in Training in Negotiation Skills For An Organisational Setting

NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING
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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS FOR AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

Dianne Allen, 1996
CONTENTS:
ABSTRACT: .............................................................................................................................. 3 1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: ........................................................................................... 4 1.1 GENERAL COMMENTS:....................................................................................... 4 1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:............................................................................ 6 1.3 FROM EXPERIENCE WITH MANAGEMENT TRAINING DELIVERED INHOUSE AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL:.................................................... 6 1.4 COGITATIONS: ...................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1 The Negotiation Dance .............................................................................. 8 1.4.2 Dance & Negotiation & Integrity & Male/Female Complementariness Torvill & Dean; "Shall We Dance" ........................................................ 8 1.4.3 "Shall We Dance" - "The King & I" - An Accessible Case Study - Power, Gender & Cross-cultural Issues in Negotiations .................................... 9 1.4.4 Framebreaking: for the King of Siam -> ill-health.................................... 9 1.5 APPLICATION TO AN ISSUE OF CONCERN................................................... 10 1.5.1 Interpersonal Skill Training in Adults, in a Workplace context.............. 10 1.5.2 Framebreaking - organisational training implications............................. 11 1.6 FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT" .............................................................................. 12 1.7 FROM HUXLEY'S ENDS AND MEANS ............................................................ 13 2. FROM THE LITERATURE: ............................................................................................... 14 2.1 INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING: .............................................................. 14 2.2 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: ............................................................................. 15 2.2.1 Experiential Learning and Interpersonal Skill Development: ................. 15 2.2.2 Experiential Learning for the Adult, and particularly for the Development of Management Skills ........................................................................... 16 2.3 THE "SIMULATION" IN SUCH TRAINING: ..................................................... 16 2.4 ADULT LEARNING: ............................................................................................ 17 2.5 MANAGEMENT SKILLS LEARNING: .............................................................. 17 2.6 WORKPLACE TRAINING:.................................................................................. 18 3. IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN DELIVERING TRAINING IN NEGOTIATING SKILLS ....................................................................................... 19 3.1 THE OPTIONS: ..................................................................................................... 19 3.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL OPTIONS:................................................................. 19 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 21 Section 1:1.1 ................................................................................................................. 21 NOTE 1: HAVING A CULTURAL MILIEU FOR PRACTISING NEGOTIATION SKILLS............................................................................................................. 21 NOTE 2: RECOGNITION OF IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION & NEGOTIATION SKILLS ................................................................................ 22 NOTE 3: "WORKPLACE" RESPONSIBILITY ......................................................... 23 Section 1:1.4.1 .............................................................................................................. 23
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Section 1:1.4.4 .............................................................................................................. 24 NOTE 4: The King and I .......................................................................................... 24 Section 1:1.5.1 .............................................................................................................. 25 NOTE 5: CONCERNING THE "FORMED ADULT": AND REMARKS IN SECTION 1.5.1 ................................................................................................ 25 Section 1:1.7 ................................................................................................................. 26 Section 2: ...................................................................................................................... 27 NOTE 6: LIMITATIONS OF LITERATURE SEARCH AND RESEARCH............. 27 Section 2:2.1 & 2.2....................................................................................................... 27 NOTE 7: CURRENT THINKING ON DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS.. 28 Section 2:2.3 ................................................................................................................. 28 Section 2:2.4 ................................................................................................................. 31 Section 2:2.5 ................................................................................................................. 31 Section 2:2.6 ................................................................................................................. 32 Section 3:3.2 ................................................................................................................. 32 NOTE 8: TRAINING, TRAINING CONTEXT AND LEARNING & APPLYING THE LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE ..................................................... 32 ATTACHMENTS .................................................................................................................... 33 ATTACHMENT 1: ...................................................................................................... 33 1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE............................................................... 33 ATTACHMENT 2: ...................................................................................................... 37 Training Input............................................................................................................... 37 ATTACHMENT 3: ...................................................................................................... 39 EXTRACTS FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT".............................................. 39 ATTACHMENT 4........................................................................................................ 47 SEARCH RESULTS FROM ELECTRONIC DATABASES & CD ROM................. 47 SELECTED ITEMS ATTENDED TO: ....................................................................... 47 ATTACHMENT 5........................................................................................................ 53 3.3 EXPLORING A PREFERRED PROCESS TO UNDERTAKE BASE NEGOTIATION TRAINING AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL................. 53 PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT: AN ACCESSIBLE CASE STUDY: FOR EXPLORING POWER, GENDER AND CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN NEGOTIATIONS ...... 55 ELEMENTS OF THE NEGOTIATION/S PROCESS: ............................................... 56
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ABSTRACT:
This report seeks to explore the issues arising from the consideration to provide training in negotiation skills in the workplace. The report does this by: 1. reviewing impressions and implications from personal experience of negotiation skill training 2. reviewing recent literature on the subject 3. seeking to apply these reflections to the task of determining curriculum and presentation - training techniques. The report notes the nature of effective negotiation skill training: with its inherent "interpersonal" aspect and the reliance on experiential learning, often in the context of a simulation, or role play. Since interpersonal (and hence negotiation) skills are reflected in behaviour, and behaviour is instructed by the formation of self-concept (the intrapersonal), the individual needing such training most is the one who has a dysfunctional behaviour formed as part of their selfconcept. To change this behaviour requires framebreaking and new frame formation. This is a task which is complex; takes time; and will require significant effort by participant and trainer, with the trainer especially on notice to sustain a model of consistent pattern of behaviour congruent with the new frame, and to provide instruction on the new frame of perception and approach and reinforce congruent behaviour in the participant when it is attempted. The risk of effective framebreaking is that it may include psychological breakdown. In that event, if the training has been sponsored by the organisation, then the organisation has some responsibility for having contributed to the breakdown. Without adequate management of the training, the events, and the consequences, and adequate support to maintain the individual while the new frame is constructed, the organisation could be held responsible for negligence through current occupational health and safety legislation. Planning and delivering such training, if required of the organisation, is then a very sensitive issue, requiring support mechanisms not always associated with a typical training program.
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1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS:
1.1 GENERAL COMMENTS:
Negotiation is a key interpersonal skill. As such it is a "life" skill. In the workplace, negotiation becomes a "workplace skill". Negotiation, and skill in negotiation, is usually well recognised in the context of the "commercial" transaction. What is not so readily recognised, is the impact of skill, or lack of skill, in negotiation, when it occurs as a part of the interpersonal exchanges occurring in the workplace. SEE NOTE 1 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY Negotiation, and its pre-cursor, communication, are key elements of any process of dispute management. Further, as Fisher & Ury, and others, have shown, communication is a key element of negotiation. Good communication skills usually facilitate a good negotiation. This lack of recognition, and, therefore, its "absence" from deliberate, explicit and effective training in communication skills (and so on to the building of negotiation skills) appears to be a characteristic of our basic culture and our current educational system. If it is not recognised in our culture, it is not surprising that it is missing from our educational programs. SEE NOTE 2 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY The task, in workplace training, is to "fill some of that gap". In the workplace this task faces as least three significant hurdles: 1. recognition of the need for this training (Part of the lack of explicit, deliberateness in communication and/or negotiation training is what has led to the perception that people with such skills were born with them, or at least born into them. To some extent the latter is true: people born into contexts where the adult models were good communicators/ negotiators grow up good communicators/ negotiators. What is not in the genes (nature) is certainly in the environment (nurture), to be informally absorbed, imitated and reflected.) 2. acceptance, that if these skills are lacking, it is the task of the workplace to deal with the lack/ provide the training
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3.
the mechanism for the delivery of such training 3.1 It has to be delivered to the "formed" adult. If the "formed" adult has dysfunctional behaviour in this area, the "formed" adult has to be "reformed". This may involve framebreaking, and with framebreaking, the distinct possibility of psychological breakdown. 3.2 It has to be delivered to the workplace. The workplace is, itself, part of the problem. The workplace is an organisation. An organisation is a complex made up of the individuals in it, the systems of operation for those individuals: as individuals within certain tasks, and as members of the organisation, in a variety of group, interpersonal contexts. It is the workplace where the expression of current interpersonal skills, whether functional, or dysfunctional, has established a certain pattern of predictable behaviour - the organisational culture. To change this requires acceptance of additional risk. 3.2.1 The first source of risk is the current load of stress in the workplace from change (technological, constitutional, economic, external competition, increased diversity, etc.,). This load means that another pressure may make the work context "unworkable". 3.2.2 The second source of risk will be where workplace training seeks (needs) to explore another level of intimacy, and/or vulnerability, in the workplace, while insisting on performance/ productivity. The fact that there may not yet be a general expectation from society at large to go down this track may create further tensions between the workplace and society. Successful change in the workplace may then seriously challenge the present social fabric.
SEE NOTE 3 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY The delivery of such training can happen explicitly in the workplace, or out of the workplace but directed to the workplace. It can be given to the individuals, asynchronously. Or it can be given in the workplace, synchronously, to a group, and supported by other organisational change and accountability systems. (I would postulate that such training is always going on in the workplace, whether it is
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recognised or not. Unless it is deliberately targeted to a specific (or range of specific) strategic outcome(s), then what happens is part of the informal, implicit, ad hoc and on-going cultural formation of the workplace. And, without deliberate targeting, and effective congruent presentation, both the informal processes and the formal workplace training may well be antithetical to the essential objective of the organisation. The culture formed may not support the organisation, or, more significantly, it may not support what the organisation thinks is its objectives, especially those expressed in glossy mission statements.)
1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:

I have had two "structured" educational experiences of training in negotiation, using the experiential technique: Firstly, in a course entitled "Commercial Negotiation" an elective unit of a Certificate of personnel Management conducted by UTS Kuringgai, by Peter McGraw, using the game "The Black and White Game" (1992). Secondly, with "Pepulator Pricing" in the Negotiation unit of the Dispute Resolution studies (1996). Both learning experiences have been very informative, and, for me, confronting, and, to a certain extent, emotionally disturbing. These experiences have raised the issue of the importance, and efficacy, of such experiential learning. Also, they have raised the question: in planning for organisationally sponsored and delivered interpersonal skill training, like training in negotiation, are there guides for making such learning effective, and handling any psychological consequences? SEE DETAILS IN ATTACHMENT 1
1.3 FROM EXPERIENCE WITH MANAGEMENT TRAINING DELIVERED IN-HOUSE AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL:
Since 1993 I have been engaged in considering, selecting, organising the delivery of, and evaluating the effectiveness of training delivered in the organisational context at Shellharbour Council. I have focussed the limited resources available on training managers to manage better. I have focussed this training on the development of interpersonal skills. I have used an external provider, Barry Smith, of Central Human Resources, who has Army
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training experience, and Local Government training experience, and who has come with good references. Firstly, from the NSW LG ITC: he is one of their contracted trainers delivering ITC sponsored training. Secondly, from a local, and experienced Human Resources Manager whose insight and expertise I respect, and who, at a larger Council has used Barry, and his training approach, to good effect. Barry has used material from Development Dimensions International. The material used is entitled: "Interaction Management" and/or "Techniques for an Empowered Workforce". This material includes "role-playing" within a simulated context. SEE DETAILS IN ATTACHMENT 2 I have observed participants in this context. The following are my observations: 1. All participants are "at home", with their usual "colleagues", and with the (implicit) necessity to maintain "congruence with past behaviour" and/or "face", in an ongoing relationship. Some will not break out of their normal responses to try another approach Those that will not/do not, invariably raise the "role-play" as being "unreal", therefore they cannot comfortably operate in them. 3.1 They complain that they don't know enough information (indicating a normal reliance on information as power?). They express the view that they are not comfortable with "pretending" (rejection of "deceit" as a mechanism?). They indicate their perception of the lack of relevance for the above two reasons.
2. 3.
3.2
3.3
4.
Those who are prepared to risk observation while trying the skills, and who generally accept and apply the content of the learning experience, are those who are already exhibiting the thrust of the behaviours and processes, recommended in, and reinforced by, the training. These behaviours are their preferred approach. They gain further substance and insights from the experience and the advised process.
These observations beg the question of the effectiveness of this training for "those who need it most". Such a question is usually framed by their subordinates who, when exposed to the same/ similar/ related training, comment to the effect that: "so-and-so should have this training". This question is even more poignant when "so-and-so" has indeed been "exposed" to it, and yet there is/has been no observable change in their dysfunctional behaviour.
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1.4 COGITATIONS:
In considering what to do for my assignment and presentation, the question of "gender" and "integrity" had taken my fancy. The term, "the dance", as it applied to negotiation, was also a trigger for me.
1.4.1 The Negotiation Dance

Raiffa (1982) refers to the "negotiation dance", the pattern of offer and counter offer by which negotiators seek to close the gap between their opening positions in order to reach agreement. Ury (1991) comments in his author's note to "Getting Past No": "Ten years ago Roger Fisher and I wrote a book called Getting to Yes, which presented a step-by-step "dance routine" for negotiating mutually satisfactory agreements. .. If Getting to Yes outlines a dance routine, Getting Past No shows how to get a reluctant partner to dance." The "dance" is a particularly apt description for the process between regular partners in ongoing negotiations. Labor & Employer: One step to the left, two to the right. Or, do I mean, "one step to the right and two to the left"?
1.4.2 Dance & Negotiation & Integrity & Male/Female Complementariness -Torvill & Dean; "Shall We Dance":
When I think of dance, and integrity, and the issue of complementariness in male-female role, the model that comes to my mind is: Torvill and Dean. Their Olympic winning display from 1984, and their professional explorations of the medium since, have displayed an artistic integrity - truth. For me, that truth included the essence of collaboration, within inherent difference, between male and female, with different levels of physical power/ capacity. It is also subject to an external discipline: that of being artistically consistent with the music (process?). This integrity with different gender roles has impressed me no end. The next "dance" that came to mind was the key sequence from "The King and I": "Shall We Dance?" Then the old inconsequential mind processes really got under way: the whole story line of
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"The King and I" was the negotiation around a breach of contract - with the interplay of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. gender, power (power in position; power in information; the power in the offer of relationship/ life purpose/ role), cross-cultural issues, the role of a mediator, the impact of "framebreaking" for the King, the impact of "framebreaking" for the Crown Prince
1.4.3 "Shall We Dance" - "The King & I" - An Accessible Case Study - Power, Gender & Cross-cultural Issues in Negotiations
This then met the criterion of "visual component" for a presentation - to select the elements of the story to illustrate aspects of the negotiation process, and the issues raised. It is an accessible case study. There is then the possibility of using "The King and I", as an accessible, and "neutral", case study, for analysis, and for opening discussion on issues, in a teaching context.
1.4.4 Framebreaking: for the King of Siam -> ill-health

The implicit ending in "The King and I" appears to point to ill-health/ death, arising from the psychological breakdown in the King. If "cause" and "effect" can be derived from this, my interpretation would identify: 1. the shift of persuasive power because of the development of the relationship between Anna and the King; the dilemma of the cultural clash: of the power of the King to deal with his slave as he wished; Anna's expressed revulsion in slavery per se; the context of the pre-cursor to the event: that of trying to impress the British delegation of the "civilisation" or non-barbaric nature of Siamese culture; and the King's "reversion" to type being challenged, leading to a crisis of action -> inaction -> leading to crisis of self-concept and of "kingship"
2.
3.
4.
Counterpointed with this is the declaration of the Crown Prince, who has been under Anna's teaching, that in his reign, respect for the king is to be expressed differently.
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SEE NOTE 4 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.5 APPLICATION TO AN ISSUE OF CONCERN

1.5.1 Interpersonal Skill Training in Adults, in a Workplace context
These strands of experience, and reflection, raise for me a number of issues: 1. 2. 3. the nature of and the content for the training of interpersonal skills the context of the training of interpersonal skills the support structures needed for effective training of interpersonal skills
For adults, much of the basic training in interpersonal skills has been "delivered" long ago, by key people in their early lives - eg parental modelling. SEE NOTE 5 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY If those interpersonal skills are/have proved dysfunctional in the workplace, they need to be unlearned and replaced by alternative skills. If such unlearning and reskilling is to happen, the following pre-conditions apply: 1. 2. 3. it will need to be delivered in an environment which is "secure" (Montessori); adequate time will need to be given to the process; and sometimes, and/or for some individuals, additional support, to assist with the reformation of self-concept in the new behaviours, will be required.
The question is: if this is so, how then to best deliver this kind of training: 1. 2. in-house? out-house? [well, that at least has an interesting lateral association Freudian slip?; or more indications of my father's training in cryptic crosswording capacity??] [yes, definitely Freudian slips!!]
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
hot-house? on-the-job? off-the-job? individually?
all-in-together now?
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8.
independent/ unknown but credible deliverer(s) who come in and go away; and, because they don't know the players, or the context, intimately, can't be accused of having "set some-one up" (then again they may be accused of being ?? incompetent/ unprofessional/ insensitive/ ...)
9.
in-house corporate trainers who may be able to tailor it better since they know the participants; and/or may be more responsible and sensitive about its use because they will live with the consequences. (They can then be more readily accused of having a hidden agenda; deliberately exposing individuals to risk, etc.) (The question now arises: how do organisations which must train their staff for contingencies, for ambivalence, or psychological warfare, etc., go about it? It must be part of police training for some roles; army training for officer roles; training for security/ espionage areas - who else?)
10. 11.
stand-alone? part of an organisational change strategy?
1.5.2 Framebreaking - organisational training implications

When a person chooses, of their own free-will, to engage in training, it is their choice. Within that choice they are free to accept or reject the content of the training. They have the liberty to stay, or leave, the training. In this context, the risk associated with framebreaking is their risk. When training is presented in the organisational context, the choice is made by those in authority in the organisation. The individual does not have quite the same liberty to stay, or go, as they choose, should they find the training uncongenial, threatening, etc. Further, if the training is a deliberate component of organisational change, and supplemented by other aspects of organisational discipline, etc., then there are even more significant implications for the individual. The individual will be vetted for: 1. the "response to", 2. the "behaviour demonstrated in" and 3. the "success" with the training and the associated follow up. Their short- or long- term future with the organisation may be dependent on the outcome(s).
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In addition, there are significant implications for the organisation. It needs to consider the nature of the likely outcomes, and to manage any risks involved. Otherwise, if not handled well, or properly, an organisation could well find itself a target of an occupational health and safety claim, even after, and when, the industrial trouble, which was created by such mismanagement, was settled. Personal choice is an important part of the adult individual's preparation for learning, being a significant part of motivation for an adult. Much organisationally sponsored training misses its target since this motivation is not there. Should the issue of framebreaking arise then the prudent organisation, which has given notice of this possibility, and consulted with the parties likely to be affected by the framebreaking, will be geared up with: support, and prepared procedures, and reasonable expectations. (Indications are that framebreaking may well arise, since Australian management is generally characterised as having poor interpersonal skills [Karpin].)
1.6 FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT":

I have raised some of these issues previously, in my assignment for the Dispute Resolution unit of studies. On that occasion, I was only able to "raise the issue", as something which needed to be considered. There were some indications, from the brief exploration of the matter that I had been able to undertake at the time, of the way forward. SEE ATTACHMENT 3
My conclusions there may now be summarised: 1. 2. the interpersonal skills of communication and negotiation need to be enhanced the two thrusts: of training, and conscious development of a new organisational culture which values the effective application of these skills, is required
What follows from this is that the organisation will also need to: 3. exercise due diligence and care with: 3.1 3.2 decisions related to how this training is delivered, what lead time there needs to be between delivery and demands for performance
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3.3 3.4
prior communication about objectives and implications structures and resources available to support staff, as required, through the process structures and resources available to assist staff, who are not willing/ are not able to perform, to be released from the organisation, or from present duties where such skills are critical
3.5
1.7 FROM HUXLEY'S ENDS AND MEANS

One of the seminal experiences, of my formative youth, was reading Aldous Huxley's "Ends and Means". From this there distilled, for me, the view that the end never justifies the means. And further, that the only way to achieve any end is to accomplish it through consistent means. If it is "peace" we are after, there is no way that "war/ violence" will achieve it. Or to quote: "'The more violence, the less revolution.'" So, workplace training in negotiation needs to have the end in view. Is it competitive negotiation or collaborative negotiation we wish to encourage? And, in my frame, if it is organisational effectiveness we are after, then the only option for training in negotiation is to train the collaborative technique. There will need to be a real effort to train collaborators to counter competitive and/or unprincipled negotiation techniques, or tactics, when exercised by others. This applies especially to those key staff who need to operate both with "internal" customers and with "external" parties, and especially when the contacts with external parties are with key commercial transactions. That is to say: competition, by its very nature, if espoused, and enhanced, will destroy the cohesiveness of the organisation - its essence and its essential effectiveness. Collaboration, acknowledged and enhanced, will: 1. build better teamwork and the potential for increased overall organisational performance - the outcomes of synergy 2. encourage support in relationships and so provide ongoing internal stability in the midst of external uncertainties This will give an organisation the necessary strength/ context to make other strategic/ technological/ process changes to keep ahead of external pressures that might otherwise threaten the viability of the organisation. 3. minimise the necessity to establish and maintain expensive systems for internal and/or external dispute resolution
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2. FROM THE LITERATURE:

At this stage, my review of the literature has not been/ could not be exhaustive. This constraint means that this assignment represents a "work in progress". As time/ experiences passes, I anticipate continuing to have a watching brief on these matters. The first area where such additional work is required is an examination of the literature prior to the implementation of electronic databases. One might assume that present knowledge is well-built and well-founded on the past knowledge and understanding. However, the history of the development and application of ideas is littered with lost cultural knowledge. And an overreliance on the quick and easy electronic database search risks/ invites such loss. At this stage, it has been a matter of gathering what evidence I could, of the support of other parties in addressing some of these issues. SEE NOTE 6 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY My general impression is that the issues I am concerned with are not always raised, indeed, not often raised. SEE ATTACHMENT 4 For instance, a search of the NSW State Library Collection for "role play.." delivered 9 titles. The search of APAIS & AEI & AFPD for "role playing" and "management" delivered 7 items. The search for "simulation" and "training" delivered 3 items. The search for "role play" and "training" delivered 11 items.
2.1 INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING:

My prime source for commentary on this matter at this stage is: Phillips, K & Fraser, T "The Management of Interpersonal Skills Training", Gower Publishing, 1992 Some extracts from this are noted in ATTACHMENT 3 as this material was extracted and used to flag the issue in relation to the wider task of equipping staff to handle disputes. There are some particular teaching techniques that are most valuable for interpersonal skill development. One of these is the opportunity to practice and/or experiment with different responses in an interpersonal encounter. The opportunity to do this is provided most frequently in the role-play or the simulation. My secondary source is:
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Robbins, S P "Training in Interpersonal Skills: TIPS for managing people at work" Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, c1989 This source applies the training of interpersonal skills to the manager or potential manager. The training model selected is an eight step process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Self-assessment exercise Skill concepts Concept Quiz Behavioral Checklist Modeling Exercise Group Exercises Summary Checklist Reinforcement Exercises
The modelling and group exercises presented in the chapter on Resolving Conflicts involve three role plays, and the third group exercise involves evaluating responses in four case studies and discussing and defending the evaluation in a group.
2.2 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING:

2.2.1 Experiential Learning and Interpersonal Skill Development:
The first thing to note in this regard is how important experiential learning is to the task of skill development in interpersonal skills. Phillips & Fraser note in their preface (viii): "In IST [Interpersonal Skills Training] it is possible to identify four broad and sequential aims; that is for people to: 1 2 3 4 Increase awareness, i.e. to learn more about themselves, their impact on others, and others' impact on them. Develop more choices in handling relationships. Experiment in trying out some of these new choices. Make decisions about what 'works' and makes sense."
Experiential learning, if effective, will deliver elements of: 1. 2. 3. increasing self-awareness, and awareness of others; and provide an opportunity for experimenting to try out alternatives.
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2.2.2 Experiential Learning for the Adult, and particularly for the Development of Management Skills
The second thing to note about experiential learning is how critical it is for adults; adult learning; and management learning, in particular. This has been remarked on in many and various places, and most recently in the Karpin Report. SEE NOTE 7 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY
2.3 THE "SIMULATION" IN SUCH TRAINING:

The stimulation that led to the key reference/s for this area was a bibliographic search at the UTS City Campus Library on "communication"; and, in particular: "communicative competence". This search yielded "Learning from Experience through Games and Simulations". This turned out to be one of a series of conference reports from the UK from SAGSET (the Society for the Advancement of Games and Simulations in Education and Training). The series is Perspectives in Gaming and Simulation. This item is number 13 (1988). This had an article entitled "Open Forum: The Unforeseen Consequences of Simulations". Other articles in the collection of interest to me were: "Interpersonal Perspectives on Simulation/Gaming"; and Section 3 which dealt with "Applications of Simulation Gaming to Business and Management". The UTS City Campus Library shelf adjacent then delivered: Jones, K "Simulations". London: Kogan Page, 1980. Morry van Ments was also a contributor to that Conference, and the NSW State Library search threw up van Ments, M "The Effective Use of Role-play: a handbook for teachers and trainers". London: Kogan Page, [1983], rev ed 1989. Other Conference reports which promised to shed some light on the topic, but which I have not yet been able to lay hands on, include: Human Factors in Games and Simulations, series no. 4, (1979) Simulation in Management and Business Education, series no. 7, (1982) Learning for the Future with Games and Simulation, series no.9, (1984) Effective use of Games and Simulations, series no.10, (1985) Gaming and Simulation for Capability, series no.11 (1986) Games and Simulations at Work, series no.12, (1987) The simulation is an integral, and significant, component of training in these areas.
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So, knowing what are 1. the objectives of the simulation; 2. the potential outcomes of the simulation; 3. the next steps to extract the most/ best from such simulations; 4. the risks of damage from such simulations; etc., is part of the professional and ethical responsibility of a teacher/ trainer in this area.
2.4 ADULT LEARNING:

As noted earlier (1.5.2), the current "accepted wisdom" for adult learning is related to that other buzz word: "empowerment". This wisdom speaks of: 1. getting commitment from the adult to the learning 2. getting the adult to explicitly recognise their "interest" in the learning 3. endeavouring to draw on the adult's prior experience to derive content, reflection, experiential components 4. in the group context, allowing the adults to pool their experiential/ reflective resources by sharing where they are at, and why 5. then pointing the way to additional sources of information: content, research findings, case studies, reflection on experience, exposure to "new" experience in a "safe" setting - the role play, the simulation, etc 6. providing some discipline to gather the information together The assignment, preferably self-directed, but related to the subject, free in the context, allows the student to apply this experience to say a workplace issue. The size, and the demand for some element of originality challenges their present comfort zone - and so can extend their present level of knowledge/skill. [See information from: "Managing Adult Communication", a 15 module training resource "Public Sector Management Course"; Power, Mary R "Educating Mediators Metacognitively" (1992) 3 Australian Dispute Resolution Journal, 1992, Vol 3, 214-226 extract cited in ATTACHMENT 4]
2.5 MANAGEMENT SKILLS LEARNING:

My primary source for this area of application is: Whetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995, 3rd ed. This (p.13 Table 1.3) presents an approach to management skill development which is based
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on: 1. 2. 3. Skill assessment Skill learning Skill analysis Assess current level of skill competence and knowledge; create readiness to change (preparing the adult to learn) Teaching the correct principles and present a rationale for behavioral guidelines (content 1) Provide examples of appropriate and inappropriate skill performance. Analyze behavioral principles and reason they work (content 2) Practice behavioral guidelines. Adapt principles to personal style. Receive feedback and assistance. Transfer classroom learning to real-life situations. Foster ongoing personal development.
4. 5.
Skill practice Skill application -
Simulations, and role plays will be an integral part of Stage 4, where this pattern of management training is used.
2.6 WORKPLACE TRAINING:

Much of the material in the above subsections can either be applied to on-the-job learning or off-the-job learning. The question for workplace learning is: has it moved to this model, or is it still "old-style" inhouse off-the-job lectures, sometimes with visiting speakers? There is a growing body of literature raising the issue of workplace training. The new concept/ word for this is "the Learning Organisation"! My primary source here is: Gunzburg, D "Identifying and Developing Management Skills". Canberra, AGPS: 1991. Gunzburg looks at Management Development through On-the-Job Learning, and The Learning Organisation, and makes the case: "Greater advantage might be taken of the learning opportunities in day to day work experiences, special assignments, postings and exchanges, through a deliberate, structured focus on learning objectives and learning outcomes. The use of personal development plans, mentors, structured reflections and reporting on learning seem to work well in many organisations." If it is the case that more effective learning could happen at the organisation level, if it was planned for, and focussed on, then establishing the context for that training, and the linkages between that training and other elements of organisational effectiveness become more and more significant.
... p.19
3. IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN DELIVERING TRAINING IN NEGOTIATING SKILLS:

The implications for organisations involved in delivering training in negotiation skills which includes the experiential component are: 1. to exercise care in selecting the mechanism/ providers - provide for as many different options as possible to exercise care in selecting/ compelling staff to participate - again, provide as much choice of vehicle of delivery as possible to provide ancillary support by way of time and additional independent professional input if required by the individual
2.
3.
3.1 THE OPTIONS:

There is always the option for an individual to learn whatever they can, however they can, when they want. Whether an organisation chooses to train in this area, or not, the individual can still choose to search for, and access, such training. Sources include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. the good read one-day "exposure" seminars often delivered by the commercial training enterprises longer, but still short, focussed course/ seminar/ workshops delivered by the commercial training sector short, focussed courses delivered by tertiary institutions as part of another, wider course curriculum something more intensive and accrediting in negotiation skill and/or skill training, like the Harvard Negotiation Project course/s
3.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL OPTIONS:

For the organisation, embarking on the process of delivering such training, there are a number of options: 1. leaving and/or motivating the individual to "go outside and get it" 2. providing access to outside training in this area - letting and/or motivating the individual to volunteer 3. providing it "inside" to the individual volunteer
... p.20
4.
accessing outside delivery, and sending conscripts
SEE NOTE 8 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY 5. providing the training inside and conscripting participants
But in the end, the organisation must say: "There'll be no promotion this side of the ocean"
If the organisation is convinced that it needs, for organisational development, to go down this track, it must: 1. seek to link good performance in interpersonal skills to its organisational rewards then make available training in one or more of the above modes set the parameters for expecting delivery in on-the-job performance posttraining exposure
2. 3.
The application of these principles is explored in ATTACHMENT 5.
... p.21
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
This bibliography is presented in the order of the sections of the report. This allows the bibliography to convey where supportive material will be found, although this process means, at times, there is repetition of citations. Further, the report raises issues that can be dealt with, in part, by some further analysis/ evaluation of the material in the bibliographic sources, and this is done in this bibliography.
Section 1:1.1
Local Government (State) Award, 1991& 1993 This explicitly nominates "negotiation skill" at a variety of levels as a part of a position's skill requirement. The award also requires training to develop skill, deliver career path, etc. Robbins, S P "Training in Interpersonal Skills: TIPS for managing people at work" Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, c1989 Whetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995, 3rd ed. "Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the AsiaPacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"]
NOTE 1: HAVING A CULTURAL MILIEU FOR PRACTISING NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Just as negotiation, as a skill, is poorly recognised in the workplace in interpersonal exchanges, so, negotiation is not readily recognised as occurring elsewhere, in the whole range of life activities. Further, in the area of commercial transactions, in the name of "efficiency", our western culture has, by and large, removed the opportunity to practice and develop this skill. The oriental culture, with its emphasis on relationship rather than efficiency, and a different conception of time, persists with the marketplace and the barter. It is here, in day-to-day transactions, on a small scale, that a person practices and refines their negotiating technique. This is gone from our fixed-priced supermarket. Then, when the time for negotiation comes, with the big ticket item, we are not well
... p.22
equipped to deal with it, and often come away disappointed. When the big ticket item is a construction in time, (the first and last home) with the flexibility to make changes as the construction develops, then there is the potential for poor negotiating skills, and inadequate communication and documentation, to create the context for a big fight. Hence our Builders' Services Corporation appeals mechanism.) Fisher, Roger & Ury, William "Getting to Yes: Negotiating an agreement without giving in." London: Century Business, 2nd ed, 1991.
NOTE 2: RECOGNITION OF IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION & NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Why we don't readily recognise these skills as important I can't say that I have much of an inkling. If Australia is "Euro" in its ethos, with a predominantly Anglo-Irish, working class foundation, it may be a reflection of these cultural biases. The history and geography of European settlement in Australia, with the resultant of loss of opportunity for communication by the "tyranny of distance" may have some part to play here. It may be the rejection of intimacy required for the pioneering of a difficult country. It may be reinforced by the Anzac element of Stoicism. The "Anglo-" "reserve" is well established. The "-Irish" is not so reserved. Nor is the Irish reluctant to talk. However, the tendency to "blarney" may mean we are never comfortable enough to trust such talk, and so real communication, leading to understanding and intimacy, doesn't happen. It may be the "working class" element. Not the "working" or "class" per se, but that this group, which formed the initial convict contingent, were those with poorly formed communication/ negotiation skills (which became the skill base from which the next and future generations drew its model) and who then fell foul of economic change, and then the law. Recent work, on the development of competencies, is starting to recognise these skills. And "communication", as a competency, is placed in amongst the "key" competencies. The "key" competencies are then expected to be taught in primary and secondary levels of education. I have remarked in my assignment "Equipping Staff to Handle Disputes Effectively in Local Government" (see extracts in Attachment 2) that these skills, and their attendant behaviours, are generally developed in an ad-hoc way, in early childhood development. Note 5, later, gives some further consideration to the conundrum this kind of training, and the scheduling of it, poses.
... p.23
NOTE 3: "WORKPLACE" RESPONSIBILITY

It is worth noting that the current trend/s talk of "family friendly workplaces". Organisations are moving to provide "employee assistance programs" with access to social/ psychological assistance. Occupational Health and Safety legislation requires that an employer: " ; xxx." Anti-Discrimination legislation requires that an employer provide a discrimination/ harassment-free workplace, and so requires employers to take action to control individual behaviour - once the role of family teaching, the church. Some of this is far from the older concept of the "sweat-shop" simply extracting physical labour for a monetary exchange. The shift to package benefits, while initially a tax dodge, is considered an appropriate, and in some cases a more attractive, mechanism of alternative rewards. The powerful Japanese business organisation concept, with its "family" feel, may not be far away. For some, "work" has replaced "alcohol" as the preferred "substance of abuse" - the workaholic. For most, "work" and "position" at work, is integral to identity explaining why unemployment is so psychologically (and socially) devastating. The opening conversational lead: "what do you do?" to commence the exploration of interpersonal relationship, highlights the value given to work, and with it, the workplace. More time is spent at work than at any other activity. With the general increase in social instability, the workplace organisation, with its apparent capacity to deliver (economic) security, can become "family", "church", "community" for the individual. Field, Laurie with Ford, Bill "Managing Organisational Learning". Melb.: Longman, 1995
Section 1:1.4.1
Raiffa, Howard "The Art and Science of Negotiation." Cambridge: Harvard Univ Pr, 1982. Ury, William "Getting Past No: Negotiating with difficult people." London: Century Business, 1991. Goldberg, Sander & Rogers [were they in fact quoting Raiffa at this point .. hard to see the quotes ..] speak of "The Negotiation Dance" in their commentary on negotiation. They identify four major stages in a negotiation: 1. Preparing for negotiations
... p.24
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.
Know thyself Know your adversaries Give thought to the negotiating conventions in each context Consider the logistics of the situation Remember that simulated role playing can be of value in preparing your strategy Iterate and set your aspiration levels
Opening Gambits 2.1 Who should make the first concrete offer 2.2 Gauge your reaction to an extreme first offer 2.3 Protect your integrity The Negotiation Dance 3.1 The pattern of concessions 3.2 Reassessing perceptions End Play 4.1 Making Commitments 4.2 Breaking a commitment gracefully 4.3 Helping your adversaries to break a commitment gracefully 4.4 Introducing an intervenor 4.5 Broadening the domain of negotiation
3.
4.
Section 1:1.4.4
Landon, Margaret "Anna and the King" London: Harrap, 1952 (a shortened version of "Anna and the King of Siam") Encyclopedia Brittanica
NOTE 4: The King and I

The Margaret Landon story, "Anna and the King", published in 1944, was used as the source for "The King and I". This story, in turn, was developed from Anna Leonowens' stories developed from her time in Siam. Landon does not make a link, either in time, events, or sequence of events between the impact of culture clash and health/ life-and-death. Also, in the Landon presentation, it is the Crown Prince who grapples with the slavery issue, and makes the change, and, in time, is able to steer his culture/ political structures through such a fundamental change.
... p.25
Rodgers & Hammerstein, on the other hand, post- World War II, in both "The King and I", and "South Pacific", are engaged in dealing with cross-cultural issues. No doubt reflecting some of the difficulties experienced in building a multi-cultural society, and a society where some of its key members have been recently exposed to other cultures on their own ground, as distinct from dealing with cultural differences when they are set in a context of requiring new immigrants to meet the target of conforming to the "new world".
Section 1:1.5.1
NOTE 5: CONCERNING THE "FORMED ADULT": AND REMARKS IN SECTION 1.5.1

For me, one of the conundrums of training in interpersonal skills relates to the impact of home-based modelling and/or pre-school training, and then the efficacy of primary and secondary education. It would be far preferable to arrange for the right behavioural patterns to be formed then, rather than have to break frames and form new frames later on in adult life, when these frames are dysfunctional. While the foundations of behavioural patterns are laid down in a person's formative years, it is difficult to conceive societal mechanisms to direct such training to meet societal needs. It is the parents and adult teachers with dysfunctional behaviour patterns who are then modelling these. First of all you catch and reform your parent. Then, the teacher. Indeed, teacher selection procedures could improve societal performance in this area. However, while societal performance in this area continues to reward dysfunctional behaviour - the competitors win; winning is good - such a strategy flies in the face of all "normal" experience. The concept of "spiritual" "revival": Christian conversion, with church renewal, and spilling over into reformation of society, is a pattern for such comprehensive change. It takes at least four generations if the Exodus is anything to go by, and the Second Coming, if the rest of human history is indicative. My words to describe my case have not included "reconstruction" - and yet that could be a reasonable description of what is proposed. This is certainly the way the communist regimes see it, and framebreaking and reconstruction is certainly to way they seek to deal with anti-communist and/or non-conformist behaviour. Some even call it "re-education." I would also contend that effective interpersonal skills can only be taught/ trained/ modelled by those with effective supportive interpersonal skills. [The Ignatian
... p.26
challenge is relevant here: "give me the child till they are seven years and I will give you the man (adult)".] I would further contend that a decision to change, to reform, to achieve improved, more effective, supportive interpersonal skills, when they have not been established in the earlier formative years, needs to be an adult decision. A person needs to be at a level of adult enough perception to recognise the gap between their own performance and their desired performance. Then, they also need to be prepared to "take the consequences"; to work through the trauma of such significant change. The concept of "informed consent" will be vital. The fact that both sides recognise and realistically assess the risk, is an important aspect of this. The indirect method of training, eg teaching "communication" in and through teaching English Literature, etc, as it was practised on me, is ineffective. Lillard, PP "Montessori today: a comprehensive approach to education from birth to adulthood". New York: Schocken, 1996 "Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the AsiaPacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"] p.31 ".. the Task Force has identified the broad areas in which many Australian managers need to improve their skills: * .... * soft or people skills
relationship building skills across organisations ... "
Section 1:1.7
Huxley, Aldous "Ends and Means." London: Chatto & Windus, first published 1937, collected edition 1946.
... p.27
Section 2:
NOTE 6: LIMITATIONS OF LITERATURE SEARCH AND RESEARCH

The "other parties", which are used to give support to my contentions, are presumably more widely read, better informed by research etc, than myself - ie hopefully experts in their field, since they have written, and been supported by being published by reputable concerns, in this area. This approach, of seeking, and identifying support, may well be "flawed", in that it is essentially an exercise in psychological congruence - from my frame. And if you want a discussion on the capacity of the "scientist"/ "researcher"* to be objective, and to be willing, and able, to recognise and deal with incongruence, you can have one with me and/or Arthur Koestler - The Act of Creation (1964); or C.S. Lewis - Meditation in a Toolshed (1945) [and C.S. Lewis - The Abolition of Man (1943) for its application to the task of general/ liberal education]; or C.P. Snow; or .... !) (* Whether it is in the area of social, or physical, science makes little or no difference. However, the social researcher is likely to have much more difficulty, in my view, with dissociating themselves from unrecognised implicit cultural frames, especially when formulating their hypotheses, and sometimes when constructing their research process.) Koestler, Arthur "The Act of Creation." London: Pan, 1966 (c. 1964) Lewis, C.S. "Undeceptions: Essays on theology and ethics." London: Geoffrey Bles, 1971. Lewis, C.S. "The Abolition of Man: or Reflections of education with special reference to the teaching of English in the upper forms of schools." Glasgow: Collins Fount paperback 1978 (c. 1943)
Section 2:2.1 & 2.2

Phillips, K & Fraser, T "The Management of Interpersonal Skills Training", Gower Publishing, 1992 Robbins, S P "Training in Interpersonal Skills: TIPS for managing people at work" Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, c1989
... p.28
Whetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995, 3rd ed. "Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the AsiaPacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"]
NOTE 7: CURRENT THINKING ON DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Whetten, Robbins, and Karpin all note among the key management skills needed are the interpersonal skills of communication and persuasion. All three flag the necessity for experiential learning. Robbins' work reflects the learning principles of Kolb's model. Practice is a part of this. Whetten, p.12: "Any approach to developing management skills, therefore, must involve a heavy dose of practical application. .. The method .. is based on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Davis and Luthans, 1980). This approach marries rigorous conceptual knowledge with opportunities to practice and apply observable behaviors." Karpin, p.32: " managers learn best and fastest through being exposed to a variety of management development strategies. But in particular, managers learn best at work." Note also Fred Emery's critique in "Business Review Weekly" p.72 July 24, 1995: "The taskforce does not ask whether the change in the workforce towards selfmanaging groups eliminates the need for such supervisors. It assumes that they can be retrained into leaders, mentors and coaches. This is assumed in the face of one fact, which it probably does not know, that in the 1950s the movement to retrain supervisors in human relations was a dismal failure; and in the face of another fact, which they certainly do know, that human-resource people do not know how to train the much better-schooled managers to be leaders, mentors and coaches."
Section 2:2.3
Since this is probably the pivotal section of the literature/ research/ substance of my case, I have cited here a number of key quotes from the relevant authors. "Learning from Experience through Games and Simulations". Leicestershire: Centre for Extension Studies, Loughborough Univ of Technology, 1988.
... p.29
Peppercorn, D "Open Forum on the Unforeseen Consequences of Simulation" p.159 ".. in particular, .. the responsibilities of the trainer (and in particular the user of simulations) for the emotional and psychological consequences of the training.." ".. I have personally experienced many occasion when the consequence of a particular action on the part of the facilitators on a training program have not been as expected, and .. have caused personal crisis and worry to the trainee beyond that with which the program's designers were qualified to cope." ".. business simulation exercise .. the hidden problem was with the two individual's own self esteem, and the light in which they were seen by their actual subordinates .." ".. I certainly do not believe that we should stymie our activities through paralysing self-doubt, but I do think .. we as trainers should be more aware of these difficulties ..." Jones, K "Simulations". London: Kogan Page, 1980. Jones, K "Unnecessary Ambivalents - a cause for concern". The Simulation and Gaming Yearbook Volume 2 Interactive Learning. London: Kogan Page, 1994. p.12 ".. ambivalent events .. are not games or simulations or exercises, but a muddled mixture in which, by definition, some participants behave in accordance with one methodology while other are in a different methodology ... ".. ambivalents are undiagnosed as such, and thus psychological damage to participants and facilitator becomes more hazardous since the cause is not only undetected but attributed to personal failings. Since events are usually reported by the facilitators rather than the participants it is not surprising that the assumption is that the participants are to blame." " .. if some participants treat the event as an intellectual exercise while others treat it as a play-acting session then the event is an ambivalent." "[Initially it was my view] that all ambivalents were unnecessary and undesirable, and should be made consistent by either altering the design or by giving an appropriate briefing .. [now it is my view that] although necessary ambivalents are a very small class, they include some of the most powerful learning events yet devised, including STARPOWER, THE COMMONS GAME and (sometimes) PRISONER'S DILEMMA." "Stewart (1992: Simulation and Gaming, 23, 2) makes the point that there has been little discussion of ethical considerations in experiential learning compared with considerable discussion by research workers in the field of experiments."
... p.30
"She urges facilitators who use games and simulations for experiential learning to focus on ethics in their debriefing if the event involves deceit ... it is unethical to conduct an experience-based activity without providing an adequate debriefing." "However, four major practical difficulties remain: 1. ambivalents do not usually come with a health warning 2. the area of concern can arise in other ethical aspects, not just deceit: it can be other undesirable behaviour such as greed intolerance, violence, hate 3. it is impossible to give an adequate debriefing of an ambivalent if there is faulty diagnosis of the methodology 4. even if the facilitator is aware of the clash of methodologies, then merely to announce this fact in the debriefing may not itself be enough to expunge the feelings of distress and hurt caused during the event "If the necessary ambivalents are potentially powerful events, the facilitator should consider not just a normal explanatory debriefing but some sort of interactive followup involving co-operation and empathy." van Ments, M "The Effective Use of Role-play: a handbook for teachers and trainers". London: Kogan Page, [1983], rev ed 1989. p.14 "The use of role-play as an educational or training technique is part of a wider set of techniques that have collectively become known as simulation and gaming. These are techniques which aim to provide the student with either a highly simplified reproduction of part of a real or imaginary world (a simulation) or a structured system of competitive play that incorporates the material to be learnt (a game)." p.15 "Many simulations involve students in making decisions and communicating or negotiating with one another." p.15 "Role-play is the name given to one particular type of simulation that focuses attention on the interaction of people with one another." p.16 "The idea of role-play, in its simplest form, is that of asking someone to imagine that they are either themselves or another person in a particular situation. They are then asked to behave exactly as they feel that person would. As a result of this they, or the rest of the class, or both, will learn something about the person and/or situation." p.20 "The idea of role-playing is very simple: to give students the opportunity to practise interacting with others in certain roles."
... p.31
p.21 "As a technique, role-play has proved to be very powerful. It is highly motivating and enables students to put themselves in situations they have never experienced before; in particular it opens the way for them to put themselves in others' shoes. Much of our behaviour in interpersonal interactions is governed by our assumptions about our own role, other people's roles, and the way we perceive their roles." "It can be used at different levels to teach simple skills of communication, to show how people interact and their stereotyping of others, and to explore deep personal blocks and emotions." "Because the technique is so powerful, it is essential that tutors approach it in a systematic way and are aware of the different ways of using it." p.23 ".. conventional methods of teaching and learning .. cannot easily help to change the student's attitude or behaviour. To read or hear about something is not the same as experiencing it, and it is often only be actual experience that understanding and change can come about." "Role-play is one of a unique group of experiential teaching techniques which help the student to cope with the idea of uncertainty." p.24 "The second major area where conventional methods needs to be supplemented is that of interpersonal and communication skills. No matter how much reading and observing the student undertakes, the only way to develop these skills fully is by using them in actual interpersonal situations."
Section 2:2.4
"Managing Adult Communication", a 15 module training resource "Public Sector Management Course"; Power, Mary R "Educating Mediators Metacognitively" (1992) 3 Australian Dispute Resolution Journal, 1992, Vol 3, 214-226 extract cited in ATTACHMENT 4]
Section 2:2.5
Whetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995, 3rd ed.
... p.32
Section 2:2.6
Gunzburg, D "Identifying and Developing Management Skills". Canberra, AGPS: 1991.
Section 3:3.2
NOTE 8: TRAINING, TRAINING CONTEXT AND LEARNING & APPLYING THE LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE
The conscript may well be able to demonstrate adequate change/ competence in the preferred behaviours in the training context, but still not be able to apply it/ deliver it when back in the workplace. Here the complex of the impact of antithetical workplace culture; too much having been invested in past congruence of behaviour to be able to break with it now; the relapse to "old behaviour" under stress, all play their part. The practising Christian, whether lay, theologian or pastor knows this only too well: Romans 7:24 "Wretched man that I am ... Romans 7:21 .. I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand .. Romans 7:15 .. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate." Ephesians 4:1-3; 4:17-5:20 John 2:23-25
... p.33
ATTACHMENTS
ATTACHMENT 1:
1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
1.2.1 Commercial Negotiation UTS Kuringgai: The Black & White Game
In this instance, if my memory serves me correctly, I was a member of a fairly evenly mixedgender team. This team argued about the ethics of the decisions with the bid, and the content of the negotiations. The "collaborative"/"ethical" component of the group "got its way". The team result was a loss to the other team which chose the competitive approach. I regret: I did not notice the gender mix of that group. The point of the game was to demonstrate that "collaboration" was the most successful strategy. This point was made clear in the debriefing. The controller of the game also raised the issue of collaborating, in the negotiations, to agree to change the game rules to assist the "competing" teams to build mechanisms of "predictability"/ "trust" in the negotiation process and its outcomes, in the face of the "hostile" game environment. So, I experienced: holding fast to my own personal principles - and going down.
1.2.2 Pepulator Pricing

In this instance, I was one female in a group of five males. The group recognised the efficacy of the collaborative approach, right at the beginning. However, given the game rules of the "Antitrust Legislation", there was no endeavour to explore mechanisms to circumvent this rule to achieve the necessary collaboration. The group briefly discussed the high risk/ low risk choices, but little else. The group opted for the low risk stance, and then the reactive stance: persist with the low risk option and wait and see what the other party did. There was almost (from my point of view, anyway) a conspiracy of silence on discussing the issues involved in the choices. The discussion, between bids and results, was mostly of other issues - some marketing in general; some incidental information involved in building relationships - job, interest in course, difficulties of course presentation so far, difficulties of enrolment, etc.
... p.34
One participant raised the question of being able to operate outside the rules, by having a range of options to supplement the price/benefit offer in the sales context, but was quickly brought back to the limitations of the game rules. The individual who became the "leader" in market strategy expression was very quick and forceful in the presentation of his views. The individual who went into the first negotiation, when our group was "in front" with the profits, indicated that his approach (if we could risk "atypical" personal behaviour) would be to hear what the other team wanted to suggest, and to be ambivalent towards any agreement suggested. When the second negotiation came round (our team was now "behind" in the profit stakes) there was limited discussion, in depth, of the options of different strategies, and their likely outcomes. What discussion there was took the following form: 1. The suggestion was made that if we went into the negotiation, the best course was to agree to the win-win collaboration, even though that meant we would still be behind at the end, we would be better off than any other process. It was then commented that the person who should go into the negotiation with that offer was myself. That, of the group, I had the preferred demeanour: my demeanour would be convincing. Then the comment was that if that happened, and the group then reneged, the result could be a "win". The second strategist, who nominated me and my demeanour to negotiate, said yes, but it was important that I should not know that/ or it would have been better had I not known that.
2.
3.
4.
I was prepared to risk going into the negotiation, to see how I could handle the "lie"/ "unprincipled" position/ approach. The exercise for me was to see if I could carry it off, what it might involve, especially if my essential discomfort and body language gave me away. As it transpired, the other negotiator showed every sign of being even more nervous than I, and so being perhaps devious too. The other team had an option which "sounded reasonable". As a result of my group's lack of preparation in exploring options, this option came as a "surprise" to me. And, in the context of the negotiation, I had no mechanism to "understand" it readily. Especially since much of my relational energy was being consumed by the "emotional" aspect of my need to control my concealment. I responded with uncertainty - real, since I didn't understand the option. I sought to clarify that, and so, to that extent become "comfortable." As the idea sounded "good enough" to me, I was able to honestly agree to their new option, as a reasonable way
... p.35
forward, and better than any option I had, and was able to honestly report that back to the group with that information as the offer to which I had agreed. There was still the possibility that I had been persuaded, in the negotiation, to "buy a lemon". There was the possibility that, in my absence, my group may have had a change of heart, or explored some of the alternative options and their implications, and therefore now know and understand this option and know that it could be followed, to our advantage, and the mutual advantage of both groups. But I was reasonably sure that this would not be the case. And, again, given the internal conflict from my "dishonourable", or potentially dishonourable behaviour, and the context of the established group dynamics, I wasn't prepared, or able, to take up the cudgels and challenge the group position. To, for example, claim the moral support that they help me keep my word. Our group then decided to renege - won the battle and lost the war. When the results came in, not one of the group was really comfortable with the consequences of what was going to be the opinion of the other group concerning our behaviour. Again, there had been no explicit discussion of this likely outcome, or whether it was something that we "would prefer not to have to live with". At the time, I was personally struggling with the symptoms of the flu. And when the group implicitly withdrew from "working on" the exercise, I didn't have the energy that I might otherwise have had to challenge that approach. I am not sure that if I had that energy I would have acted differently. The challenge of the quick, forceful strategist - good at the numeric component of the exercise - may have daunted. [I have discovered, from my previous training in negotiation, that my old "quick mental arithmetic" skills have deserted me. I cannot be relied on to do quick, accurate computations, especially of money matters, when involved in a negotiation. Apparently my mind is elsewhere, much engaged.] Certainly, we were still all raw to one another as people, to know what each other might have been comfortable with/ uncomfortable with. The context was explicitly "safe", in order to allow us to "risk atypical behaviour"/ "try another way of doing it". It is/was notable that while the teaching context sought to reinforce this "safety", I doubt that many of us were prepared to work wholeheartedly in that context - to "go that far" (ie a long way from our normal comfort zones). Also, when people did step outside the accepted group ethic, there was much chiding, and implicit and explicit peer pressure exercised, with some grouping of the like-minded, and some isolation of the risk-takers/ non-conformists. For me, the exercise had these instructive components: 1. Risking the atypical - for me that was being unprincipled, exercising a capacity to convincingly lie when personally most uncomfortable with such an approach (my father's training for family poker games and other card games of strategy came to the fore here)
... p.36
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Failure, in the group, to communicate Gender mix in group Personality in group Implicit exercise of power in group - power to convince, or control Personal preparation - ill health Failure/ inability of other party to recognise signs of deceit - it was "too easy" The challenge, again, to the acculturation of competitiveness 8.1 my poker playing father; 8.2 my schooling the challenge to excel academically, and competitively with peers, other schools, etc (St George Girls High 1957-61) 8.3 competitive sport to the exclusion of cooperative play; 8.4 the present economic rationalism/ international competitiveness/ benchmarking process [? is it "quality" or only institutionalised one-upmanship?]
... p.37
ATTACHMENT 2: Training Input:

Development Dimensions International (DDI) "Interaction Management" Training Key Principles 1. Maintain or enhance self-esteem 1.1 be specific 1.2 be sincere 2. Listen and respond with empathy 2.1 respond to feelings and content 3. Ask for help in solving the problem 3.1 seek and develop ideas 3.2 provide support without removing responsibility DDI Interaction Process Preparation 1. Situation to be discussed 2. Person involved 2.1 Performance/ work habits record 2.2 General attitude 2.3 Specifics for Key Principle 1 3. Objective - what hope to achieve in session 4. Critical Steps to be used - which Key Principles used?; when? Critical Steps - Improving Employee Performance 4.1 Describe the problem in a friendly manner 4.2 Ask for the employee's help in solving the problem 4.3 Discuss cases of the problem 4.4 Identify and write down possible solutions 4.5 Decide on specific action to be taken by each of you 4.6 Agree on a specific follow-up date 5. Background information 5.1 Facts known 5.2 Information needed 5.3 Concerns 5.4 Possible causes/ reasons for situation 5.5 Previous discussions 5.6 Consequences to employee if the situation continues 5.7 Other Alternatives 6.1 Possible actions/ solutions 6.2 Resources available 6.3 Constraints 6.4 Other
6.
... p.38
7. 8. 9. 10.
Notes Specific actions Follow up Review 10.1 To what extent did you meet your objectives? 10.2 What critical steps/ Key Principles did you handle most effectively? 10.3 What critical steps/ Key Principles could you have used more effectively? 10.4 What will you do differently in your next discussion?
... p.39
ATTACHMENT 3: EXTRACTS FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT"
FROM: p. 5 Executive Summary: The focus in the skill-based award on: 1. the identification of skills required in the workplace; 2. the incorporation of incentive and appraisal of performance prior to delivering such rewards; and 3. an insistence on the formulation of a corporate training plan can all contribute to the task before local government: to build those interpersonal skills, knowledge and consistent behaviours which equip staff to handle disputes effectively in the workplace and beyond. (Section 3) There needs to be a clear recognition that what is required is: 1. a vision of an organisation where the pervasive culture is that the management of disputes is undertaken, as far as possible, by the first receiver being able to take effective action to resolve differences before they become disputes
structures (policy and practice) that reinforce this culture: 2.1 recruitment and promotion: on merit, focussing on interpersonal skills as well as (and with a higher weighting than) the usual technical areas 2.2 induction: majoring on authority and accountability in dealing with interpersonal aspects of difference, and the solving of problems, including the relationship component, on the principle of a mutually balanced interest-based collaboration 2.3 corporate focus on generic training relevant to the development of the skills, knowledge and consistent behavioural responses required to achieve these objectives 2.4 a performance management focus to reward the effective application of such knowledge and skills, and to reward, even more, the effective training of others in such knowledge and skill areas (the relevant level of training responsibility being devolved to all staff) 2.5 appropriate delegation of responsibility to act 2.6 appropriate flexibility, from broadly framed policy objectives, to give guidelines which allow staff to make consistent, and responsive, decisions (Section 2 & 7)
2.
... p.40
FROM: p.25-26
3.
3.1
SKILLS REQUIRED TO DEAL WITH DISPUTES:

GENERIC SKILLS:
Prevention is better than cure. The way a complaint is handled is as important as the substance of the complaint. Therefore, in identifying and analysing the skills required to deal with disputes, the generic, interpersonal elements of communication and negotiation skills will appear paramount. [It has been the experience of organisations (like AMEX/ the NRMA) which have analysed disputes/ customer grievances, that the way a dispute/ customer grievance is handled is often more important than what was the initial cause for complaint.] In reviewing the potential for disputes in the local government context, and their potential impact in the workplace, with respect to effectiveness, the following categories list the areas where training could lift performance:
3.1.1 Facility in communications:

1 verbal: 1.1 face to face; 1.2 telephone; 1.3 group written 2.1 letter; 2.2 fax; 2.3 internal report; 2.4 external submission 2.5 contract
3.1.2 Facility in negotiations:

1 2 3 4 5 one-to-one service provider to customer regulator to applicant peer staff situations subordinate to superior; superior to subordinate organisational representative to organisational rep 5.1 industrial 5.2 contractual officer to elected representative elected representative to electorate
6 7
3.1.3 Awareness and Responsiveness to Differing negotiation contexts:

1 2 3 4 one-on-one member of a team in a formal group context - public meeting multi-party deliberations
... p.41
3.1.4 Facilitation & Mediation skills:

1 2 3 4 Communication skills - verbal group Facility in negotiations Meeting procedure Mediation processes
Because of the issue of "conflict of interest" it will not be usual for a Council staff member to act formally as a mediator, in the formal mediation of a dispute originating at the local government level. However, there are many occasions when a Council officer can find themselves involved in a situation where having a knowledge of the role, and knowledge of the "typical" options for process, and skills/ knowledge in negotiation and negotiation techniques, will mean that the officer can act to facilitate the interactions of disputing parties, to help defuse the situation. There are some work situations where a staff member will be nominated as the formal facilitator: 1. 2. 3. the chairing role in a staff-based work-issue related committee the chairing role in a public forum dealing with a community issue the facilitator in specific group activities (eg facilitation of brainstorming activity)
There are other occasions when the staff member, if so skilled, and inclined, can move from the position of participant (on own, or work section's, or organisation's behalf) in a group situation, to that of facilitator, guiding discussion, and the development of options, or "heads of agreement", by navigating an effective path for mutual communications between other participants so that differences do not escalate to disputes and/or breakdown of the group relationship. See Notes 7,8 in Bibliography. FROM: p.45-46
4.
4.1
THE NATURE OF THE TRAINING REQUIRED TO DEVELOP THESE SKILLS:

GENERAL REMARKS:
Many of the skills identified as critical to handling interactions, whether the interaction has reached the dispute stage or not, are the skills basic to day-to-day interpersonal relationships. As such these skills are the skills developed in an individual: 1. in the home: modelling, vocabulary and speech pattern development and acculturation
... p.42
2.
3. 4.
with formal schooling 2.1 pre-school 2.2 primary school 2.3 secondary school with tertiary education by participation in a selected subculture: modelling, vocabulary and speech pattern modification, acculturation
This skill development happens on an ad-hoc basis. Given the need for internal congruence, however, in a mentally stable individual, such ad-hoc development will be selective. It will tend to build a consistent framework around the accepted core (probably the one developed in the home, pre schooling, or wherever the early childhood development stages occurred). Any deliberate training which seeks to deal with these skills then faces the task of recognising the underlying framework and then either enhancing it or being engaged in framebreaking. To do that, the training needs to have a sound and reasonable theoretical foundation. (This theoretical foundation will be able to explain present patterns and their strengths and weaknesses, as well as enunciate different patterns and their strengths and weaknesses.) This training will need to be supported by high teaching quality and high learner receptivity. For individuals where such training requires framebreaking, the above quality training may also need to be augmented by supports such as therapeutic psychological support. See Notes 12-15 in Bibliography. 4.2 COMMUNICATIONS SKILLS TRAINING:
Deliberate training in communication skills is being recognised now, in primary education, and in some secondary education. It is also now being delivered as a compulsory, supportive unit to all technical level training. At the university level, communication theory and practice training tends to happen in only selected courses, where such skills are perceived to be critical to professional practice. In the workplace, there is a growing awareness of the need to at least augment prior training in these areas. (See also further remarks in Section 5). See Note 16 in Bibliography.
4.3
NEGOTIATION SKILLS TRAINING:
Deliberate training in negotiation skills is barely formalised. It tends to happen by practice at/ experience.
... p.43
This can then be supplemented by short/ specific courses. There is some directive training as ancillary units in courses where negotiation is perceived as critical to professional practices. There is not, as yet, in Australia, anything like the Harvard Negotiation Project.
4.4
DISPUTE RESOLUTION PROCESSES TRAINING:
For deliberate training in dispute resolution processes, current sources include formal studies in: 1. 2. law social sciences
4.5
TRAINING TECHNIQUES NECESSARY TO DEVELOP THESE SKILLS:
In terms of the nature of the training required to develop these skills, there are four major components: 1. 2. 3. 4. theoretical background motivation to change and/or to develop technique training practice: from simulation to real life application
See Note 17 in Bibliography.
FROM: the Evaluative Bibliography: p.
Section 4: 4.1 & 4.2 Phillips, K & Fraser, T "The Management of Interpersonal Skills Training", Gower Publishing, 1992 Mackay, H "Why don't people listen?: solving the communication problem" Pan, Sydney, 1994 Note 12: Mackay reflects on his experience of communication, recognising the "power of the cage" in dictating communication capacity and identifying three key
... p.44
elements of effective training of communication skills. The three key elements are what he calls: Reinforcement Relevance Relationship Note 13: Phillips & Fraser note in their preface (viii): "In IST [Interpersonal Skills Training] it is possible to identify four broad and sequential aims; that is for people to: 1 2 3 4 Note 14: Phillips & Fraser, in discussing the ethical dimensions of IST, (p.44-66) note: ".. the danger of a culture clash [is].. if the training encourages people to develop skills which are not supported or valued by the organisation then the scene is set for a battlefield of recriminations." ".. the trainer and his client need to beware of any training activity which generates too much unfinished business, i.e. creates more problems than it solves." ".. we believe no clear distinction can be made between training and therapy." Note 15: Phillips & Fraser, in the chapter on ethical and professional issues (p.44-66) also raise and discuss the elements of: self awareness; involvement and detachment; confrontation; constructive and destructive discomfort; individual and group focus; relationships with colleagues; manipulation; conflict; Increase awareness, i.e. to learn more about themselves, their impact on others, and others' impact on them. Develop more choices in handling relationships. Experiment in trying out some of these new choices. Make decisions about what 'works' and makes sense."
... p.45
training and therapy; catharsis; saying goodbye. Although I can't pick a succinct quote to illustrate the point, the implications for me, and my own reflections on the personal impact of interpersonal skill training, is that if the training runs up against a person with a significantly different pattern of perception/ behaviour, and at a time of preparedness for radical change, the training could well precipitate a psychological crisis. In this event, psychological support for working through the breaking frame, and the reconstruction of a new, congruent frame, will be needed. This issue also arises with the techniques of role-playing, simulation, etc., and whether or not to conduct such training in-house, see also remarks at Section 7.4.
Section 4: 4.2 Note 16: Mackay also reflects on the general community's current interest in communication skills and training. He developed the series of audio tapes entitled "Better Communication" in collaboration with Caroline Jones, in response to this interest. The expansion in "Why don't people listen" includes material on Managing Change. Section 4: 4.5 See also material in Attachment 12 Power, Mary R "Educating Mediators Metacognitively" (1992) 3 Australian Dispute Resolution Journal, 1992, Vol 3, 214-226 Note 17: Power (see also Attachment 12) notes the need to deal with the training of mediators in a way which is consistent with: adult learning the inherent nature of the mediation process. She notes: "Disputants in a mediation event are learning how to solve problems for themselves .. Therefore, teaching people to be mediators should involve examining
... p.46
how adults learn; the relationship between theory and practice; and how the effect of previous training in law, counselling or business impacts on ways of conceptualising problems and levels of responsiveness to ethical considerations." The model she looks to is: ".. that beginning mediators be taught to be "metacognitive", that is, to "plan, initiate, and evaluate their own learning experiences", to integrate them with prior experience to facilitate the growth of independent, reflective problem solvers who are not limited by past practices and conventions but are constantly subjecting their own performance to scrutiny to improve it."
... p.47
ATTACHMENT 4: SEARCH RESULTS FROM ELECTRONIC DATABASES & CD ROM

Details are unavailable
SELECTED ITEMS ATTENDED TO:

Taylor, A & Bernstein Miller J Conflict and Gender, Hampton Pr, NJ, 1994:
Introduction: The Necessity of Seeing Gender in Conflict Introduction to Part I 1. Denial and Patriarchy: The Relationship Between Patriarchy and Abuse of Women 2. Wife Abuse: Its Magnitude and One Jurisdiction's Response 3. Mediator Differences in Perception of Abuse: A Gender Problem? *4. Secretarial Positioning: Gender Ambivalence and Harassment Introduction the Part II *5. The Influence of Sex on Managers' Reactions in Conflict with Their Subordinates 6. Conflict Management and Marital Adjustment Among African-American and White Middle-Class Couples *7. Gender Differences in Conflict-Handling Styles: Less Than Meets the Eye? *8. Gender and Conflict: What does Psychological Research Tell Us? *9. Gender Differences in Negotiating Behavior and Outcomes: Fact or Artifact? Introduction to Part III 10. "Gender Conflict": Connecting Feminist Theory and Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice 11. A Wittgensteinian Approach to the Meaning of Conflict 12. Informal Contributions to the Conflict Management Process 13. Gender and the Mediation of Conflict: Communication Differences 14. Overlapping Radicalisms: Convergence and Divergence Between Feminist and Human Needs Theories in Conflict Resolution p.23 (Intro to Part I) "People, of course, sometimes harass those perceived as equals, but it occurs much less often than harassment of people considered less valuable and known to have fewer economic alternatives to their current employment." ".. these chapters raise a question to which we often return: Is it possible to resolve conflicts between unequals? And they raise a corollary issue: the necessity of knowing how to manage conflict until true equality can be achieved." p.113 (Intro to Part II) "Women and men need not behave differently for their behaviour to be interpreted differently .. " p.114 "... women appear to be the targets of sex discrimination when in fact biased treatment results from identification rather than sex per se." p.115
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ... p.48 ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING "Ruble and Schneer .. In "Gender Differences in Conflict-Handling Styles: Less than Meets the Eye?", .. report research in which senior business students and employees of organisations responded to questions about their use of five conflict management strategies: accommodation, avoidance, collaboration, competition, and compromise. Using four samples and two conflict instruments they found only small gender differences in self-reported behaviour. In the work setting, women reported somewhat greater use of compromise than men, whereas men reported somewhat greater use of competition than women. Among the employee sample, there were no differences away from work. These results suggest that gender may be a poor predictor of conflict management style and that stereotypes persist because of the influence of social situations as well as the influence of our beliefs on perceptions of behaviour." p.116 "When found in close relationships, differences favor somewhat greater confrontation and emotional expression by women than men and somewhat greater conflict avoidance by men than by women." p. 116 ".. Watson .. examines studies in which the effects of gender and power were simultaneously tested and finds the most evidence for the power perspective. Equally important, she finds evidence for gender-power interactions that current theories do not predict. This evidence suggests that men and women might handle power and powerlessness differently. Men, for example, have been found to behave more confidently in powerless positions than have women and women have been found to behave more dominantly in powerful ones." p.117 "[these articles] .. remind us how gender beliefs often compel our attention and distract us from other factors in conflicts that also make a difference." p.212 "[Febbraro & Chrisjohn] .. go on to show how current use of the term ["conflict"] is based primarily on men's usage, which is adversarial and reflective of a power over approach, rather than being growth-promoting, which is reflective of a power with approach." p.212 "[Chataway & Kolb] .. apply the model to the experience of three women who emerged as informal conflict mediators in their organisations. All three provided support to potential disputants by listening to their stories, offering alternative explanations and solutions, communicating their perspectives, and attempting to stage problemsolving discussion. Each had personal access to higher status decision-makers; each disliked conflict; each wanted genuinely to help. In each instance conflict had developed between persons who were unequal in organisational status, and it was the lower status individual who turned to these women for help." p.213 "[Dewhurst & Wall] .. examine mediators' use of formulations to clarify, reframe, and control mediation processes and the outcomes achieved by using different kinds of formulations. In general they find that more formulations are used in resolved than unresolved disputes, regardless of the mediators' sex. However, they also find that female and male mediators differ somewhat in their use of formulations. Consistent with gender role expectations, female mediators use formulations to integrate disputants' points of view more often than male mediators, whereas male mediators use formulations to control the mediation process more often that female mediators. When disputes are resolved, disputants report as much satisfaction with male as with female mediators, but when disputes are unresolved they express greater satisfaction with sessions mediated by females. Nevertheless, they evaluate the male mediator's competence higher than the female's in these circumstances." ...-> "Are controlling behaviours perceived to be competent because they preserve order or because they are used by men?" --- {NOTE: Montessori teaching method and importance of order, predictability to provide a secure environment and enhancement of learning in secure environments.}
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING p.214
... p.49
"The analysis by Chataway and Kolb reminds us also that the role of power in hierarchies is to manage rather than resolve conflicts." "As long as there is hierarchy with its inherent inequalities between groups and classes of individuals, conflicts can be managed but not resolved."
Mackay H, Why Don't People Listen? Sydney: Pan, 1994. The three R's of Communication: Reinforcement Relevance Relationship
Kramer, R M, Messick D M "Negotiation as a social process: New trends in theory and research. Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1995. Kramer, R M "In Dubious Battle: Heightened Accountability, Dysphoric Cognition, and Self-defeating Bargaining Behaviour" p.95 "The concept ... of organizational actors as strategic bargainers who achieve their goals by manipulating and influencing others ... occupie[s] a prominent place in organizational theory .. It is central .. to most normative and prescriptive accounts of bargaining .. " p.96 "The portrait of the organizational actors that emerges from theory and research in this tradition is that of a perceptive and pragmatic bargainer: vigilant, discerning, and cognitively flexible when dealing with opponents." p.97 ".. I argue .. I weave together theory and evidence from three distinct streams: a. b. c. p.98 ".. the present analysis focuses on situations in which organizational actors do not desire, intend, or foresee the harmful consequences of their strategic acts. In this sense, self-defeating behaviours are counterproductive because the actor "seeks some positive goal but uses a technique or strategy that impairs the chance of success. The focus is neither on normal behaviors that occasionally turn out badly, not on isolated accidents or mishaps. Rather, it is on systematic behavior patterns that ... lead reliably to self-harmful outcomes" (Baumeister & Scher, 1998, p.12..)." p.99 research on the effects of accountability on judgement and choice research on the antecedents and consequences of paranoid cognition in organizations research on self-defeating behaviour"
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ... p.50 ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING "Dysphoric Cognitions" [dysphoric = dissatisfying, generating anxiety] ".. a great deal of attention has been directed toward understanding how positive illusions and positive affect influence social judgment and behavior. This research has shown: [1.] that cognitive illusions and positive mood states can lead individuals to overestimate their perceived control over events, foster patterns of unrealistic optimism about future events, and contribute to overly positive views about the self. [2.] in contrast, .. "negative illusions" .. [give rise to] heightened perceptions of vulnerability, perceived loss of control, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, worst-case thinking, and fatalist rumination. [3.] how individuals respond to, or cope with, anxiety-inducing and/or depressive situations, especially those that are construed as presenting identity-threatening predicaments, or threats to the integrity of the self."
p.99 ".. dysphoric cognitions arise when organizational decision makers experience a form of heightened but also diffuse accountability. Because accountability is intense but diffuse, the decision makers are unable to identify a dominant or satisfactory strategy for coping with that accountability." p.100 " .. research has shown that accountability affects not only the goals individuals adopt during decision making, but the strategies they use when trying to cope with perceived accountability." p.100 "Several broad conclusions emerge from this research[: 1.] when individuals feel accountable to others, they are likely to be concerned not only about the objective outcomes associated with a given decision, but with how those outcomes will be perceived and evaluated by those to whom they feel accountable. the effects of accountability in a given context are often quite complex, and depend on the specific form of accountability linking decision makers and a given audience. Thus [depending on the] settings, decision makers may be concerned: [2.1] [2.2] [2.3] [3.] about appearing competent about being perceived as likeable or popular about appearing tough or resolute
[2.]
the effects of accountability on a negotiator's judgment and behavior depend on whom they feel accountable to and how they construe that accountability. accountability to a single constituency leads to increased use of competitive or contentious bargaining tactics accountability to constituents (who presumably favor tough negotiation standards) induces concern for appearing strong by refusing to make concessions. People respond by employing competitive bargaining tactics that, although obstacles to resolving conflicts on interest, are quite effective in protecting their images in the eyes of constituents.'
[4.]
[5.]
(see also Ury (Getting past no) - "building bridges to help the other party to cross over") p.101 ".. organizational leaders routinely must accommodate and appease a variety of different constituencies whose demands and preferences differ and, in fact, may be quite incompatible."
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ... p.51 ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING "This "multiple audience problem" introduces a variety of cognitive and strategic complexities into a bargaining process." p.101 "The problems that attend diffuse accountability, moreover, can be exacerbated considerably when the conflict happens to be severe or acute, as in an escalating organizational conflict or crisis. Stress and arousal under such circumstances are likely to be high. Relatedly, the time and the opportunity necessary to appraise alternatives adequately are constrained. Under these conditions, it may be had to find a single strategy or stance that can solve all of the problems posed by the diffuse accountability that decision makers are feeling. These conditions, in a classis sense, pose intense avoidance-avoidance conflicts (every strategy has obvious drawbacks and political costs). As a consequence , negotiators may experience a kind of dysphoric cognition." p.106 ".. Pfeffer (1992) has argued that the ability to take the perspective of the other party is crucial to success in acquiring power: "One has to be able, at least for a moment, to stop thinking about oneself and one's own needs and beliefs. Somewhat ironically, it is this capacity to identify with others that is actually critical in obtaining things for oneself" (p.173 ..)" p.108 "Effects of Dysphoric Cognitions on Negotiator Judgment and Behavior: [1.] Misconception and Miscalculation [1.1] Sinister Attribution Error [1.2] Exaggerated Perceptions of Conspiracy [1.3] Biased Punctuation of Conflict Counterproductive Bargaining Behavior [2.1] Perseveration - becoming unusually rigid with respect to the persistence of .. efforts to convert or defeat adversaries [2.2] Social Consequences [- ineffective with adversaries, but also alienating usual support - therefore,] unintentionally estrang[ing ..] from those whose counsel and reassurance might otherwise haven been enormously helpful .. in trying to manage the predicament .. "
[2.]
p.115 "[This analysis] .. is an attempt .. to move .. [to] a better understanding of the origins and dynamics of self-defeating bargaining behavior in organizations." "Self-affirmation theorists have recently argued that when threats to one aspect of a person's sense of self occur, most people can attenuate [minimise; disperse some of] the impact of that threat by affirming other positive personal or social identities." "..Johnson .. because his personal and political identities were so heavily intertwined, this coping strategy was unavailable to him. ... Kennedy and Reagan often used humor and self-deprecating remarks when dealing with identity-threatening events." [I was not just the Chief Librarian, I was also Parish Secretary, etc...] p.116-7 "Caveat "Before closing, I would like to emphasise a few points. The conceptual analysis I have presented thus far has concentrated almost exclusively on the deleterious effects of dysphoric cognition on negotiator judgment and behavior in organizations. To the extent that dysphoric cognitions contribute to dysfunctional cognitions, such as exaggerated perceptions of threat and loss of control, they obviously constitute maladaptive processes. However, it is
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING important to consider the possibility that such cognitions can serve adaptive purposes as well.
... p.52
"There are several ways in which dysphoric cognitions may be useful. First, the results of several recent studies suggest that positive cognitive illusions and positive mood states often contribute to costly misperception and miscalculation in negotiation situations. [Note: cross-reference: NLP, centering technique; ...] "To the extent that the dysphoric cognitions prompt more vigilant perception and mindful interaction, they may attenuate the impact of such illusions and mood states. Second, dysphoric information processing may be useful in situations where the costs of overconfidence or misplaced trust are high. [Note: Polonius or Iago value in organisational counsels?? - my value to Shellharbour City Council] "As already noted, individuals who occupy positions of power in large complex organizations routinely confront an enormous amount of information that has bearing on the assessment of political risks and opportunities. Somehow, they must sift through and evaluate this information. As Lewis and Weigert (1985) have suggested, distrust and suspicion help reduce such complexity by "dictating a course of action based on suspicion, monitoring, and activation of institutional safeguards." (p.969). Ultimately, the utility of such a heuristic depends upon how well it maps the actual political terrain of the organization. Whereas its overuse leaves one vulnerable to a Type II error with respect to misplaced distrust, its underutilization exposes one to a potentially more serious Type I error with regard to misplaced trust. "In the final analysis, of course, the trade-offs that attend these two errors depend on the context and circumstance. Just as there exists a fine line between adaptive vigilance and dysfunctional hypervigilance, [paranoia] so a distinction needs to be drawn between prudent caution and the self-destructive forms of suspicion displayed by Lyndon Johnson. As with other cognitive illusion and error, the critical question may be, How much is enough?"
Cohen, H You Can Negotiate Anything. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1994 c.1980
p.19 "In every negotiation .. three crucial elements are always present: 1. 2. 3. Information: the other side seems to know more about you and your needs than you know about them and their needs Time: the other side doesn't seem to be under the same kind of organizational pressure, time constraints, and restrictive deadlines you feel you're under Power: the other side always seems to have more power and authority than you think you have.
p.20 "Power is a mind-blowing entity. It's the capacity or ability to get things done .. to exercise control over people, events, situations, and oneself. However, all power is based on perception. If you think you've got it, then you've got it. If you think you don't have it, even if you have it, then you don't have it." p.20 ".. Jesus Christ & Socrates .. were negotiators. They were Win-Win ethical negotiators, and they were power people. In fact, both of them deliberately used many of the collaborative approaches I will teach you through this book."
... p.53
ATTACHMENT 5: 3.3 EXPLORING A PREFERRED PROCESS TO UNDERTAKE BASE NEGOTIATION TRAINING AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL:
For some in-house training, for volunteers, at Shellharbour Council, my preferred process at this stage is: 1. 2. 3. 4. to select the provider/ approach to provide the context: place; time; limitation on numbers; range of participants to provide adequate follow up if required - ie have in place the Employee Assistance Program support system And having presented the chosen option, in the preferred way, review its effectiveness, explore other elements to improve the process. Eg: explore UTS one-day route.
At this stage, because of personal knowledge I would recommend the Harvard Negotiation Program approach for the content, and order. Before the course is offered, I would deliver some awareness raising opportunities, and recommend some prior reading: "Getting to Yes". I would look for a timing of the presentation which meets to the content needs and the organisational/ personal needs: some break between presentation/s components. This would serve two purposes: 1. 2. allow for the "aware" gathering of "workplace" and/or "life" examples allow for the internal confronting of self-assessment issues, with an offer of self-assessment process and feedback from the EAP, for example; or, in the negotiation skill building area, post-training consultancy access to the provider
I would look to see how there might be more recognition and opportunity to input examples from the current participants, and from the current workplace into the "learning" presentation: to build the ethic/ culture/ context of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. reflection and deliberateness in learning from experience debriefing of training debriefing of experience -> team training critical incident analysis commencing the process of providing "institutionally" acceptable and effective positive and negative feedback, within our own resources
I would look to see how the "formal presentation" part of the UTS course assessment process could be applied to the workplace. The advantages of the "presentation" are:
... p.54
1. 2. 3.
as per 1-5 above it commits the participant to greater interactive participation with the course provides a structured opportunity to reflect on their own experience, analyse the experience from their point of view; organise the presentation of the material to a supportive group (who are also experiencing the same terrors of performance - even in the safe, supportive training context) it begins to help ground it amongst the practicality of day-to-day operations it demonstrates the level of the individual's own work on top of what has been presented; and the essence of diversity is shown here: each one, from their own choice, chooses something they can be comfortable in presenting, each presentation is different and will have its different emphasis - helping the participants get to know one-another at a level not otherwise readily reached enhancing rapport and empathy and tolerance to support ongoing teamwork in the organisation
4. 5.
It needs to be remembered that in the in-house context, for Council , the following issues arise with these two additional components: 1. involvement in course presentation - ownership/ commitment -> more effective/ and/or more intense and intimate course sharing instance: how would you; how did we; problem of intimacy: knowing the participants; therefore no matter how it is dressed up someone could twig to the reality and therefore become privy to (revealed) confidential material/ the breaching of a confidence.
2. 3.
... p.55
PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT: AN ACCESSIBLE CASE STUDY: FOR EXPLORING POWER, GENDER AND CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN NEGOTIATIONS
AN ACCESSIBLE CASE STUDY: FOR EXPLORING POWER, GENDER AND CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN NEGOTIATIONS & THE ISSUE OF THE RISKS OF INTERPERSONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT
IN THE MATTER OF
LEONOWENS, A vs MONGKUT (RAMA IV) Rex
BREACH OF CONTRACT
... p.56
ELEMENTS OF THE NEGOTIATION/S PROCESS:

ELEMENT: Alternative/s: EXAMPLE:
BATNA:
WATNA:
Interest/s:
Option/s:
Criteria/ Legitimacy:
Commitment:
Communication:
Relationship:
Preparation: Centering:
Mirroring:
Body Language: Positional Power:
... p.57
ELEMENT: Face:
EXAMPLE:
Leaving the table:
Mediatorial Intervention: Perception in relationship:
Consistency about an element of position being nonnegotiable:
Non-monetary interest/s:
Clarity in terms of agreement:
OTHER:
... p.58
(Tony Lamb's analysis 14.6.96) ELEMENT: CULTURE: a. Values and Value Systems (Don't know what is important) -> Mistakes, Miscommunication EXAMPLE:
b. Symbols, including language (Cannot get or give information) -> Mistakes, miscommunication -> Loss of confidence as to information
c. Customs, Traditions, Techniques (Don't know how to behave) -> Loss of confidence as to behaviour
NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS FOR AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING
... p. 59
(Karen Reid's analysis (14.6.96) using Trompenaars, F "Riding the Waves of Culture". London: Nicholas Brealey, xxxx.) ELEMENT: CULTURE: Universalism vs Particularism (Rules vs Relationships) (eg Australian vs Japanese) EXAMPLE:
Collectivism vs Individualism (The Group vs The Individual) (Japanese vs Australian)
Neutral vs Emotional (in range of emotions expressed) (Japanese vs Australian) [relative to one another]
Diffuse vs Specific (In range of involvement) (Japanese vs Australian)
Achievement vs Ascription (how status is accorded) (Australian vs Japanese)
... p. 60
THE KING AND I POWER: Position: King Prime Minister Anna Crown Prince Queen Knowledge: Anna King Prime Minister Queen Relationship: Anna and children Anna and Queen: Queen and Anna Anna and King GENDER: Male & Female CROSS-CULTURAL Siamese Culture Welsh/English Empire Culture of 1862-68
... p. 61
INCIDENTS Context: Contract to teach children Terms of contract: Money Home Dealing with fear; centering - "I Whistle a Happy Tune" Raising Issue: Home: Direct Approach King's intangible aspects of contract - negotiating with the attractiveness of teaching the children Non-monetary values Indirect approach - teaching children to sing - "there's no place like home"; repetition; consistency; focus; position Authority in Knowledge -> changing perceptions/ clash of culture - "Tis a puzzlement" Use of Knowledge to serve - letter to Abraham Lincoln Mirroring behaviour in interaction "etcetera, etcetera, etcetera" in culture - being lower than King - in Temple -> home The ultimatum - ship & proposed walk out Relationship - "Shall we Dance?": the "dance" of negotiation Cultural/ power/ gender clash - runaway princess, capture, punishment, challenge, loss of selfassurance, mental physical breakdown Queen's mediation - her story - NLP elements Resolution of conflict in interpersonal relationship Reward for consistency - Crown Prince's proposed new regime King's death in peace

Dispute Resolution: Issues in Training in Negotiation Skills For An Organisational Setting

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Dispute Resolution: Issues in Training in Negotiation Skills For An Organisational Setting

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NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS FOR AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:

1.4.1 The Negotiation Dance

1.4.4 Framebreaking: for the King of Siam -> ill-health

SEE NOTE 4 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.5 APPLICATION TO AN ISSUE OF CONCERN

hot-house? on-the-job? off-the-job? individually?

stand-alone? part of an organisational change strategy?

1.5.2 Framebreaking - organisational training implications

1.6 FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT":

1.7 FROM HUXLEY'S ENDS AND MEANS

2. FROM THE LITERATURE:

2.1 INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING:

2.2 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING:

2.3 THE "SIMULATION" IN SUCH TRAINING:

2.4 ADULT LEARNING:

2.5 MANAGEMENT SKILLS LEARNING:

Skill practice Skill application -

2.6 WORKPLACE TRAINING:

3. IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN DELIVERING TRAINING IN NEGOTIATING SKILLS:

3.1 THE OPTIONS:

3.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL OPTIONS:

accessing outside delivery, and sending conscripts

The application of these principles is explored in ATTACHMENT 5.

NOTE 1: HAVING A CULTURAL MILIEU FOR PRACTISING NEGOTIATION SKILLS

NOTE 2: RECOGNITION OF IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION & NEGOTIATION SKILLS

NOTE 3: "WORKPLACE" RESPONSIBILITY

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.

NOTE 4: The King and I

NOTE 5: CONCERNING THE "FORMED ADULT": AND REMARKS IN SECTION 1.5.1

relationship building skills across organisations ... "

NOTE 6: LIMITATIONS OF LITERATURE SEARCH AND RESEARCH

Section 2:2.1 & 2.2

NOTE 7: CURRENT THINKING ON DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS

1.2.2 Pepulator Pricing

ATTACHMENT 2: Training Input:

SKILLS REQUIRED TO DEAL WITH DISPUTES:

3.1.1 Facility in communications:

3.1.2 Facility in negotiations:

3.1.3 Awareness and Responsiveness to Differing negotiation contexts:

3.1.4 Facilitation & Mediation skills:

THE NATURE OF THE TRAINING REQUIRED TO DEVELOP THESE SKILLS:

NEGOTIATION SKILLS TRAINING:

DISPUTE RESOLUTION PROCESSES TRAINING:

TRAINING TECHNIQUES NECESSARY TO DEVELOP THESE SKILLS:

See Note 17 in Bibliography.

FROM: the Evaluative Bibliography: p.

ATTACHMENT 4: SEARCH RESULTS FROM ELECTRONIC DATABASES & CD ROM

SELECTED ITEMS ATTENDED TO:

LEONOWENS, A vs MONGKUT (RAMA IV) Rex

ELEMENTS OF THE NEGOTIATION/S PROCESS:

Body Language: Positional Power:

Leaving the table:

Mediatorial Intervention: Perception in relationship:

Consistency about an element of position being nonnegotiable:

Clarity in terms of agreement:

Collectivism vs Individualism (The Group vs The Individual) (Japanese vs Australian)

Diffuse vs Specific (In range of involvement) (Japanese vs Australian)

Achievement vs Ascription (how status is accorded) (Australian vs Japanese)

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