AER 309 Lab Manual

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by
J. V. Lassaline
Ryeison Univeisity
Depaitment of Aeiospace Engineeiing
Copyiight ioo
Copyiight Septembei , ioo J. V. Lassaline
Peimission is gianted to copy, distiibute and/oi modify this document undei the teims
of the GNU Fiee Documentation License, Veision 1.i oi any latei veision published by
the Fiee Sofwaie Foundation; with no Invaiiant Sections, no Fiont-Covei Texts, and no
Back-Covei Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Fiee
Documentation License
History
1. Lassaline, J. V. ioo,. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity. Initial publication. Souice foi this veision available at:
http://www.iyeison.ca/~jvl.
i. Lassaline, J. V. iooo. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity. Minoi modications and coiiections.
. Lassaline, J. V. ioo,. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity. Font changes, safety infoimation, minoi modications and coiiections.
. Lassaline, J. V. ioo8. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity. Foimatting changes, iemoval of xed maik scheme, minoi coiiections.
,. Lassaline, J. V. ioo. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity. Foimatting changes, font changes, minoi coiiections.
i
Acknowledgements
Tis document is based upon the laboiatoiy manuals pioduced foi Ryeison Univeisity
couises MEC o ermodynamics, MEC ,1 Applied ermodynamics and MEC ,o1
Heat Transfer. Te authoi is indebted to the (alphabetically listed) authois R. Chuiaman,
J. Dimitiiu, J. Kaipynczyk, D. Nayloi, R. Pope, and J. C. Tysoe foi theii woik on these
pievious manuals.
Contents
1 Instructions 1
1.1 Oiganization of Tis Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.i Repoits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i Pressure
i.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
i.i Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
i. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
i. Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
i., Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Airow p
.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.i Teoiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
., Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
.o Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1i
( Temperature 1
.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.i Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
. Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
., Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,
Temperature-Pressure Relationship 1o
,.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
,.i Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
,. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
,. Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,
,., Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
iii
o Bomb Calorimeter 1p
o.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
o.i Teoiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
o. Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . io
o. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i1
o., Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
o.o Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
, Steam Quality i(
,.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
,.i Teoiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
,. Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i,
,. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . io
,., Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i8
,.o Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8 Diesel Engine Test o
8.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
8.i Teoiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
8. Appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8. Pioceduie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8., Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.o Expeiimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
A Errors and Corrections ,
A.1 Eiioi Estimation and Piopagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
A.i Baiometei Coiiections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GNU Free Documentation Iicense (o
iv
Iist of Tables
A.1 Tempeiatuie coiiection foi Hg and biass baiometeis in BG units. Coi-
iections in [in]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.i Tempeiatuie coiiection foi Hg and biass baiometeis in SI units. Coi-
iections in [mm]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
Iist of Figures
i.1 Bouidon gauge diagiam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
.1 Aii conditioning appaiatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
,.1 Noiwood steam chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,
o.1 Oxygen bomb caloiimetei appaiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . io
,.1 A p-v diagiam foi a thiottling piocess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i,
,.i Schematic of the steam quality appaiatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . io
,. Steam quality appaiatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i,
8.1 Diesel theimodynamic cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8.i Fiiction-band biake and ywheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
vi
Chapter 1
Instructions
1.1 Organization of Tis Book
Tis book is divided into seveial sections, including instiuctions foi wiiting lab iepoits,
the backgiound and pioceduie foi each lab expeiiment, and a set of appendices. It is iec-
ommended that you ieview the guidelines foi completing the wiitten lab iepoits piioi
to youi ist laboiatoiy session. You aie also expected to have iead and be familiai with
each expeiiment befoie attending youi scheduled lab. Te appendices include valuable
infoimation iegaiding estimating the eiiois associated with youi expeiimental obseiva-
tions and calculations. Tese skills aie useful not only foi the laboiatoiy component of
this couise, but foi futuie expeiimental iepoiting as well.
1.i Reports
You aie ieminded that all of the iequiied couise-specic wiitten iepoits, assignments,
and labs will be assessed not only on theii technical and academic meiit, but also on the
communication skills exhibited thiough them. You should make note of the following
iequiiements iegaiding the foimal laboiatoiy iepoits.
Repoits must demonstiate youi undeistanding of the expeiiment and backgiound
theoiy. A cleai piesentation of youi obseivations and iesults is ciitical. Anyone
ieading youi iepoit with a similai education to youi own should be able to iepio-
duce youi iesults using the same equipment.
Lab iepoits will noimally be completedby small gioups andmust ieect the contii-
bution of each gioup membei. It is up to you to ensuie that eveiy gioup membei
contiibutes equally. In the event of an uniesolvable conict, students may only
switch gioups mid-teim with piioi instiuctoi appioval.
You must attend the laboiatoiy session in oidei to ieceive ciedit foi the lab iepoit.
Missed labs will iequiie adequate pioof piesented to the depaitment oce. You aie
also expected to aiiive piomptly foi youi scheduled laboiatoiy session. Remember,
1
Rvivso Uivivsi1v AER o Teimodynamics Fall ioo8
if youare going to miss a laboratory session, test, or exam, always contact your instructor
immediately!
Repoits must be typeset (e.g. piepaied with a woid piocessoi.) Repoits that aie
handwiitten will not be accepted, though some sections of the iepoit may be hand-
wiitten as noted below. Repoits should be foimatted with 1 maigins and a 1ipt
font on standaid 8., by 11 papei. Repoits must be at least stapled to foim one
cohesive iepoit. No special binding is iequiied howevei loose-paged documents
will not be accepted.
Te style and oiganization of a wiitten iepoit may vaiy, but as a minimum, each
lab iepoit must contain:
A title page indicating the title of the expeiiment, the name(s), student num-
bei(s), section and date the expeiiment was peifoimed.
Te body of the iepoit consisting of the following sections:
Objective Desciibe the puipose of this expeiiment in one paiagiaph.
Teory Concise discussion of the backgiound theoiy goveining this expei-
iment.
Apparatus Biiey list the equipment used. A simple diagiam of the equip- If its not your
gure, cite the
source.
ment is advisable. You may reproduce diagrams from this manual but you
must cite the source!
Procedure Discuss the pioceduie used to complete the expeiiment. De-
sciibe the piocess taken duiing your expeiiment and not just a iegui-
gitation of the lab manual. Using youi lab iepoit and the equipment
desciibed in the Appaiatus section, anyone should be able to iepioduce
youi iesults. Note any anomalies in youi pioceduie ielative to the in-
stiuctions in this manual.
Observations Cleaily indicate all values measuied duiing this expeiiment
including an estimate of the eiioi. Use tables and/oi giaphs when ap-
piopiiate. Always indicate the errors (if any) present in your measurements!
Results Based upon the foimulae piesented in youi Teoiy section, piesent
the iesults of the calculations outlined in the lab manual. Discuss youi
iesults and answei any discussion questions indicated in this manual.
Tabulate and/oi giaph youi iesults as appiopiiate. Always calculate and
indicate the errors present in your calculations as indicated in this manual!
Methods foi deteimining eiioi piopagation aie shown in Appendix A.1.
Conclusions Piovide a biief summaiy of youi expeiiment and iesults.
References Cite all iefeiences, including this lab manual using piopei cita- Dont use footnotes
to cite references. tions. Apiefeiied citation method is the authoi-date foimat (Univeisity
of Chicago ioo), although numbeied iefeiences aie acceptable.
Foi example, a citation to this lab manual using the authoi-date system
would appeai in the text as follows
as piesented in the lab manual (Lassaline ioo,). Blah blah
blah
i
and the Refeiences section would contain the following:
Coyote, W. E. 1,o. Application of the ACME iocket boostei.
Modern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Piess Ltd.
Lassaline, J. V. ioo,. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Man-
ual. Ryeison Univeisity.
Alteinatively, numbeied iefeiences should be piesented in the text as
follows
as piesented in the lab manual [i]. Blah blah blah
with the Refeiences containing the coiiesponding enumeiated list of
souices.
[1] Covo1i, W. E. Application of the ACME iocket boostei. Mod-
ern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Piess Ltd. 1,o.
[i] L:ss:iii, J. V. AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual.
Ryeison Univeisity. ioo,.
An appendix which should contain the following section(s):
Sample Calculations Demonstiate all the calculations necessaiy to obtain
youi iesults. If one type of calculation is iepeated many times only
one sample is iequiied using youi expeiimental values. May be hand-
wiitten.
Graphs/Tables (optional) If you have a laige numbei of giaphs oi tables in
eithei youi Obseivations oi Results section, you may optionally place
them in the appendix and iefei to them by eithei page numbei oi label
(e.g. Table A-1, Fig. A.i, etc.)
Equations should follow a cleai nomenclatuie (e.g. density v.s. piessuie p) and
should be numbeied at eithei the iight oi lef hand maigin. Foi example,
p
+
1
2
V
2
+ gz = const (1.1)
If youi woid piocessoi is capable of wiiting equations cleaily then use this fea-
tuie. Alteinatively, it is acceptable to leave adequate space and add the equations
by hand.
Te technical wiiting of lab. iepoits is expected to be of high quality and concise.
Excluding the title page, guies and tables of values, the main body of youi iepoit
should not exceed foui pages.
Giaphs and tables must be cleaily piesented and must be labelled (e.g. Table 1, Caption and
introduce all tables
and gures.
Fig. i) including an appiopiiate caption. Axes labels, a title, eiioi bais (if applica-
ble) and a legend (if appiopiiate) must be piesent. Computei geneiated plots aie
piefeiied, but hand-diawn plots on giaph papei aie acceptable.
Lab iepoits will noimally be maiked out of 1o, divided into technical wiiting and
technical content components.

1. Common Mistakes
Eveiy yeai students will miss an oppoitunity to maximize theii maik by making needless
mistakes. Some hints as to how you can avoid making the same mistakes aie as follows.
Showup foi each and eveiy lab on time. Te penalties foi missing a lab aie outlined
by youi instiuctoi at the beginning of the yeai. Te expeiiments aie set so that you
may impiove upon youi undeistanding of what you have leained fiomthe lectuies.
Dont waste youi time oi, woise, the time of youi classmates.
Answei all the discussion questions and peifoim all the iequested calculations as
outlined in the lab manual. Te calculations and discussion questions aie cleaily
listed foi each expeiiment. Check that youi lab iepoit is complete befoie you sub-
mit it.
Piovide suitable iefeiences and make piopei citations. Teie is some exibility in
how you piesent youi iefeiences, but it is best to use a common scientic citation
style. If in doubt, use the same style as used foi iefeiences in this lab manual.
An excellent iefeience on accepted wiiting styles is Te Chicago Manual of Style
(Univeisity of Chicago ioo). Dont foiget to iefeience the souice of youi guies.
A good iule of thumb is: if its not youis, cite the souice!
Dont use footnotes foi citations. Footnotes should only be used foi adding extia-
neous infoimation that would inteifeie with the ow of youi text oi occasionally
to iefeience an unusual souice.'
Web sites aie pooi (and volatile) iefeiences. While the Inteinet may be useful foi
geneial infoimation and handy diagiams, the infoimation piesented on most Web
sites is not peei ieviewed as aie text books, encyclopedia, jouinal papeis, oi con-
feience pioceedings.
Check youi giammai and spelling. Most woid piocessois have at least a spell-
check featuie. Note that pait of youi lab iepoit maik is based upon youi technical
wiiting skills.
Dont plagiaiize this manual veibatim in youi lab iepoit. Foi example, the pioce-
duie you used duiing youi expeiiment may diei fiom that outlined in this man-
ual. Use youi own woids and ideas. You aie not given maiks on how accuiately
you can copy the text of this manual. If you wish to quote a section of this manual
then piovide a citation.
Feel fiee to look at pievious yeaiss lab iepoits as a guide but do not plagiaiize!
Plagiaiism is a violation of the Student Code of Conduct and will be dealt with
haishly.
If you aie pait of a gioup, woik togethei as a gioup. If dieient membeis of youi
gioup aie iesponsible foi dieient sections of the iepoit, make suie that eveiyone
is cleai on theii iespective duties. It is youi iesponsibility to ensuie that youi iepoit
is a cohesive document and is completed on time.
'Foi example, the denition of extianeous, as used in this context, is not foiming an essential oi vital pait.
Chapter i
Pressure
i.1 Objective
Te objective of this expeiiment is to study vaiious piessuie measuiing instiuments, and
to pioduce a calibiation cuive foi a piessuie gauge.
i.i Apparatus
Te instiuments examined in this expeiiment include
a Bouidon piessuie gauge,
a meicuiy baiometei,
an inclined manometei, and
a U-tube manometei
Te Bouidon piessuie gauge (illustiated in Fig. i.1) is attached to a hydiaulic deadweight
testei. A numbei of weights aie piovided which may be used to load the testei.
i. Procedure
1. Foi the meicuiy baiometei, measuie the atmospheiic piessuie in [inHg] and
[mmHg], using the Veiniei scale. Readings should be taken fiom the top of the
Hg miniscus. Coiiect these ieadings foi local conditions using the wall chait pio-
vided, oi the tables in Section A.i.
i. Foi both the inclined and U-tube manometei, apply a piessuie and take a ieading
in [inH
2
O].
. Foi the Bouidon piessuie gauge appaiatus
,
Figuie i.1: Bouidon gauge diagiam. Repioduced fiom Chuiaman, Kaipynczyk, Pope,
and Tysoe 188 with peimission.
(a) Close the piessuie-ielief needle valve.
(b) Beginning with the smallest weight, load the hydiaulic piston.
(c) Pump until the piston just lifs the load, (but slow the pumping as the ex-
pected piessuie is appioached). Recoid the applied piessuie fiom the Boui-
don piessuie gauge. No1i: that the piessuie gauge needs to be calibiated and
may be o with iespect to the expected ieading.
(d) Load the next weight inciement, and iepeat the pievious step until all weights
have been applied. If the pump fails to
lift the increment in
weight, release the
pump pressure and
remove the
weights. Air may
be trapped in the
pump or cylinder.
(e) Beginning with all weights applied, slowly open the piessuie-ielief needle
valve to ieduce the piessuie ieading by 20 [l b f /in
2
].
(f) Pump until the cylindei just lifs the load, (but slow the pumping as the ex-
pected piessuie is appioached). Recoid the applied piessuie fiom the Boui-
don piessuie gauge. No1i: that the piessuie gauge needs to be calibiated and
may be o with iespect to the expected ieading.
(g) Reduce the piessuie ieading by 20 [l b f /in
2
], iemove the next weight incie-
ment, and iepeat the pievious step until all weights have been iemoved.
i.( Calculations and Discussion
Piovide a guie (oi sketch) of a baiometei and piovide a biief desciiption on its Correct your
barometer reading
for thermal
expansion. See
App. A..
o
opeiation, including howto iead the Veiniei scale and youi baiometei coiiections.
Include a guie (oi sketch) of a Bouidon piessuie gauge and piovide a biief de-
sciiption of its opeiation.
Foi both the inclined and U-tube manometei, deteimine the gauge and absolute
piessuie appliedtothe manometei, ineithei [Pa] oi [l b f /in
2
]. Assume the manome-
tei uid is H
2
O at ioom tempeiatuie.
Plot a calibiation cuive foi the Bouidon piessuie gauge. Plot both the incieas-
ing and decieasing ieadings in teims of the piessuie gauge ieading (in [l b f /in
2
])
veisus the tiue piessuie (in [l b f /in
2
]). Note that the incieasing and decieasing
iesults should be plotted as two sepaiate cuives on the same plot. Deteimine an
appiopiiate calibiation foimula foi the Bouidon piessuie gauge.
,
i. Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Atmospheiic piessuie:
Atmospheiic tempeiatuie:
Inclined manometei ieading:
U-tube manometei ieading:
Load Piessuie
[l b f /in
2
]
Gauge Reading
[l b f /in
2
]
Load Piessuie
[l b f /in
2
]
Gauge Reading
[l b f /in
2
]
8
Chapter
Airow
.1 Objective
Te objective of this expeiiment is to deteimine the mass owiate of aii using the Ryeison
aii conditioning appaiatus.
.i Teory
Foi ow in a duct, we can deteimine the mass ow iate if we know the aveiage velocity
acioss any given cioss-sectional aiea in the duct. Foi a duct with one inlet and one exit, at
steady state the total mass of the ow must be conseived (what enteis the duct must also
leave the duct). Tus the mass ow iate (eg. [kg/s] oi [l bm/min]) of aii enteiing the
duct must equal the mass owiate leaving the duct. As the length of the duct is iiielevant,
the mass ow iate at any location along the duct must be a constant.
If we can deteimine the aveiage speed of the ow, V, noimal to a cioss-section of
aiea A in the duct, then the volumetiic ow iate thiough this cioss-section is VA. If the
density of the ow, , (and thus the specic volume, v,) is constant ovei this aiea, then
the mass ow iate, m, can be wiitten as
m = VA =
VA
v
. (.1)
As piessuie and tempeiatuie of a gas aie easiei to measuie than density, we can use the
ideal gas law to deteimine the density (oi specic volume).
=
1
v
=
p
RT
(.i)
wheie T is the absolute tempeiatuie, p is the absolute piessuie, and R = 53.3 [
f tl b f
l bm
R
] =
286 [
J
kgK
] is the gas constant foi aii.

Fan
A
i
r

F
l
o
w
A
i
r

F
l
o
w
Psychrometric (HVAC) Air Loop
T
inclined manometer
(test section pressure)
thermometer
(test section temperature)
12"x12" test section
3 velometer probe positions
Figuie .1: Aii conditioning appaiatus.
. Apparatus
Tis expeiiment will make use of the 12 [in] 12 [in] test section of the aii conditioning
test iig illustiated in Fig. .1. Te ow velocity can be measuied with a velometei, which
can be inseited into the test section ow at thiee veitical locations. Te test section is
instiumented to measuie the piessuie and tempeiatuie of the ow.
.( Procedure
1. Stait the fan in the aii conditioning iig.
i. Wait at least 1, minutes foi conditions in the iig to ieach steady state, as indicated
by the test section tempeiatuie and piessuie.
. Measuie andiecoidthe baiometiic piessuie. Coiiect foi local conditions (eg. tem-
peiatuie).
. Measuie and iecoid the test section tempeiatuie.
,. Measuie and iecoid the test section piessuie.
o. Using the velometei, measuie the ow velocity in the test section at thiee spanwise
locations foi each of the thiee veitical locations (foi a total of nine () measuie-
ments). Youi measuiements should be taken in a giid pattein acioss the cioss-
1o
section of the duct. NOTE: If any of your readings are o-scale, press and release the
button on the side of the probe and repeat your measurements. Howclose to the
walls should your
measurements be?
. Calculations and Discussion
Calculate the mass owof aii in the test section in [kg/s] oi [l bm/min], using the
aveiage ow speed.
Estimate the eiioi in the mass ow iate (see App. A.1) using the eiioi in youi ow
speed, piessuie, and tempeiatuie measuiements. You may assume that the test
section aiea and gas constant, R, aie exact.
11
.o Experimental Data
Record your
observations and
error estimates
here. Make note of
the units.
Atmospheiic
piessuie:
Atmospheiic
tempeiatuie:
Test section
piessuie:
Test section
tempeiatuie:
Top
1
i

Middle

,
o
Bottom
,
8

1i
Chapter (
Temperature
(.1 Objective
Te objective of this expeiiment is to study vaiious tempeiatuie measuiing instiuments,
and to pioduce a coiiection cuive foi a digital theimometei.
(.i Apparatus
Te instiuments examined in this expeiiment include'
a theimocouple
a pyiometei
a iesistance theimometei
a meicuiy-in-glass theimometei
an alcohol-in-glass theimometei
a vapoui bulb theimometei
a bi-metal theimometei
a digital theimometei (model DPi,-TC, seiial no. 8o,,oi) connected to a J-type
theimocouple.
a diy-well calibiatoi (Hait Scientic model 1o,, seiial no. A,81).
'Please note that examples of all instiuments may not be available duiing the scheduled lab.
1
(. Procedure
1. Connect the digital theimometei and diy-well calibiatoi to the AC powei supply.
i. Inseit the J-type theimocouple attached to the digital theimometei into the the
well of the calibiatoi. Inseit the piovided bi-metallic theimometei into the cali-
biatoi well.
. Tuin on the calibiatoi using the switch located at the back of the device.
. Adjust the well tempeiatuie of the calibiatoi foi the lowest calibiationpoint (32 [
F]).
Te calibiatoi has seveial pieset calibiation points, which can be selected by pei-
foiming the following steps:
(a) Piess the Set button.
(b) Piess the Down oi Up button to cycle thiough the pieset tempeiatuies.
(c) Piess the Set button when the desiied pieset is ieached.
(d) Piess the Exit button to instiuct the calibiatoi to move to the desiied pieset
tempeiatuie. NOTE: Aer pressing Exit the calibrator will display the current
well temperature.
,. When the calibiatoi well tempeiatuie iemains within 0.02 [
F] of the desiied
tempeiatuie, iecoid the digitial theimometei output. Veiify the well tempeiatuie
using the bi-metallic theimometei.
o. Repeat foi all pieset calibiation points.
,. Tuin o the calibiatoi and unplug the calibiatoi and metei.
(.( Calculations and Discussion
Foi each tempeiatuie instiument piesented duiing the lab, biiey desciibe how Have a camera?
Include a photo of
each instrument.
each opeiates. Include a guie if possible. You aie expected to complete some
ieseaich into the function of these devices. Citations to actual physical iefeiences
(ex. the textbook, lab manuals, etc.) aie piefeiied ovei online souices.
Foi each calibiation tempeiatuie tested, calculate the eiioi and coiiection foi the
digital theimometei.
Plot the coiiection cuive, in [
F], veisus the digital theimometei ieading, in [
F].
Deteimine the necessaiy coiiection if the same digital theimometei is used to pio-
duce the following ieadings: 30, 55, 70, 85, 110, 120, 150, 170, 190, 210, and 225.
Piesent youi iesults in tabulai foim.
1
(. Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Diy-Well
Calibiatoi
Reading (t)
Digital
Teimometei
Reading (a)
Eiioi
(a t)
Coiiection
(t a)
i.o
,o.o
11o.o
1,o.o
1o.o
i1i.o
1,
Chapter
Temperature-Pressure
Relationship
.1 Objective
Tis expeiiment investigates the ielationshipbetweenpiessuie andtempeiatuie foi steam
undeigoing a constant volume piocess, and piovides an oppoitunity to compaie expeii-
mental iesults against iefeience values.
.i Apparatus
Te appaiatus consists of the Noiwood steam chest, an electiically heated piessuie ves-
sel, as illustiated in Fig. ,.1. Te steam chest has a boie of 5.5 [in] and a depth of 7 [in].
A steel covei is bolted to the ange of the piessuie vessel, and is sealed with a lead gas-
ket. Te covei is tted with a lling valve, a safety ielease valve, a theimometei pocket,
and a siphon pipe with an attached piessuie gauge. Te watei is heated by two electiical
elements wiied in seiies at 208 [vol ts] and 15 [amps]. Te piessuie vessel is iated to a
piessuie of 375 [l b f /in
2
] and the piessuie ielief valve is iated to 250 [l b f /in
2
]. Tem-
peiatuie is measuied using a glass theimometei.
. Procedure
CAUTION: Steam is hot and burns quickly! Parts of the steam apparatus may be hot
enough to burn.
WARNING: If the safety relief valve starts to leak before reaching 125 [lbf/in
2
], dis-
connect the power and discontinue the experiment! Verify that the output of the relief
valve is submerged.
1. Measuie the baiometiic piessuie. Coiiect foi local conditions (eg. tempeiatuie).
1o
Figuie ,.1: Noiwood steam chest. Adapted fiom Chuiaman, Kaipynczyk, Pope, and
Tysoe 188, with peimission.
i. Check that the boilei is one-half to two-thiids full of watei.
. Open the ll valve, iemove the thieaded plug, and plug in the heatei.
. When steam appeais, close the ll valve, and attach the thieaded plug.
,. Take tempeiatuie ieadings, at 10 [l b f /in
2
] inteivals, up to 125 [l b f /in
2
].
o. Disconnect the powei and allow to cool. (To unlock, tuin the plug 1/ tuin coun-
teiclockwise.)
.( Calculations and Discussion
Foi each gauge piessuie ieading, calculate the absolute piessuie and the coiie- Steamtables use
absolute pressure. sponding piessuie-tempeiatuie paiis fiom satuiated steam tables (eg. Table A-i
oi A- in Moian and Shapiios Fundamentals of Engineering ermodynamics). Re-
poit youi iesults in tabulai foim.
Plot both youi absolute piessuie veisus tempeiatuie iesults and the steam table
values, as two sepaiate cuives on one plot foi compaiison.
Deteimine the maximum peicentage dieience between youi iesults and the pub-
lished steam table values. Piovide some possible ieasons foi any disciepancies.
1,
. Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Gauge Piessuie Tempeiatuie
o
1o
1,
i,
,
,
,,
o,
,,
8,
,
1o,
11,
1i,
18
Chapter o
Bomb Calorimeter
o.1 Objective
Te objective of this expeiiment is to measuie the eneigy ieleased duiing the combustion
of fuel as a constant volume piocess, and to establish the highei heating value (HHV) of
the fuel.
o.i Teory
Te eneigy ieleased duiing the combustion of a fuel can be measuied using a bomb
caloiimetei. A bomb caloiimetei is a closed piessuie vessel, which contains a fuel and
an excess of oxygen, suiiounded by a watei bath. By igniting the fuel and measuiing
the tempeiatuie iise of the watei bath, the amount of eneigy ieleased can be deteimined
fiom the total heat tiansfei to the watei bath.
As theie is a change in chemical composition, the eneigy tiansfeied as heat is equal
to the dieience in the enthalpy of the pioducts of combustion and the enthalpy of the
ieactants. Foi fuels we expect a positive net change in enthalpy (exotheimic), although
othei ieactions can involve a negative net change in enthalpy (endotheimic). Foi fuels,
the magnitude of the dieience in specic enthalpy is known as the highei heating value
HHV = h
P
h
R
(o.1)
and is expiessed in units of eneigy pei unit mass of fuel. A lowei heating value (LHV)
iefeis to the case wheie all the watei in the combustion pioducts is a vapoui, such that
some of the eneigy ieleased duiing combustion has been lost to evapoiation of the liq-
uid watei pioduct. Heating values foi vaiious fuels aie tabulated in A.i, of Moian and
Shapiios Fundamentals of Engineering ermodynamics.
A similai piocess is used to evaluate the amount of eneigy available in food. Te
Caloiies listed on food pioducts aie actually [ki l ocal ], wheie 1 [cal ] is dened as the
eneigy iequiied to iaise 1 [g] of watei 1 [
C].
1
Figuie o.1: Oxygen bomb caloiimetei appaiatus. Adapted fiomChuiaman, Kaipynczyk,
Pope, and Tysoe 188, with peimission.
o. Apparatus
Te appaiatus consists of the following:
a Seiies 1oo Oxygen Bomb Caloiimetei,
a giaduated containei of distilled watei,
a glass theimometei with magnifying eyepiece,
a watei bucket to t the bomb caloiimetei,
an insulating caloiimetei jacket,
a motoi diiven stiiiing paddle,
a gelatin capsule lled with dieselene, and
a fuse wiie with ignition powei souice.
Te bomb caloiimetei can be chaiged with oxygen and includes an inteinal suppoit to
hold the fuel sample. Te fuel sample is ignited by the fuse wiie that is connected to an
electiical powei supply. Te assembled appaiatus is illustiated in Fig. o.1.
io
o.( Procedure
1. Top o the giaduated containei with distilled watei to the indicated level.
i. Add two diops of distilled watei to the bomb caloiimetei
. Diill two holes at one end of the gelatin capsule and thiead the fuse wiie thiough
the capsule.
. Wiapthe ends of the fuse wiie aioundthe teiminal suppoits attachedtothe caloiime-
tei top.
,. Wet the caloiimetei seal with distilled watei, and sciewon lid until hand tightened.
o. Move the bomb assembly to the oxygen bottle. Open the vent, connect the oxygen
to the chaiging connection, open the iegulatoi valve, and puige the bottle foi a few
seconds. Close the vent, chaige the bomb to 25 [atm] of piessuie, and then close
the iegulatoi valve.
,. Opeiate the ielief valve and veiify that line piessuie diops immediately. If a laige
amount of gas escapes, the non-ietuin valve has failed, and the expeiiment should
be discontinued.
8. Disconnect the oxygen chaiging connection.
. Fill the watei bucket with exactly 2000 [mL] of watei.
1o. Place the bomb on the locating bosses at the base of the bucket.
11. Make the electiical connections, t the lid and ensuie that the stiiiei can opeiatei
without fouling.
1i. Allow the stiiiei to iun foi , minutes to ieach steady-state.
1. Read the tempeiatuie of the watei, then ie the bomb.
1. Recoid the tempeiatuie one (1) minute afei ignition, then iepeat at 1, second
inteivals foi one minute, followed by ieadings at one minute inteivals until the
tempeiatuie begins to deciease.
1,. Remove the bomb caloiimetei, ielease the piessuie by slowly opening the vent
valve, and dismantle the bomb.
1o. Remove the unbuint pieces of fuse wiie and measuie the total iemaining length.
1,. Poui the distilled watei back into the piovided containei. Clean and diy the bomb.
i1
o. Calculations and Discussion
watei equivalent of caloiimetei: 445 [g]
heating value of gelatin capsule: 8400 [BTU/l bm]
heating value of fuse wiie: 2.3 [cal /cm]
1 [BTU/l bm] = 5/9 [cal /g]
Watch your units.
Include a plot oi table of youi obseived tempeiatuies as a function of time.
Calculate the weight of the fuel, in [g].
Calculate the total heat pioduced by buining the fuel, wiie, and capsule, in [cal ].
Note that you must add the watei equivalent of the caloiimetei, in [g], to the mass
of the watei. You may assume that 1 [mL] of watei weighs 1 [g]. Note that
eneigy pioduced in [cal ] = total mass of watei in [g] tempeiatuie iise in [
C].
(o.i)
Calculate the heat pioduced by the gelatin capsule, in [cal ].
Calculate the heat pioduced by the fuse wiie, in [cal ].
Calculate the heat pioduced by the fuel, in [cal ].
Calculate the heating value of the fuel, in [cal ] pei [g] of fuel and in [BTU/l bm].
Compaie the heating value of the fuel to published values and to at least two othei
fuels. Give ieasons foi any possible disciepancies between youi iesults and pub-
lished values.
ii
o.o Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Weight of capsule:
Weight of capsule plus fuel:
Initial length of fuse wiie:
Type of fuel:
Manufactuiei piovided HHV of fuel:
Time Tempeiatuie
Ignition
1 min
1 min 1, s
1 min o s
1 min , s
i min
min
min
, min
o min
, min
8 min
Length of unbuint fuse wiie:
i
Chapter ,
Steam Quality '
,.1 Objective
Steam leaving a boilei (not a supeiheatei) geneially consists of a mixtuie of satuiated
watei vapoui and a veiy small quantity of liquid watei. As the hot steam ows thiough
the system piping, it loses heat to the enviionment and some of the satuiated vapoui is
conveited to liquid watei. Te fiaction of steam (by mass) that is satuiated vapoui is
called the steam quality. Te objective of this lab is to measuie the quality of steam fiom
the main building supply line.
,.i Teory
Te intioduction of a sudden iestiiction to a pipe thiough which a uid ows will iesult
in a signicant diop in piessuie acioss the iestiiction. Piovided no woik is done on the
ow, and heat tiansfei with the suiioundings is negligible, we can wiite the eneigy iate
balance as
h
1
+
V
2
1
2
= h
2
+
V
2
2
2
(,.1)
wheie locations 1 and i aie upstieam and downstieam of the obstiuction. Although ve-
locities in the vicinity of the iestiiction will vaiy, fai enough upstieam and downstieam
of the iestiiction the velocities V
1
and V
2
will be neaily identical and thus the change in
kinetic eneigy may be negligible. In this case the specic enthalpy upstieam and down-
stieam of the iestiiction iemains the same
h
1
= h
2
. (,.i)
Flow though such a iestiiction oi obstiuction is consideied to undeigo a throttling pio-
cess.
If state 1 iepiesents a supply line caiiying a two-phase liquid-vapoui mixtuie of steam
of quality x
1
, we can pass some of this steam thiough a thiottling device exiting at neai
'Tis chaptei is paitially based upon the woik of D. Nayloi and J. Fiiedman (Nayloi and Fiiedman ioo1).
i
atmospheiic piessuie at state i. By thiottling the steam to a lowei piessuie, it is possible
to conveit the two-phase mixtuie of steam to only a vapoui as supeiheated steam. We
can deteimine the specic enthalpy h
2
of the supeiheated steam by measuiing both tem-
peiatuie and piessuie at location i. Tus we can deteimine the oiiginal steam quality x
1
at location 1 using the ielation foi a thiottling piocess
h
2
= h
1
= h
f 1
+ x
1
(h
g1
h
f 1
) (,.)
wheie h
g1
and h
f 1
can be deteimined fiom satuiated watei tables (e.g. Table A- oi A-E
fiom Moian and Shapiio ioo8) based upon the supply line absolute piessuie oi tempei-
atuie.
Te thiottling piocess can be shown on a p-v diagiamas lines of constant enthalpy, as
illustiated in Fig. ,.1 foi piocess 1-, and i-. If the steam in the supply line is sampled at
state 1, then passing the sample thiough a thiottling device to a lowei piessuie at state ,
does not necessaiily guaiantee that supeiheated steam occuis at the end of the thiottling
piocess. To impiove oui measuiement we can intioduce a mechanical sepaiatoi to collect
some of the liquid watei fiom the two-phase mixtuie to shif fiom state 1 to state i wheie
the quality is now closei to 1oo.
v
p
5
4
1 2
3
mechanical separation
throttling
condensation
Figuie ,.1: A p-v diagiam foi a thiottling piocess with
and without mechanical sepaiation of the liquid fiom a
liquid-vapoui mixtuie.
Passing the highei quality steam
thiough a thiottling device
pioduces supeiheated steam
at state . To measuie the total
mass of watei piesent at state
we can pass the steamthiough
a condensei to ieach state .
Te mass of liquid watei col-
lected at state plus the watei
collected duiing piocess 1-i is
equal to the total mass of watei
oiiginally piesent at state 1.
,. Apparatus
Steam fiom the main build-
ing supply, at a nominal pies-
suie of 60 [psi g], is sampled
by a piobe and enteis the ap-
paiatus illustiated in Fig. ,.,
and shown schematically in
Fig. ,.i. Te steam enteis a
sepaiating caloiimetei wheie some of the liquid is iemoved by mechanical sepaiation
and collected at the bottom of the sepaiating caloiimetei. Te iemaining steam is then
thiottled thiough an oiice to a piessuie slightly highei than atmospheiic piessuie, dui-
ing which the steam becomes supeiheated vapoui. Te supeiheated vapoui is then con-
densed in a watei-cooled condensei.
i,
x
1
p
1
x
2
p
1
p
3
T
3
throttle
mechanical
separator
condenser
cooling
water in
T
in
cooling
water out
T
out
m
1
m
2
collection
container
collection
container
steam
sample
Figuie ,.i: Schematic of the steam quality appaiatus.
,.( Procedure
CAUTION: Steam is hot and burns quickly! Parts of the steam apparatus may be hot
enough to burn.
1. Tuin on the cooling watei to the caloiimetei.
i. Piepaie a beakei containing some cold watei of known mass.
. Open the steam stop valves, then caiefully open the blow-down valve to blow any
accumulatedwatei out of the system. Close the blow-downvalve whenall the watei
has been iemoved. If necessaiy, vent the glass bowl ltei and meicuiy manometei
feed line to iemove any accumulated watei.
. Open the sepaiatoi inlet valve and allow steam to pass thiough the caloiimetei
until steady state is ieached, as indicated by the tempeiatuie of the condensate and
cooling watei outlet.
,. When steady state is ieached, diain o any accumulated watei in the sepaiatoi via
the thiee-way valve and close this valve to begin accumulating watei within the
sepaiatoi. Stait timing.
o. Pass steamthiough the caloiimetei foi the time peiiod specied by the lab instiuc-
toi.
,. Recoid all tempeiatuies and piessuies.
io
Figuie ,.: Steam quality appaiatus.
i,
8. At the end of the time peiiod, close the sepaiatoi steam valve and stop the collec-
tion of the condensate.
. Collect the mechanically sepaiated watei as follows: ciack the sepaiatoi steam
valve slightly to piessuiize the system, then caiefully open the thiee-way valve at
the sepaiatoi to diiect the collected liquid into the piepaied beakei of cold watei.
1o. Weigh the sepaiated watei and condensate.
11. Repeat steps i-1o to pioduce at least thiee sets of iesults.
1i. Close the steamsupply valves and allowthe condensei to cool foi , minutes befoie
tuining o the cooling watei supply.
,. Calculations and Discussion
Foi each iun calculate the steam quality befoie and afei the mechanical sepaiatoi,
x
1
and x
2
as numbeied in Fig. ,.1, using the following steps:
1. Calculate the mass of the sepaiated watei m
1
and condensate m
2
.
i. Calculate the enthalpy downstieam of the thiottle, h
3
in Fig. ,.1, fiom the
supeiheated vapoui tables foi watei (e.g. Table A- oi A-E fiom Moian and
Shapiio ioo8). Inteipolate as necessaiy and show youi woik in youi sample
calculations.
. Deteimine the specic enthalpies foi satuiated liquid and vapoui watei, h
f 2
and h
g2
, just upstieamof the thiottle (e.g. Table A- oi A-EfiomMoianand
Shapiio ioo8). Inteipolate as necessaiy and show youi woik in youi sample
calculations.
. Calculate the quality of the steam x
2
just upstieam of the thiottle.
,. Calculate the quality of the supply line steam x
1
, noting that the total mass of
watei measuied duiing the expeiiment is equal to (m
1
+m
2
). Teiefoie, the
quality of the steam in the supply line must be
x
1
=
x
2
m
2
m
1
+ m
2
. (,.)
Deiive Eq. ,..
Inthis expeiiment, hadthe mechanical sepaiatoi not beenused, would it have been
possible to deteimine the quality of the supply line steam:
Include a copy of an enthalpy-entiopy (Molliei) chait foi watei (e.g. Fig. A-8 oi A-
8E fiom Moian and Shapiio ioo8) and indicate the location of the state upstieam
and downstieamof the mechanical sepaiatoi (i.e. state 1 and i, both aveiaged fiom
all youi iesults).
i8
,.o Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Duiation of test:
Readings Units 1 i
Steam inlet piessuie (p
1
,p
2
)
Steam inlet tempeiatuie (T
1
,T
2
)
Steam Tempeiatuie in Tiottling Caloiime-
tei (T
3
)
Steam Piessuie in Tiottling Caloiimetei
(p
3
)
Cooling Watei Inlet Tempeiatuie (T
in
)
Cooling Watei Outlet Tempeiatuie (T
out
)
Condensate Tempeiatuie (T
4
)
Mass of beakei + cold watei
Mass of beakei + cold watei + sepaiated wa-
tei
Mass of collecting vessel + condensate
Mass of collecting vessel:
i
Chapter 8
Diesel Engine Test
8.1 Objective
Te objective of this expeiiment is to caiiy out a full-load test on the Ruston Diesel engine
at constant speed.
8.i Teory
An inteinal combustion engine executes a mechanical cycle, which foi a foui-stioke en-
gine consists of an intake stioke, a compiession stioke, a powei stioke, and an exhaust
stioke. As the contents of the cylindei change duiing the mechanical cycle, this cycle
does not foima theimodynamic cycle (i.e. we aie not able to ietuin to oui oiiginal state).
We can appioximate an engine cycle as a theimodynamic cycle if we:
assume a xed quantity of aii as the woiking uid,
ieplace combustion with an equivalent heat addition piocess, and
ieplace the exhaust stioke with an equivalent heat iejection piocess.
Te theimodynamic appioximation of the mechanical cycle of the Ruston diesel en-
gine is illustiated in Fig. 8.1. Note that the Diesel cycle consists of foui ieveisible pio-
cesses: heat addition at constant piessuie followed by an isentiopic expansion, heat ie-
jection at constant volume, and an isentiopic compiession. Te net woik, W
net
, of the
cycle is equal to the aiea within the cuive on the p-V diagiam in Fig. 8.1.
A few additional engine peifoimance paiameteis can be dened. Te mean eective
piessuie, MEP, is dened as the piessuie that, if applied ovei the full length of the stioke,
would pioduce the same net woik as done by the piston duiing a complete engine cycle.
It can be wiitten as
MEP =
W
net
displacement volume
. (8.1)
o
p
V
heat addition
heat rejection
isentropic expansion
isentropic compression
1
2 3
4
Figuie 8.1: Diesel theimodynamic cycle.
If we know the mean eective piessuie we can calculate the indicated engine powei (

W
I
)
developed at the cylindei using the total volume displaced pei unit time.
W
I
= (MEP) (volume displaced pei unit time). (8.i)
Note that foi a one-cylindei foui-stioke engine, only eveiy othei cycle involves the pio-
duction of powei.
Te dieience in usable shaf powei applied to a load and the indicated powei de-
veloped in the cylindeis is equal to the powei lost to fiiction and othei auxiliaiy devices
such as fuel pumps. Foi a known load, such as a biake iequiiing powei

W
B
, the powei
lost to fiiction (and auxiliaiies)

W
F
can be wiitten as
W
F
=

W
I

W
B
. (8.)
Te mechanical eciency of the engine is the iatio of the load powei to the indicated
engine powei
mech
=

W
B
W
I
. (8.)
Te iate of heat tiansfei due to combustion can be deteimined fiom the mass ow
iate and highei heating value (HHV) of the fuel
Q
in
= m
fuel
HHV (8.,)
which can be used to calculate a theimal eciency.
8. Apparatus
Tis expeiiment will use the Ruston 1ZHR diesel engine, consisting of one hoiizontal
cylindei. Te technical specications of the engine aie as follows
1
mg mg
F
Flywheel
friction band
Rotation
spring balance
Figuie 8.i: Fiiction-band biake and ywheel.
cylindei boie 5.625 [in]
cylindei stioke 10.5 [in]
nominal powei 9.25 [hp] at 400 [RPM]
compiession iatio 16 1
compiession piessuie 500 [l b f /in
2
]
injection piessuie 1600 [l b f /in
2
]
iing piessuie 680 [l b f /in
2
]
Te engine opeiates on piemium diesel fuel stoied in an oveihead tank and a giad-
uated cylindei, both of which aie connected to the engine fuel supply pipe. Fuel con-
sumption is measuied by switching fiom the main tank to the giaduated cylindei foi the
duiation of the test.
Te engine is loaded by a band biake applied to a 40 [in] diametei ywheel, as illus-
tiated in Fig. 8.i. Loading is incieased by adding weights to the caiiieis on each end of
the fiiction band which iuns in an outei gioove on the watei-cooled ywheel. A spiing
scale piovides a ieading of the biake loading.
A Dobbie McInnes mechanical engine indicatoi is installed in the cylindei head of
the engine. Te engine indicatoi consists of a papei-loaded dium and pointei which
tiaces a scaled p-V diagiam. Oscillation of the dium is piopoitional to the piston stioke,
while tianslation of the pointei is piopoitional to the piessuie within the cylindei. An
additional hoiizontal tiace of the stioke limit is added foi iefeience.
i
8.( Procedure
Tis expeiiment will be iun with the assistance of a membei of the technical sta who
will piepaie the engine.
1. Hold the exhaust lifei valve down, and ciank the engine to build up a good speed.
Release the valve lifei. Te engine should stait and build up to about 400 [RPM].
Remove the staiting handle as soon as the engine ies.
i. Adjust the goveinoi foi 400 420 [RPM], and allow the engine to waim up foi
ve minutes.
. Add equal weights to each caiiiei at the same time. Adjust the goveinoi to main-
tain an engine speed of 400 [RPM].
. Repeat (adding equal weights and adjusting the engine speed) until ieaching a load
of 75 [l b f ].
,. Allow the engine to ieach steady state as indicated by engine cooling and exhaust
tempeiatuies.
o. Open valve to the measuiing cylindei and close valve to the fuel tank simultane-
ously. Stait a stop clock. Run foi a known peiiod of time without emptying the
measuiing cylindei. Stop the clock and switch the fuel supply back to the tank.
,. Unload equal weight fiomeach caiiiei at the same time, while adjusting the engine
speed to 400 [RPM].
8. Repeat (iemoving equal weights and adjusting the engine speed) until the caiiieis
aie empty.
. Remove the secuiing pin fiom the pump handle. Hold pump handle and exhaust
valve lifei haid down until the engine stops.
1o. Remove the papei iecoid fiom the engine indicatoi and measuie the stioke length
and aiea within the closed cuive.
8. Calculations and Discussion
Deteimine the indicated mean eective piessuie (MEP) using the indicatoi dia-
giam, with
MEP =
(aiea of indicatoi diagiam) (indicatoi spiing constant)
length of indicatoi diagiam
. (8.o)
Deteimine the volume displacement pei unit time, with
volume displaced pei unit time = LANn (8.,)
wheie L is the stioke of the piston, Ais the aiea of the cylindei, N = RPM/2 is the
numbei of iing stiokes pei minute, and n is the numbei of cylindeis.

Deteimine the indicated powei

W
I
, in [hp], fiom the indicated MEP. Note that
1 [hp] = 33000 [ f t l b f /min].
Calculate the biake powei, in [hp], with
W
B
= (2 RPM)(F r) (8.8)
wheie F is the loading indicated on the spiing scale, and r is the iadius of the
ywheel. Note that 1 [hp] = 33000 [ f t l b f /min].
Deteimine the powei lost to fiiction (and auxillaiies)

W
F
, in [hp].
Deteimine the mechanical eciency
mech
.
Deteimine the fuel mass ow iate, in [l bm/min].
Deteimine the biake theimal eciency, with
BT
=

W
B
Q
i n
. (8.)
Note that 1 [hp] = 42.4 [BTU/min].
Deteimine the biake specic fuel consumption, in [l bm/hp min], with
BSFC =
m
fuel
W
B
. (8.1o)

8.o Experimental Data
Record your
observations here.
Make note of the
units.
Fuel:
HHV of fuel:
Specic giavity of fuel:
Indicatoi spiing constant [l b f /in
3
]:
Biake load [l b f ]:
Engine speed [RPM]:
Indicatoi diagiam aiea [in
2
]:
Indicatoi diagiam length [in]:
Fuel used [mL]:
Duiation of test [min]:
,
Bibliography
Chuiaman, R., J. Kaipynczyk, R. Pope, and J. Tysoe (188). ermodynamics Labora-
tory Workbook: MEC . Ryeison Univeisity.
CRC (188). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC.
Lassaline, J. V. (ioo,). AER : ermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Uni-
veisity.
Moian, M. J. and H. N. Shapiio (ioo8). Fundamentals of Engineering ermodynamics
(oth ed.). Wiley.
Nayloi, D. and J. Fiiedman (ioo1). MEC : ermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory Manual. Ryeison Univeisity.
Univeisity of Chicago (ioo). e Chicago Manual of Style. Univeisity of Chicago.
o
Appendix A
Errors and Corrections
A.1 Error Estimation and Propagation
When piesenting measuied values you must piovide an estimate of the eiioi. Foi ex-
ample, if you aie measuiing tempeiatuie with a theimometei that is maiked at eveiy 1
degiee Celsius, youi best measuie of the cuiient ioomtempeiatuie may be 21.50.2[
C].
In othei woids, to the best of youi measuiing ability the tempeiatuie is 21.5[
C] with an
expected eiioi of appioximately
1
5
of a degiee. As eiiois aie at best estimates, it is noimal
to tiuncate the eiioi at the ist non-zeio digit (e.g. 0.005 iathei than 0.004925.)
When using digital equipment, the accuiacy of the measuie should be taken to be 1/2
count of the last digit shown, unless otheiwise noted. Foi example, if a digital scale iead
2.512[g], the eiioi would be 0.0005[g]. Othei souices of eiioi, such as a small bieeze
acioss the scale, may iaise the eiioi to 0.001. Use your best judgement and record the
estimate of error with your measurements.
All iepoited obseivations should include an estimate of the eiioi. All plots contain-
ing values with an estimate of eiioi should include eiioi bais. (If youi sofwaie cannot
include eiioi bais in the guie, diaw them in by hand.) When using youi measuied ob-
seivations in a calculation you need to piopagate this estimate of eiioi thioughout youi
calculations. Youi sample calculations should demonstiate the iesulting eiioi. Pay care- Not all labs require
error propagation
but its a good
habit.
ful attention to the instructions for each experiment to determine when your report
should include error propagation analysis.
Foi this couise we will use a simplied foimof the piopei statistical technique (which
uses standaid deviations.) If we have a function foimed fiom a paii of independent (un-
coiielated) measuied values x
x
and y
y
, we can estimate the eiioi in the function
using a few simple iules based upon the woist-case scenaiio.
Foi addition oi subtiaction of two values with eiiois, the eiioi is cumulative.
(x
x
) + (y
y
) = (x + y) (
x
+
y
) (A.1)
(x
x
) (y
y
) = (x y) (
x
+
y
) (A.i)
Foi multiplication oi division by an exact numbei, both the value and the eiioi aie scaled
,
by the exact numbei.
2(x
x
) = 2x (2
x
) (A.)
Foi multiplication of a paii of values with eiiois, the eiioi is foimed as follows
(x
x
)(y
y
) = xy (x
y
+ y
x
+
x
y
) xy (x
y
+ y
x
) (A.)
assuming that
x
y
is much smallei than the othei eiioi pioducts. Foi both multiplica-
tion and division this can be ieduced to an expiession foi the ielative eiioi
x y
xy
=

x
x
+

y
y
(A.,)
x/y
x/y
=

x
x
+

y
y
(A.o)
Foi pioducts of poweis functions such as x
m
y
n
, the ielative eiioi can be deteimined
using
x
m
y
n
x
m
y
n
= m
x
x
+ n
y
y
(A.,)
Te pievious opeiations can be summaiized as follows
function error
x y
x
+
y
x
x
x
m
y
n
x
m
y
n
(m
x
x
+ n
y
y
)
log x log
x
Foi geneial functions that aie combinations of the above, caiefully deteimine the eiioi
foi each opeiation, following the noimal oidei of opeiations. Foi example, to deteimine
the eiioi in z(x y) wheie z, x, and y all have associated eiiois one can:
1. Calculate the eiioi in the tempoiaiy value t
1
= x y using the iule foi subtiaction.
i. Calculate the eiioi in the pioduct zt
1
using the iule foi pioducts.
As an alteinative, to deteimine a statistical estimation of the eiioi piopagation foi a
geneial function F of measuied values (x, y, . . .) with associated eiiois of (
x
,
y
, . . .)
iespectively, we can estimate the function eiioi
F
using
F
=
(
F
x

x
)
2
+ (
F
y
y
)
2
+ . . . (A.8)
oi in keeping with the simplied eiioi analysis
F
=
F
x

x
+
F
y
y
+ . . . (A.)
Note that this may pioduce slightly dieient values than the pievious methods but is
acceptable given that we aie at best pioviding an estimate of the eiiois.
8
Temp.
[
F]
Obseived height in [in]
i i i, io i, i8 i o 1
o o.oi o.oi, o.oio o.oi, o.oi8 o.oi o.oo o.o1 o.oi
,o o.o, o.oo o.o8 o.o,o o.o,i o.o, o.o,o o.o,8 o.ooo
oo o.oo, o.oo8 o.o,1 o.o, o.o,, o.o8o o.o8i o.o8, o.o88
,o o.o8o o.oo o.o o.o, o.1o1 o.1o, o.1o o.11i o.11o
8o o.1o, o.111 o.11o o.1i1 o.1i, o.1o o.1, o.1 o.1
o o.1i, o.1 o.18 o.1 o.1,o o.1,, o.1o1 o.1oo o.1,i
1oo o.18 o.1, o.1o1 o.1o, o.1, o.18o o.18, o.1 o.ioo
Table A.1: Tempeiatuie coiiection foi Hg and biass baiometeis in BGunits. Coiiections
in [in].
Temp.
[
C]
Obseived height in [mm]
oio oo ooo o8o ,oo ,io ,o ,oo ,8o
, o.,1 o.,i o., o.,o o.,, o., o.oo o.oi o.o
1o 1.o1 1.o 1.o8 1.11 1.1 1.1, 1.i1 1.i 1.i,
1, 1.,i 1.,o 1.o1 1.oo 1.,1 1.,o 1.81 1.8o 1.1
io i.oi i.o8 i.1, i.i1 i.i8 i. i.1 i., i.,
i, i.,i i.oo i.o8 i.i,, i.8, i. .o1 .o .1,
o .oi .1i .ii .i .1 .,1 .o1 .,1 .8o
, .,i .o .,, .8o .8 .o .i1 .i .
Table A.i: Tempeiatuie coiiection foi Hg and biass baiometeis in SI units. Coiiections
in [mm].
A.i Barometer Corrections
Coiiections foi Hg baiometeis by tempeiatuie aie listed in Tables A.1 and A.i (CRC
188) foi both SI and BGunits. Subtract the tabulated values fromthe observed barom-
eter height using the ambient temperature.
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Department of Aerospace Engineering

GENERAL SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR
LABORATORIES AND RESEARCH AREAS

The following safety rules and regulations are to be followed in all Aerospace Engineering laboratories and research facilities. These
rules and regulations are to insure that all personnel working in these laboratories and research areas are protected, and that a safe
working environment is maintained.

1.Horseplay is hazardous and will not be tolerated.

2. No student may work alone in the laboratory at any time, except to prepare operating procedures for equipment or data write-
up/reduction/simulations.

3. Required personal protective equipment (PPE) will be provided by the Department for use whenever specified by the Faculty,
Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, .i.e., hearing protection, face shields, dust masks, gloves, etc.

4. Contact lenses will not be worn in the laboratory when vapours or fumes are present.

5. Safety glasses with side shields and plastic lenses will be required when operating targeted class experiments as outlined in the
experimental procedures. Splash goggles or face shields will also be provided and worn also, for those experiments which have been
identified as a requirement.

6. Each student must know where the location of the First Aid box, emergency equipment, eye wash station is, if required in the
laboratories, shops, and storage areas.

7. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants must know how to use the emergency equipment and have the
knowledge to take action when an accident has occurred, .i.e., emergency telephone number, location, emergency response services.

8. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with all elements of fire
safety: alarm, evacuation and assembly, fire containment and suppression, rescue.

9. Ungrounded wiring and two-wire extension cords are prohibited. Worn or frayed extension cords or those with broken connections
or exposed wiring must not be used. All electrical devices must be grounded before they are turned on.

10. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with an approved emergency
shutdown procedure before initiating any experiment.

11. There will be NO deviation from approved equipment operating procedures.

12. All laboratory aisles and exits must remain clear and unblocked.

13. No student may sniff, breathe, or inhale any gas or vapour used or produced in any experiment.

14. All containers must be labeled as to the content, composition, and appropriate hazard warning: flammable, explosive, toxic, etc.

15. The instructions on all warning signs must be read and obeyed in all laboratories and research facilities.

16. All liquid and solid waste must be segregated for disposal according to Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant
instructions. All acidic and alkaline waste should be neutralized prior to disposal. NOTE: NO organic waste material is to be poured
down the sink or floor drains. These wastes should be property placed in designed waste disposal containers, labeled and stored in the
departments flammable storage cabinet which is ventilated and secured.

17. Good housekeeping must be practiced in all teaching and research laboratories, shops, and storage areas.

Campus Security Dial: 5001/5040
Emergency Dial: 80
Jerry Karpynczyk, Safety Officer: 6420/4884

18. Eating, drinking, use of any tobacco products, gum chewing or application of makeup are strictly prohibited in the laboratories,
shops, and storage areas.

19. Only chemicals may be placed in the Chemicals Only refrigerator. Only food items may be placed in the Food Only refrigerator.
Ice from any refrigerator is not be used for human consumption or to cool any food or drink.

20. Glassware breakage must be disposed in the cardboard boxes marked Glass Disposal. Any glassware breakage and
malfunctioning instruments or equipment must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant present.

21. All injuries, accidents, and near misses must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The
Accident Report must be completed as soon as possible after the event by the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant and
reported to the Departmental Safety Officer immediately. Any person involved in an accident must be sent or escorted to the
University Health Centre. All accidents are to be REPORTED.

22. All chemical spills are to be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, whose direction must be followed
for containment and cleanup. Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant will follow the prescribed instructions for cleanup
and decontamination of the spill area. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified when a major spill has been reported.

23. All students and Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant must wash their hands before leaving targeted laboratories,
research facilities or shops.

24. No tools, supplies, or any other items may be tossed from one person to another.

25. Compressed gas cylinders must be secured at all times. Proper safety procedures must be followed when moving compressed gas
cylinders. Cylinders not in use must be capped.

26. Only gauges that are marked Use no oil are for Oxygen cylinders. Do not use an oiled gauge for any oxidizing or reactive gas.

27. Students are never to play with compressed gas hoses or lines or point their discharges at any person.

28. Do not use adapters or try to modify any gas regulator or connection.

29. There will be no open flames or heating elements used when volatile chemicals are exposed to the air.

30. Any toxic chemicals will be only be exposed to the air in a properly ventilated Fume Hood. Flammable chemicals will be exposed
to the air only under a properly ventilated hood or in an area which is adequately ventilated.

31. Personal items brought into the laboratory or research facility must be limited to those things necessary for the experiment and safe
operation of the equipment in the laboratories and research facilities.

32. General laboratory coats, safety footwear are not provided by the Department of Aerospace Engineering, although some targeted
laboratories and research areas will be supported by a reasonable stock of protective clothing and accessories, i.e., gloves, welding
aprons, dust masks, face shields, safety glasses, etc.

33. Equipment that has been deemed unsafe must be tagged and locked out of service by the Technical Officer in charge of the
laboratory or research facility. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified of the equipment lockout IMMEDIATELY!

34. In June 1987 both the Federal & Ontario Governments passed legislation to implement the workplace hazardous material
information system or WHMIS across Canada. WHMIS was designed to give workers the right-to-know about hazardous material to
which they are exposed to on the job. Any person who is required to handle any hazardous material covered by this act should first
read the label and the products material safety data sheet (MSDS). No student is to handle any hazardous materials unless supervised
by a Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The laboratory Technical Officer, Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching
Assistant is responsible for ensuring that any hazardous materials are stored safely using WHMIS recommended methods and storage
procedures. All MSDS must be displayed and stored in a readily accessible place known to all users in the workplace and laboratory

35. All the foregoing rules and regulations are in addition to the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1987.

36. Casual visitors to the laboratory and research areas are to be discouraged and must have permission from the Faculty, Engineering
Support or Teaching Assistant to enter. All visitors must adhere to the safety guidelines and is the responsibility of the visitor.

37. Only the Safety Officer may make changes to these policies upon confirmation of the Safety Committee and approval of the
Department Chair.

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