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INTRODUCTION Trigonometry (from Greek trignon "triangle" + metron "measure")[1] is a branch of mathematics that studies triangles and the

relationships between their sides and the angles between the sides. Trigonometry defines the trigonometric functions, which describe those relationships and have applicability to cyclical phenomena, such as waves. The field evolved during the third century B.C. as a branch of geometry used extensively for astronomical studies.[2] Trigonometry is usually taught in middle and secondary schools either as a separate course or as part of a precalculus curriculum. It has applications in both pure mathematics and applied mathematics, where it is essential in many branches of science and technology. A branch of trigonometry, called spherical trigonometry, studies triangles on spheres, and is important in astronomy and navigation A branch of trigonometry, called spherical trigonometry, studies triangles on spheres, and is important in astronomy and navigation..

1.1

History of trigonometry

Pre-Hellenic societies such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians lacked the concept of an angle measure, but they studied the ratios of the sides of similar triangles and discovered some properties of these ratios. Ancient Greek mathematicians such as Euclid and Archimedes studied the properties of the chord of an angle and proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae, although they presented them geometrically rather than algebraically. The sine function in its modern form was first defined in the Surya Siddhanta and its properties were further documented by the 5th century Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata. These Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic scholars By the 10th century Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, and were applying them to problems in spherical geometry. At about the same time, Chinese mathematicians developed trignometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them. Knowledge of trigonometric functions and methods reached Europe via Latin translations of the works of Persian and Arabic astronomers such as Al Battani and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi One of the earliest works on trigonometry by a European mathematician is De Triangulis by the 15th century German mathematician Regiomontanus. Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th century Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explaining its basic concept.

A painting of the famous Greek geometries, and "father of measurement", Euclid. In the times of the Greeks, trigonometry and geometry were important mathematical principles used in building, agriculture and education.

It is easy to explain in word-terms what trigonometry means, but it is more important to understand what mechanisms of thinking, which will help understand not only trigonometry, but everything in life in a much more vivid way.

In mathematics, trigonometry is an important set of disciplines which relate to two and three dimensional objects; practically anything that you can see around you can be related to the principles of trigonometry and algebra -- in the real-world, it is very useful in engineering and construction, where its principles are important in accurately determining the lengths, sizes and areas of objects without having to actually create them first. Imagine the need to build a structure with only the basic land-area given to you: using the principles of trigonometry, you can easily calculate the geometric properties of objects to an unerring degree of accuracy.

Trigonometry, however, isn't just about using formulae to find the correct angle or size in school. It describes the relationships that occur naturally between objects and their similarity in structure. When we compare them using a similar set of
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ideas, it gives us a lot of power to understand the basis of other things in life beyond that of just their appearance. Even though we can look at a circle, an oval, square or rectangle, we can know that there are principles we can apply to their shape which can be expressed through one entity: the triangle.

The ancient Greeks transformed trigonometry into an ordered science. Astronomy was the driving force behind advancements in trigonometry. Most of the early advancements in trigonometry were in spherical trigonometry mostly because of its application to astronomy. The three main figures that we know of in the development of Greek trigonometry are Hipparchus, Menelaus, and Ptolemy. There were likely other contributors but over time their works have been loss and their names have been forgotten.

All of the trigonometric functions of an angle can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O

1.2 EARLY TRIGONOMETRY The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians had known of theorems on the ratios of the sides of similar squares for many centuries. But pre-Hellenic societies lacked the concept of an angle measure and consequently, the sides of triangles were studied instead, a field that would be better called "trilaterometry The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records on the rising and setting of stars, the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere. Based on one interpretation of the Plimpton 322 cuneiform tablet (circa 1900 BC), some have even asserted that the ancient Babylonians had a table of secants. There is, however, much debate as to whether it is a table of Pythagorean triples, a solution of quadratic equations, or a trigonometric table. The Egyptians, on the other hand, used a primitive form of trigonometry for building pyramids in the 2nd millennium BC.[4] The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, written by the Egyptian scribe Ahmes (circa 1680-1620 BC), contains the following problem related to trigonometry: "If a pyramid is 250 cubits high and the side of its base 360 cubits long, what is its seked? Ahmes' solution to the problem is the ratio of half the side of the base of the pyramid to its height, or the run-to-rise ratio of its face. In other words, the quantity he found for the seked is the cotangent of the angle to the base of the pyramid and its face.

1.2.1Greeks and Trigonometry

In the second century B.C., Hipparchus derived a trigonometric table measuring chord lengths of a circle having a fixed radius. Hipparchus built the values in increasing degrees, beginning with 71 and ending with 180, incrementing in units of 71 degrees. In the second century A.D., Ptolemy defined Hipparchus' value for the radius as 60 and created a table of chords incrementing one degree, from 0 degrees to 180 degrees. This table of chords also showed how to find unknown parts of triangles from given parts.
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Trigonometry was originally created by the Greeks to aid in the study of astronomy. Hipparchus of Bithynia (190-120 B.C.) tabulated trigonometric ratios, to enable the calculation of a planet's position as formulated by Apollonius. Angles were also defined, taking the Babylonian measure of 360 degrees. The chord was defined, and the cosine and sine loosely defined. The results sin2x + cos2x = 1 and the half-angle formulae were also derived, geometrically.

Claudius Ptolemy worked further on Hipparchus' chord table and came up with a more complete one. He used Euclid's propositions to aid in his work and developed a method of calculating square roots, though he never explained how. Using his theorem (for a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, the product of the diagonals equals the sum of the products of the opposite sides) and the half-angle formula, he derived the sum and difference (addition) formulae.

Ptolemy then proceeded to work on plane triangles. In this process, he developed the idea of inverse trigonometric functions. He also derived, in modern terms, the Sine and Cosine Rules.

1.2.2 India and Trigonometry

In the sixth century, India based its trigonometry on the sine function, which was the length of the side opposite the angle in a right triangle of a specific hypotenuse instead of a ratio. The Indians used various values for the hypotenuse. They built sine tables from these functions and later introduced a cosine function and tables.

The Indians were the next to advance the study of trigonometry. They developed their own sine tables, using the Greek half-angle formula. Later, the cosine table was also constructed. Techniques of approximation to a relatively high accuracy were also introduced.

1.2.3 Muslims and Trigonometry

The Indian works were translated and read by the Islamic mathematicians, who also worked on trigonometry. Similar to the Greeks and Indians, they related trigonometry
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and astronomy. The Indian sine was used, as well as the chord. The cosine was also formally introduced, by Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Battani.Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Battani, who lived from 858 to 929, formally introduced the cosine function, as he built on the work of the Indians and Greeks.

Muslim mathematicians also introduced the polar triangle for spherical triangles, sine and tangent tables created in 1/60th-of-a-degree steps. Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi, who lived from 1201 to 1274, wrote a book separating plane and spherical trigonometry into its own field of study, called the Book of the Transversal Figure. Muslim mathematicians revived the long-dead tangent function, invented by the Chinese but lost, and added the co-tangent, co-secant, and secant functions.

The tangent function resurfaced; and the cotangent, cosecant and scant functions were introduced. Although their definitions were initially geometric, it was soon realized that they were the reciprocal functions of tangent, sine and cosine respectively. Highly accurate tables were developed for the trigonometric functions. The triple-angle formulae, already derived, were used for this.

1.2.4 China and Trigonometry

Early forms of trigonometry appeared in Chinese mathematics in the sixth century, but major advances in trigonometry did not happen until the 12th and 13th centuries, even though astronometrical calculations and calendar science demanded it. Shen Kuo, who lived from 1031 to 1095, used trigonometry to solve problems of chords and arcs. Guo Shoujing worked on arcs and circles, which formed the foundation of spherical trigonometry during the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of China's mathematics was lost after the Yuan Dynasty took root in 1271 until the 19th century. The Chinese in the medieval times studied astronomy and hence trigonometry. They introduced the tangent function. However, most of their works are in the field of astronomy, and many of their trigonometric advancements were not continued.

1.2.5 European Developments

Georges Joachim defined trigonometric functions as ratios instead of lengths of lines during the 13th century. French mathematician Franois Vite, who lived from 1540 to 1653, introduced the polar triangle into spherical trigonometry and published two books, Canon Mathematicus, and Universalium Inspectionum Liber Singularis, in 1579. These two books were mathematical tables in which the values for sine are computed to 10 to the negative eighth power. In the 17th century, John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, invented logarithms, memory tricks to remember the 10 laws of how to solve spherical triangles; he also came up with what are now called Napier's analogies to help mathematicians solve oblique spherical triangles. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler defined trigonometric functions in terms of complex numbers showing how basic laws of trigonometry were the consequences of arithmetic of complex numbers.

Trigonometry reached Europe in the medieval times. Richard of Wallingford wrote a text on trigonometry, Quadripartium. He related the Indian sine to the ancient chords. He used Euclid's Elements as a basis for his arguments in plane trigonometry. Levi ben Gerson worked on plane trigonometry, particularly the laws of sines and cosines. In the 16th century, trigonometry was incorporated into geography and navigation. Knowledge of trigonometry was used to construct maps, determining the position of a land mass in relation to the longitudes and latitudes.

Johannes Muller, or more popularly known as Regiomontanus, wrote a text On Triangles. He studied plane trigonometry, including results for solving triangles. He expanded on Levi ben Gerson's work. He proved the Sine Rule, and also considered the ambiguous case in using the rule.

Later works improved the tables of sines, which has been worked on extensively; as well as included tables for the other functions. Thomas Finck was the first to use the modern terms "tangent" and "secant".

The worked so far applied trigonometric concepts in astronomy. It was only until Bartholomew Pitiscus when there was a text considering the solving of a plane triangle on earth. He invented the word "trigonometry", in his title Trigonometriae sive, de dimensione triangulis, Liber (Book of Trigonometry, or the Measurement of Triangles). He developed his own sine and tangent tables. However, like all the tables that had been calculated before, the values are actually the lengths of certain lines in a fixed circle.

Later developments in trigonometry are mainly the use of trigonometric ratios in calculus; analysis, differential equations and integration, just to name a few.

2.1 Euclid

Euclid

Artist's depiction of Euclid Born Residence Ethnicity Fields Known for fl. 300 BC Alexandria, Egypt Greek Mathematics Euclidean geometry Euclid's Elements

Euclid (Greek: Eukleds), fl. 300 BC, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician and is often referred to as the "Father of
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Geometry." He was active in Hellenistic Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323283 BC). His Elements is the most successful textbook and one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In it, the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry were deduced from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor. 2.1.1 Elements

One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5. Euclid's most celebrated work is the Elements, which is primarily a treatise on geometry contained in 13 books. Although many of the results in Elements originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework, making it easy to use and easy to reference, including a system of rigorous mathematical proofs that remains the basis of mathematics 23 centuries later. Euclid's Elements owed its enormously high status to a number of reasons. The most influential single feature was Euclid's use of the axiomatic method whereby all the theorems were laid out as deductions from certain self-evident basic propositions or axioms in such a way that in each successive proof only propositions already proved or axioms were used. This became accepted as the paradigmatically rigorous way of setting out any body of knowledge, and attempts were made to apply it not just to mathematics, but to natural science, theology, and even philosophy and ethics.
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The Elements consists of 13 books. Within each book is a sequence of propositions or theorems, varying from about 10 to 100, preceded by definitions. In Book I, 23 definitions are followed by five postulates. After the postulates, five common notions or axioms are listed. The first is, "Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to each other." The usual elementary course in Euclidean geometry is based on Book I. Book II is a continuation of Book I, proving geometrically what today would be called algebraic identities, such as (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab, and generalizing some propositions of Book I. Book III is on circles, intersections of circles, and properties of tangents to circles. Book IV continues with circles, emphasizing inscribed and circumscribed rectilinear figures. Book V of the Elements is one of the finest works in Greek mathematics. The theory of proportions discovered by Eudoxus is here expounded masterfully by Euclid. The theory of proportions is concerned with the ratios of magnitudes (rational or irrational numbers) and their integral multiples. Book VI applies the propositions of Book V to the figures of plane geometry. A basic proposition in this book is that a line parallel to one side of a triangle will divide the other two sides in the same ratio. As in Book V, Books VII, VIII, and IX are concerned with properties of (positive integral) numbers. In Book VII a prime number is defined as that which is measured by a unit alone (a prime number is divisible only by itself and 1). In Book IX proposition 20 asserts that there are infinitely many prime numbers, and Euclid's proof is essentially the one usually given in modern algebra textbooks. Book X is an impressively well-finished treatment of irrational numbers or, more precisely, straight lines whose lengths cannot be measured exactly by a given line assumed as rational. Books XI-XIII are principally concerned with three-dimensional figures. In Book XII the method of exhaustion is used extensively. The final book shows

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how to construct and circumscribe by a sphere the five Platonic, or regular, solids: the regular pyramid or tetrahedron, octahedron, cube, icosahedron, and dodecahedron. 2.1.2 Other works In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions.

Data deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the Elements.

On Divisions of Figures, which survives only partially in Arabic translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios. It is similar to a third century AD work by Heron of Alexandria.

Phenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is quite similar to On the Moving Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC.

Optics is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective. In its definitions Euclid follows the Platonic tradition that vision is caused by discrete rays which emanate from the eye. One important definition is the fourth: "Things seen under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less, while those under equal angles appear equal." In the 36 propositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed from different angles. Proposition 45 is interesting, proving that for any two unequal magnitudes, there is a point from which the two appear equal. Pappus believed these results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid's Optics, along with his Phaenomena, in the Little Astronomy, a compendium of smaller works to be studied before the Syntaxis (Almagest) of Claudius Ptolemy.

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Statue of Euclid in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History

Other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost.

Conics was a work on conic sections that was later extended by Apollonius of Perga into his famous work on the subject. It is likely that the first four books of Apollonius's work come directly from Euclid. According to Pappus, "Apollonius, having completed Euclid's four books of conics and added four others, handed down eight volumes of conics." The Conics of Apollonius quickly supplanted the former work, and by the time of Pappus, Euclid's work was already lost.

Surface Loci concerned either loci (sets of points) on surfaces or loci which were themselves surfaces; under the latter interpretation, it has been hypothesized that the work might have dealt with quadric surfaces.

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2.2 Ptolemy

Ptolemy

An early Baroque artist's rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus. Born c. AD 90 Egypt Died c. AD 168 Alexandria, Egypt Occupation mathematician, geographer, astronomer, astrologer

A medieval artist's rendition of Claudius Ptolemy

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Although it is not known when the systematic use of the 360 circle came into mathematics, it is known that the systematic introduction of the 360 circle came a little after Aristarchus of Samos composed On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon (ca. 260 B.C.), since he measured an angle in terms of a fraction of a quadrant.[8] It seems that the systematic use of the 360 circle is largely due to Hipparchus and his table of chords. Hipparchus may have taken the idea of this division from Hypsicles who had earlier divided the day into 360 parts, a division of the day that may have been suggested by Babylonian astronomy. In ancient astronomy, the zodiac had been divided into twelve "signs" or thirty-six "decans". A seasonal cycle of roughly 360 days could have corresponded to the signs and decans of the zodiac by dividing each sign into thirty parts and each decan into ten parts. It is due to the Babylonian sexagesimal number system that each degree is divided into sixty minutes and each minute is divided into sixty seconds.

2.2.1 Menelaus of Alexandria (ca. 100 A.D.) wrote in three books his Sphaerica. In Book I, he established a basis for spherical triangles analogous to the Euclidean basis for plane triangles. He establishes a theorem that is without Euclidean analogue, that two spherical triangles are congruent if

corresponding angles are equal, but he did not distinguish between congruent and symmetric spherical triangles. Another theorem that he establishes is that the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180. Book II of Sphaerica applies spherical geometry to astronomy. Book III contains the "theorem of Menelaus". He further gave his famous "rule of six quantities". Later, Claudius Ptolemy (ca. 90 - ca. 168 A.D.) expanded upon Hipparchus' Chords in a Circle in his Almagest, or the Mathematical Syntaxis. The thirteen books of the Almagest are the most influential and significant trigonometric work of all antiquity. A theorem that was central to Ptolemy's calculation of chords was what is still known today as Ptolemy's theorem, that the sum of the products of the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the product of the diagonals. A special case of Ptolemy's theorem appeared as proposition 93 in Euclid's Data. Ptolemy's theorem
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leads to the equivalent of the four sum-and-difference formulas for sine and cosine that are today known as Ptolemy's formulas, although Ptolemy himself used chords instead of sine and cosine. Ptolemy further derived the equivalent of the half-angle

formula

. Ptolemy used these results to create his

trigonometric tables, but whether these tables were derived from Hipparchus' work cannot be determined. Neither the tables of Hipparchus nor those of Ptolemy have survived to the present day, although descriptions by other ancient authors leave little doubt that they once existed. 2.2.2 CONTRIBUTIONS Ptolemy's theorem implies the theorem of Pythagoras. The latter serves as a foundation of Trigonometry, the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle. In the language of Trigonometry, Pythagorean Theorem reads sin(A) + cos(A) = 1, where A is one of the internal angles of a right triangle. If the hypotenuse of the triangle is of length 1, then sin (A) is the length of the side opposite to the angle A, cos(A) is the length of the adjacent side. Ptolemy's theorem also provides an elegant way to prove other trigonometric identities. In a little while, I'll prove the addition and subtraction formulas for sine: (1) (2) sin(A + B) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) sin(A - B) = sin(A)cos(B) - cos(A)sin(B)

But first let's have a simple proof for the Law of Sines.

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Proposition III.20 from Euclid's Elements says: In a circle the angle at the center is double of the angle at the circumference, when angles have the same circumference as base. The more common formulation asserts that an angle circumscribed in a circle is equal to half the central angle that subtends the same chord. (As a corollary, from here it follows that all circumscribed angles subtending the same arc are equal irrespective of their position on the circle. This is Proposition III.21) On the diagram, BOC = 2BAC (= 2A.)

Drop a perpendicular from O on the side BC. Assuming the radius of the circle is R, OB = OC = R. Also, BOP = POC. In BOP, sin (BOP) = BP/OB = BC/2R. Therefore, BC/sin (BOP) = 2R. When angle A is obtuse, the center O is located outside ABC and the diagram looks differently. The resulting identity is, however, the same. Repeating these steps with the other two angles B and C of ABC we get the Law of Sines. In the case, where the diameter of the circumscribed circle is 1, we have a = sin(A), b = sin(B), and c = sin(C). This is all we need to apply Ptolemy's theorem. Consider a quadrilateral ABDC inscribed into a circle of diameter 1 so that the diagonal BC serves as a diameter.

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From the definition of sine and cosine we determine the sides of the quadrilateral. The Law of Sines supplies the length of the remaining diagonal. The addition formula for sine is just a reformulation of Ptolemy's theorem.

To prove the subtraction formula, let the side BC serve as a diameter.

As a consequence, we obtain formulas for sine (in one step) and for cosine (in two steps) of complementary angles: sin(/2 - ) cos(/2 - ) = cos , = sin .

From these and the addition formulas for sine it is not difficult to derive the addition formulas for cosine: cos( + ) = cos() cos() - sin() sin(),

cos( - )

= cos() cos() + sin() sin().

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2.3 Hipparchus

Hipparchus or Hipparch

The first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive Born Residence Fields Occupation Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey Alexandria, Egypt Mathematics Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period

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Hipparchus or Hipparch (Greek: , Hipparkhos; c. 190 BC c. 120 BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period. Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and probably died on the island of Rhodes. He is known to have been a working astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127 BC. Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Chaldeans from Babylonia. He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he has solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. With his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses. His other reputed achievements include the discovery of precession, the compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, also of the armillary sphere which first appeared during his century and was used by him during the creation of much of the star catalogue. It would be three centuries before Claudius Ptolemaeus' synthesis of astronomy would supersede the work of Hipparchus; it is heavily dependent on it in many areas.

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2.4 Aryabhata

Hipparchus or Hipparch

The first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive Born Known as Book Occupation The Siddhantas and the Aryabhatiya Indian mathematician and astronomer India

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Statue of Aryabhata. As there is no known information regarding his appearance, any image of Aryabhata originates from an artist's conception. The next significant developments of trigonometry were in India. Influential works from the 4th5th century, known as the Siddhantas (of which there were five, the most complete survivor of which is the Surya Siddhanta) first defined the sine as the modern relationship between half an angle and half a chord, while also defining the cosine, versine, and inverse sine. Soon afterwards, another Indian

mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata (476550 AD), collected and expanded upon the developments of the Siddhantas in an important work called the Aryabhatiya. The Siddhantas and the Aryabhatiya contain the earliest surviving tables of sine values and versine (1 cosine) values, in 3.75 intervals from 0 to 90, to an accuracy of 4 decimal places. They used the words jya for sine, kojya for cosine, ukramajya for versine, and otkram jya for inverse sine. The words jya and kojya eventually became sine and cosine respectively after a mistranslation described above. Other Indian mathematicians later expanded on these works of trigonometry. In the 6th century, Varahamihira used the formulas (equivalent to formulas known by Thales and Pythagoras[18])

(equivalent to a formula known to Ptolomy; see above) In the 7th century, Bhaskara I produced a formula for calculating the sine of an acute angle without the use of a table. He also gave the following approximation formula for sin(x), which had a relative error of less than 1.9%:

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Later

in

the

7th

century,

Brahmagupta

redeveloped

the

formula

(also derived earlier, as mentioned above) as well as the Brahmagupta interpolation formula for computing sine values. Another later Indian author on trigonometry was Bhaskara II in the 12th century. Madhava (c. 1400) made early strides in the analysis of trigonometric functions and their infinite series expansions. He developed the concepts of the power series and Taylor series, and produced the trigonometric series expansions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. Using the Taylor series approximations of sine and cosine, he produced a sine table to 12 decimal places of accuracy and a cosine table to 9 decimal places of accuracy. He also gave the power series of and the , radius, diameter, and circumference of a circle in terms of trigonometric functions. His works were expanded by his followers at the Kerala School up to the 16th century.

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2.5 Al-Khwrizm

Muhammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm

The medieval Islamic world by Muslim mathematicians of mostly Persian descent

Born Died Book Occupation

c. 780 c. 850 Al-Harrn al-Battn (Albatenius) Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period

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Al-Khwrizm depicted on a Soviet stamp The Indian works were later translated and expanded in the medieval Islamic world by Muslim mathematicians of mostly Persian descent. They enunciated a large number of theorems which freed the subject of trigonometry from dependence upon the complete quadrilateral, as was the case in Hellenistic mathematics due to the application of Menelaus' theorem. According to E. S. Kennedy, it was after this development in Islamic mathematics that "the first real trigonometry emerged, in the sense that only then did the object of study become the spherical or plane triangle, its sides and angles." A page from al-Khwrizm's Algebra Al-Kitb al-mukhtaar f isb al-jabr wa-l-muqbala (Arabic: The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) is a mathematical book written approximately 830 CE. The book was written with the encouragement of the Caliph Al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is replete with examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and legal inheritance. The term algebra is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations (al-jabr) described in this book. The book was translated in Latin as Liber algebrae et almucabala by Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) hence "algebra", and also by Gerard of Cremona. A unique Arabic copy is kept at Oxford and was translated in 1831 by F. Rosen. A Latin translation is kept in Cambridge. The al-jabr is considered the foundational text of modern algebra. It provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, and introduced the fundamental methods of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.

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Al-Khwrizm's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six standard forms (where b and c are positive integers)

squares equal roots (ax2 = bx) squares equal number (ax2 = c) roots equal number (bx = c) squares and roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c) squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx) roots and number equal squares (bx + c = ax2)

by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations al-abr (Arabic: restoring or completion) and al-muqbala ("balancing"). Al-abr is the process of removing negative units, roots and squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to each side. For example, x2 = 40x 4x2 is reduced to 5x2 = 40x. Al-muqbala is the process of bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the equation. For example, x2 + 14 = x + 5 is reduced to x2 + 9 = x. In the early 9th century, Muhammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm produced accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents. He was also a pioneer in spherical trigonometry. In 830, Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi produced the first table of cotangents. Muhammad ibn Jbir al-Harrn al-Battn (Albatenius) (853-929) discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants for each degree from 1 to 90. He was also responsible for establishing a number of important trigometrical relationships, such as:

By the 10th century, in the work of Ab al-Waf' al-Bzjn, Muslim mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions. Abu al-Wafa had sine tables in 0.25 increments, to 8 decimal places of accuracy, and accurate tables of tangent values. He also developed the following trigonometric formula:
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(a special case of Ptolemy's angle-addition formula; see above) Ab al-Waf also established the angle addition identities, e.g. sin (a + b), and discovered the law of sines for spherical trigonometry:

Also in the late 10th and early 11th centuries, the Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus performed many careful trigonometric calculations and demonstrated the following trigonometric identity:

Al-Jayyani (9891079) of al-Andalus wrote The book of unknown arcs of a sphere, which is considered "the first treatise on spherical trigonometry" in its modern form, although spherical trigonometry in its ancient Hellenistic form was dealt with by earlier mathematicians such as Menelaus of Alexandria, who developed Menelaus' theorem to deal with spherical problems. However, E. S. Kennedy points out that while it was possible in pre-lslamic mathematics to compute the magnitudes of a spherical figure, in principle, by use of the table of chords and Menelaus' theorem, the application of the theorem to spherical problems was very difficult in practice. Al-Jayyani's work on spherical trigonometry "contains formulae for right-handed triangles, the general law of sines, and the solution of a spherical triangle by means of the polar triangle." This treatise later had a "strong influence on European mathematics", and his "definition of ratios as numbers" and "method of solving a spherical triangle when all sides are unknown" are likely to have influenced Regiomontanus. The method of triangulation was first developed by Muslim mathematicians, who applied it to practical uses such as surveying and Islamic geography, as described by Ab Rayhn al-Brn in the early 11th century. In the late 11th century, Omar Khayym (10481131) solved cubic equations using approximate numerical solutions found by interpolation in trigonometric tables. In the 13th century, Nasr al28

Dn al-Ts was the first to treat trigonometry as a mathematical discipline independent from astronomy, and he developed spherical trigonometry into its present form. He listed the six distinct cases of a right-angled triangle in spherical trigonometry, and in his On the Sector Figure, he stated the law of sines for plane and spherical triangles, discovered the law of tangents for spherical triangles, and provided proofs for both these laws. In the 15th century, Jamshd al-Ksh provided the first explicit statement of the law of cosines in a form suitable for triangulation. In France, the law of cosines is still referred to as the theorem of Al-Kashi. He also gave trigonometric tables of values of the sine function to four sexagesimal digits (equivalent to 8 decimal places) for each 1 of argument with differences to be added for each 1/60 of 1. Ulugh Beg also gives accurate tables of sines and tangents correct to 8 decimal places around the same time. In the 16th century, Taqi al-Din contributed to trigonometry in his Sidrat alMuntaha, in which he was the first mathematician to extract the precise value of Sin 1. He discusses the values given by his predecessors, explaining how Ptolemy used an approximate method to obtain his value of Sin 1 and how Ab al-Waf, Ibn Yunus, al-Kashi, Q Zda al-Rm, Ulugh Beg and Mirim Chelebi improved on the value. Taqi al-Din then solves the problem to obtain the precise value of Sin 1:

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2.6 AB AL-WAF' BZJN

Ab al-Waf Muammad ibn Muammad ibn Yay ibn Isml ibn al-Abbs alBzjn

The medieval Islamic world by Muslim mathematicians of mostly Persian descent

Born Died Book Occupation

10 June 940 1 July 998 Abul Wfa on the Moon principally in the field of trigonometry

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BACKGROUND Abul Wafa Buzjani (10 June 940 1 July 998) (Persian: ,) extended name: Ab al-Waf Muammad ibn Muammad ibn Yay ibn Isml ibn al-Abbs al-Bzjn (Persian: ) was a Persian mathematician and astronomer. He was born in Buzhgan, (now Torbat-e Jam) in Iran. In 959 AD, he moved to Iraq. He studied mathematics and worked principally in the field of trigonometry. He wrote a number of books, most of which no longer exist. He also studied the movements of the moon. The crater Abul Wfa on the Moon is named after him. Buzjani, the Persian mathematician and astronomer.

CONTRIBUTIONS He devised a wall quadrant for the accurate astronomy measurement of the declination of stars. He also introduced the tangent function and improved methods of calculating trigonometry tables and developed novel ways of solving some problems of spherical triangles. He established the trigonometric identities: sin(a + b) = sin(a)cos(b) + cos(a)sin(b) cos(2a) = 1 2sin2(a) sin(2a) = 2sin(a)cos(a) and discovered the law of sines for spherical triangles:[2]

List of trigonometric identities

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In mathematics, trigonometric identities are equalities that involve trigonometric functions that are true for every single value of the occurring variables (see Identity (mathematics)). Geometrically, these are identities involving certain functions of one or more angles. These are distinct from triangle identities, which are identities involving both angles and side lengths of a triangle. Only the former are covered in this article. These identities are useful whenever expressions involving

trigonometric functions need to be simplified. An important application is the integration of non-trigonometric functions: a common technique involves first using the substitution rule with a trigonometric function, and then simplifying the resulting integral with a trigonometric identity. Notation Angles This article uses Greek letters such as alpha (), beta (), gamma (),

and theta () to represent angles. Several different units of angle measure are widely used, including degrees,radians, and grads: 1 full circle = 360 degrees = 2 radians = 400 grads. The following table shows the conversions for some common angles:

Degrees 30

60

120

150

210

240

300

330

Radians

Grads

33 grad

66 grad

133 grad

166 grad

233 grad

266 grad

333 grad

366 grad

Degrees 45

90

135

180

225

270

315

360

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Radians

Grads

50 grad

100 grad

150 grad

200 grad

250 grad

300 grad

350 grad

400 grad

Unless otherwise specified, all angles in this article are assumed to be in radians, though angles ending in a degree symbol () are in degrees.

Trigonometric functions The primary trigonometric functions are the sine and cosine of an angle. These are usually abbreviated sin() and cos(), respectively, where is the angle. In addition, the parentheses around the angle are sometimes omitted, e.g. sin and cos . The tangent (tan) of an angle is the ratio of the sine to the cosine:

Finally, the reciprocal functions secant (sec), cosecant (csc), and cotangent (cot) are the reciprocals of the cosine, sine, and tangent:

These definitions are sometimes referred to as ratio identities.

Inverse functions The inverse trigonometric functions are partial inverse functions for the trigonometric functions. For example, the inverse function for the sine, known as the inverse sine (sin1) or arcsine(arcsin or asin), satisfies

and

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This article uses the following notation for inverse trigonometric functions:

Function Sin

cos

tan

sec

csc

cot

Inverse

Arcsin arccos arctan arcsec arccsc arccot

The Pythagorean identity The basic relationship between the sine and the cosine is the Pythagorean trigonometric identity:

This can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem, and follows from the equation x2 + y2 = 1 for the unit circle. This equation can be solved for either the sine or the cosine:

Related identities Dividing the Pythagorean identity through by either cos 2 or sin2 yields two other identities:

Using these identities together with the ratio identities, it is possible to express any trigonometric function in terms of any other (up to a plus or minus sign):

Each trigonometric function in terms of the other five.

sin

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cos

tan

csc

sec

cot

Historic shorthands The versine, coversine, haversine, and exsecant were used in navigation. For example the haversine formula was used to calculate the distance between two points on a sphere. They are rarely used today.

Name(s)

Abbreviation(s)

Value

versed sine, versine

versed

cosine,

vercosine,

coversed sine, coversine

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half versed sine, haversine

half

versed

cosine,

havercosine, hacoversed coversine, cohaversed sine, cohaversine sine, half

exterior secant, exsecant

exterior cosecant, excosecant

Symmetry, shifts, and periodicity By examining the unit circle, the following properties of the trigonometric functions can be established. Symmetry When the trigonometric functions are reflected from certain angles, the result is often one of the other trigonometric functions. This leads to the following identities

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Reflected in = 0

Reflected in = / 2 (co-function identities)

Reflected in =

Shifts and periodicity By shifting the function round by certain angles, it is often possible to find different trigonometric functions that express the result more simply. Some examples of this are shown by shifting functions round by /2, and 2 radians. Because the periods of these functions are either or 2, there are cases where the new function is exactly the same as the old function without the shift. Shift Shift by /2 Shift by Period for tan and cot and sec by 2

Period for sin, cos, csc

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2.7 Guo Shoujing

Guo Shoujing

The first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive Born Famous Book Fields Occupation (12311316) Kaiyuan Zhanjing, Mathematics Chinese trigonometry

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Guo Shoujing (12311316) In China, Aryabhata's table of sines were translated into the Chinese mathematical book of the Kaiyuan Zhanjing, compiled in 718 AD during the Tang Dynasty. Although the Chinese excelled in other fields of mathematics such as solid geometry, binomial theorem, and complex algebraic formulas, early forms of trigonometry were not as widely appreciated as in the earlier Greek and then Indian and Islamic worlds. Instead, the early Chinese used an empirical substitute known as chong cha, while practical use of plane trigonometry in using the sine, the tangent, and the secant were known. However, this embryonic state of trigonometry in China slowly began to change and advance during the Song Dynasty (9601279), where Chinese mathematicians began to express greater emphasis for the need of spherical trigonometry in calendrical science and astronomical calculations. The polymath Chinese scientist, mathematician and official Shen Kuo (10311095) used trigonometric functions to solve mathematical problems of chords and arcs. Victor J. Katz writes that in Shen's formula "technique of intersecting circles", he created an approximation of the arc of a circle s given the diameter d, sagita v, and length of the

chord c subtending the arc, the length of which he approximated as

Sal Restivo writes that Shen's work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by the mathematician and astronomer Guo Shoujing (12311316). As the historians L. Gauchet and Joseph Needham state, Guo Shoujing used spherical trigonometry in his calculations to improve the calendar system and Chinese astronomy. Along with a later 17th century Chinese illustration of Guo's mathematical proofs, Needham states that: Guo used a quadrangular spherical pyramid, the basal quadrilateral of which consisted of one equatorial and one ecliptic arc, together with two meridian arcs, one of which passed through the summer solstice point...By such methods he was able to obtain the du l (degrees of equator corresponding to degrees of ecliptic), the ji cha (values of chords for given ecliptic arcs), and the cha l (difference between chords of arcs differing by 1 degree). Despite the achievements of Shen and Guo's work in trigonometry, another substantial work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607,
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with the dual publication of Euclid's Elements by Chinese official and astronomer Xu Guangqi (15621633) and the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (15521610).

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2.9 Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton

first mathematician in Europe to treat trigonometry

Born Famous Book Fields Occupation

Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey De triangulis omnimodus Mathematics Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period

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Isaac Newton in a 1702 portrait by Godfrey Kneller. Regiomontanus was perhaps the first mathematician in Europe to treat trigonometry as a distinct mathematical discipline, in his De triangulis omnimodus written in 1464, as well as his later Tabulae directionum which included the tangent function, unnamed. The Opus palatinum de triangulis of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and James Stirling developed the general Newton-Stirling interpolation formula for trigonometric functions. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler's Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748) was mostly responsible for establishing the analytic treatment of trigonometric functions in Europe, defining them as infinite series and presenting "Euler's formula" eix = cosx + isinx. Euler used the near-modern abbreviations sin., cos., tang., cot., sec., and cosec. Also in the 18th century, Brook Taylor defined the general Taylor series and gave the series expansions and approximations for all six trigonometric functions. The works of James Gregory in the 17th century and Colin Maclaurin in the 18th century were also very influential in the development of trigonometric series.

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2.9 Leonhard Euler

Leonhard Euler Born 15/April/1707 Basel, Switzerland Died Residence 18/September/1783(aged 76) Prussia,Russia Switzerland Nationality Fields Alma mater Doctoral advisor Known for Religious stance Swiss Mathematician and Physicist University of Basel Johann Bernoulli See full list Calvinist

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Contributions to mathematics Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes. Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics. Mathematical notation Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit. The use of the Greek letter to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him. Analysis The development of calculus was at the forefront of 18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullisfamily friends of Eulerwere responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour, his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well-known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as

Notably, Euler discovered the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. His daring (and, by modern standards, technically incorrect) use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735:

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Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms.[26] He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number , Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies

A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

Called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and . In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever". In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll. De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula. In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and invented the calculus of variations including its best-known result, the EulerLagrange equation. Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic
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trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.

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AIM : To measure the height of a tree by using trigonometry ratios and rules.

X cm

TOOLS NEEDED:

MEASURING TAPE

PROTACTOR

BOOK

TABLE

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WAYS TO MEASURE THE HEIGHT OF THE TREE. 1. A distance at 400cm length was measured between the lowest point of the tree and the place where a person need to stand.

PICTURE 1 2. A table was placed at the end of 400cm length-distance. This is the place where we want to measure the angle of elevation. A student is required to measure the angle of elevation from the table.

PICTURE 2

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3. A book is used to measure the angle of elevation. The angle is measured using a protactor.

PICTURE 3

PICTURE 4

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4. Then, we measured the height of the table that we used to discover the angle.

PICTURE 5 5. Since, we got the angle and the length of the base, now we can calculate the height of the tree.

50

74 cm

400 cm

50

Using trigonometry ratios,

Then, we add the height of the table, Thus, the height of the tree is 550.7 cm.

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AIM: To measure the height of the tree using shadow.

X cm

PICTURE 1 Tools Needed.

Measuring tape

rope

52

WAYS TO MEASURE THE HEIGHT OF THE TREE USING SHADOW. ACTIVITY A 1. This activity was carried out under a sunny day so that we will get the shadow. 2. The height of the student and the length of the shadow of the student is measured using measuring tape.

PICTURE 2 3. After we get the height and the length, we use trigonometry formula to find out the angle between the student and his shadow.

172 cm

208 cm

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ACTIVITY B 1. You need to do this activity under a sunny day so that we will easily get the shadow of the tree.

PICTURE 3 2. By using the rope, we mark the highest point of the tree on tha shadow.

PICTURE 4

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3. Then, we measure the length of the shadow by using measuring tape.

PICTURE 5 4. After we get the length of the shadow, we apply it in trigonometry rules. We use the angle that we get based on activity A.

39.59 164 cm

Thus, the height of the tree is 135.62 cm.

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THIRD METHOD

AIM OF MEASUREMENT: To calculate the height of a pillar using the concept of trigonometry.

TOOLS USED FOR MEASUREMENT:

Measuring Tape

Rope

Protactor

Pillar

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STEPS OF MEASUREMENT: 1. Firstly, put one end of a rope at the highest peak of the pillar and hold it permanently as shown in Picture 1. Then, put another end of the same rope onto the flat brick floor as shown in Picture 2.

Picture 1

Picture 2
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2. Secondly, measure the angle of elavation using a protactor.

Picture 3

3. Thirdly, remove the end of rope which is placed at the peak of the pillar to the bottom of the pillar.

Picture 4
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4. After that, measure the straight line of the rope using a measuring tape.

Picture 5

Picture 6

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CALCULATION OF THE MEASUREMENT:

28

328.5 cm

tan 28 = Length of the pillar = tan 28 x 328.5 cm = 174.7 cm

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FOURTH METHOD

AIM OF MEASUREMENT: To calculate the height of a pillar using the concept of trigonometry.

TOOLS USED FOR MEASUREMENT:

Measuring Tape

Rope

61

STEPS OF MEASUREMENT: 1. Firstly, search for the most suitable distance to see the highest peak of the tree. Then, measure the distance between the bottom of the tree and the most suitable point using a measuring tape. Take the measurement as shown in Picture 2.

Picture 1

Picture 2

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2. Secondly, the observant must bend his body until 180 to see the highest peak of the tree. This action is done to get an angle of 45 from the eyes of the observant to the higest peak of the tree. A picture of the highest peak of the tree has been taken by the observant while he is bend. The picture is shown in Picture 4.

Picture 3

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Picture 4 3. Thirdly, measure the distance once again to ensure that the measurement is accurate.

Picture 5

Picture 6

Picture 7

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CALCULATION OF THE MEASUREMENT:

45

128 cm

tan 45 = Length of the tree = tan 45 x 128 cm = 128 cm

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