The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1

Motivation lecture 2 etc

OB formulas........................................................................................................................................3
Approach Technical/Human............................................................................................................3
The broad picture:.......................................................................................................................3
Scientific management................................................................................................................3
Business environment:................................................................................................................4
Motivation.......................................................................................................................................4
Personality theories.....................................................................................................................4
Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions................................5
Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler)............................................................................6
Goal theory (Locke) ..................................................................................................................6
Equity theory (Adams)................................................................................................................6
Hackman and Oldham’s work design model...............................................................................7
Management & Leadership.............................................................................................................8
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles....................................................................................................8
Ohio State Studies.......................................................................................................................8
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y............................................................................................9
Blake & Mouton..........................................................................................................................9
Quinn’s HRM model.................................................................................................................10
Situational theories :..................................................................................................................10
Vroom & Yetton’s contingency model......................................................................................11
Hersey & Blanchard’s situational leadership model.................................................................11
Human Resources Management....................................................................................................12
The four roles in HR management............................................................................................12
The Psychological Contract......................................................................................................12
The types of psychological contract .........................................................................................13
The Michigan model.................................................................................................................13
The Harvard model....................................................................................................................13
The Rutgers model....................................................................................................................13
The Warwick model..................................................................................................................14
The Bath model.........................................................................................................................14
Groups and teams......................................................................................................................14
Different types of groups...........................................................................................................14
Stages of group and team developement.......................................................................................15
Bass and Ryterband...................................................................................................................15
Woodcock..................................................................................................................................16
Tuckman....................................................................................................................................16
Belbin’s team roles....................................................................................................................17
Teams........................................................................................................................................17
Conflicts:...................................................................................................................................18
Consequences of competition....................................................................................................18
Reactions...................................................................................................................................18

Social networks:........................................................................................................................19
Casciaro & Lobo.......................................................................................................................19
Likeability ................................................................................................................................19

.......................................................................................................................................................19
Organisation structure:..................................................................................................................20
Centralisation............................................................................................................................20
Differentiation:..........................................................................................................................20

1
 The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1
Motivation lecture 2 etc
Integration:................................................................................................................................20
Functional structure ..................................................................................................................21
Divisional structure...................................................................................................................21
Matrix structure.........................................................................................................................21
Influences on structure?............................................................................................................22
Greiner:......................................................................................................................................22
Phases of growth.......................................................................................................................23
Culture...........................................................................................................................................23
Manifestations of culture...........................................................................................................24
Three levels of culture. .............................................................................................................24
National culture ............................................................................................................................25
Hofstede....................................................................................................................................25

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 The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1
Motivation lecture 2 etc

OB formulas

Approach Technical/Human

The broad picture:

1900-1930 1930-1960 1960s 1970-2000

Management Classical school/ Human Human Contingency
and rational approach relations resources view
organization
theory
Assumptions Economic person Social Self Complex
about human person actualizing person
nature person
Role of Control employee Creating a Motivation Facilitate
management behavior good of all employee
’climate’ employees development
Focus of Plan and organize Well-being Challen- Self-
managerial of ging jobs management
control employees

Scientific management

• Frederich Taylor
o Clear distinction between planning a job
o Jobs should be standardised and simplified
o Each worker should conduct a minimum of movements
 Was the ’Father’ to mass production techniques
• Frank Gilbreth
o ’Father’ of time and motion methodologies
o Suggested reductions in working day, brief rest periods, experimented with lighting
conditions, music, canteen facilities – have workers complex needs?
• Henry Gantt
o Introduced detailed instruction cards
o Developed new payment systems, combining basic and bonus schemes

Hawthorne studies by Chester Barnard

• It was the attention that the control group of workers received which contributed to
productivity improvements
• Human needs = complex
• Workers in groups were able to influence the level of their output – via social pressures
they could control output

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• Workers did not necessarily seek to maximise production in order to receive enhanced
bonuses – social pressures stronger than managerial concerns
o motivation
o group work
o leadership/management
o the informal organisation

Business environment:

Motivation
Personality theories
Nomothetic approach (personalities are
fixed, determined by heredity, and connot be
significantly influenced by environment)
Idiographic approach (individuals have
unique characteristics, but personality can be
moulded and both personality and behaviour
are influenced by environment)

 Trait theories  Psychodynamic theory

− Identification of types of
personality
− Prediction of behaviour
 Humanistic approach
− Development of the individual
− How people perceive
themselves
− Freud: personality developed
by parental relationships and
the effects of various types of
trauma
 Jung’s personality theory
− 4 dimensions of personality
− Used by Myers to develop the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator –
basis for personality testing

4
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Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions

The following are different theories which are alike:

Maslow: Aldefer’s McClelland Herzberg

Self-actualization Growth
He claimed Hygiene – context factors:
humans are • company policy
Self-esteem controlled by 3 • Remuneration: pay
things: • Relationship with
Relatedness − Need for
Esteem of others peers/subordinates
Achievement • Status/promotion
• Job security
− Need for
Security Motivators – content factors
Power
Existence
• Sense of achievement
Physiological needs − Need for
Affiliation • Recognition
• The work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Personal growth

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Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler)

• Humans act according to their conscious expectations that a particular behaviour will lead
to specific desirable goals
• Recognises that individuals differ: that we are all unlikely to value the same outcomes
equally
• Consequences (management):
o Important that rewards are actually valued
o The reward system should reflect that high performance/desired behaviour also
leads to better rewards

Goal theory (Locke)

• Similariteis with the expectancy approach

• ’Goal theory proposes that both motivation and performance will be high if individuals are
set specific goals which are challenging, but accepted, and where feedback is given on
performance.’ (Brooks, page 52)

Equity theory (Adams)

 3 components in Adams’s model:

− Inputs (the effort an individual makes)
− Outputs (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards)
− Comparison with others
 Insight into the relationship between rewards and the likely satisfaction individuals gain
from them
 The level of satisfaction and potential motivation resulting from an individual’s receiving a
reward cannot be considered in isolation.

Indvidual Input Comparison of others input


Indvidual Output Comparison of others output

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Hackman and Oldham’s work design model

The model

Job dimensions Psychological states Outcomes

Skill variety Experienced Higher
Task identity meaningsfulness at work motivation
Task significance
㌌㏒ 좈 琰茞 ᓀ Higher quality
Ü
Autonomy Responsibility Higher
satisfaction
Feedback Knowledge of actual Lower
activities/results absenteeism and
turnover
Jobs that will have the five characteristics will have a high
motivational potential. A person’s qualifications, growth needs, and
general job satisfaction will modify the result.

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Management & Leadership

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
Interpersonal roles Conclusion:
 Figurehead  Managers do not spend most of their
 Leader time planning, organising,
 Liaison coordinating and controlling – as we
Information processing roles thought they did…
 Monitor  They have many different – and equal
 Disseminator) important – tasks/roles, and their
 Spokesperson everyday life is characterized by many
Decision-making roles interruptions and short term decisions
 Entrepreneur
 Disturbance handler
 Ressource allocator
 Negotiator

Management vs leadership

Management: Leadership:
 Short focus  Long focus
 Stability  Change
 Do things right  Do the right things
 Problem solving  Problem identification
 Systems and structure  People
 Authority  Influence
 Control  Trust
 Transactional  Transformaitonal

Ohio State Studies

The leader provides a lot of
Less emphasis is placed on structuring guidance about how tasks can be
Consideration

High employee tasks while the leader completed while being highly
concentrates on satisfying employee considerate of the employee needs
needs and wants and wants

Primary emphasis is placed on

The leader fails to provide necessary structuring employee tasks while
Low structure and demonstrates little the leader demonstrates little
consideration for employee needs and consideration for employee needs
wants and wants

Low High
Initiating structure

8
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McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y

− Leaders and managers could be differentiated from one another according to their
attitudes and assumptions about human natur
− Theory X leaders consider subordinates to be lazy, reluctant to assume
responsibility and lacking in ambition – should be controlled and directed
− Theory Y leaders assumes that individuals align themselves with organisational
goals – require little control and direction

Blake & Mouton

− Suggest that a manager’s style can be identified and mapped according to the
’people’ and ’task’ orientation

9
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Quinn’s HRM model

Situational theories :

Fiedler
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Leader- G G G G P P P P
or context
Characteristics of the situation

member
relations:
poor/good
Task S S U U S S U U
structure:
structured/
unstructured
Power S W S W S W S W
position:
weak/strong
Situation Highly Average Highly unfavour-
favourability favourable situational able situation
situation favourability
Most effective Task oriented Relationship Task oriented
leader orientation oriented

10
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Vroom & Yetton’s contingency model

Hersey & Blanchard’s situational leadership model

11
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Human Resources Management

Hard HRM:
 A human ressource management
perspective which emphasizes the full
utilzation of employees in a formal,
calculating and dispassionate manner,
to be treated in a manner similar to
any other resources available to the
organization
Soft HRM:
 A human ressource management
perspective which emphasizes the
need to develop the potential and
resourcefulness of employees in order
to encourage commitement and high
performance in pursuit of shared
organizational goals

 Leadership: task-oriented style  Leadership: people-oriented style.

The four roles in HR management

The Psychological Contract

If this contract is
broken this happens:
 Low job satisfaction
 Poor performance
 High staff turnover
 Feelings of anger and
betrayal
 Erosion of trust

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The types of psychological contract

The Michigan model

 People should be managed like any other resource
 Personnel policies must match, or be aligned with, the organization’s strategy
 Problems:
 Narrow focus on aspects of HRM
 Ignores context

The Harvard model

 Best known and most widely cited
 Influential in Britain and continental Europe
 As the Michigan model: Personnel policies must match, or be aligned with, the
organization’s strategy
 Considers a wider range of factors than the Michigan model
 Problems:
− Precise nature of causal links remains vague…

The Rutgers model

 Identify 12 contrasting employee behaviours
− Some of these are appropriate for an organization strategy that involves cost
reduction (cf. McGregor, Theory X)
− Others are appropriate for an organization strategy that involves innovation (cf.
McGregor, Theory y)
 Establish organization strategy and required employee behaviours – next step is to
determine HR practices appropriate for encouraging those behaviours
− HR manager is offered 5 practice ’menus’
 If the organization’s strategy changes, then it may be necessary to adjust some of the menu
items

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The Warwick model

 Extension of the Harvard model
 The model has 5 elements
1) HRM content
2) Outer context
3) Inner context
4) HRM context
5) Business strategy context

The Bath model

 Attempts to explain how HR policies are linked to performance (the so-called’black box’
problem)
 Case-study research: focuses on the underlying processes through which HR policies
influence employee behaviour and performance

 To perform beyond the minimum requirements of a job:

− Ability
− Motivation
− Opportunity

Groups and teams

 Groups: (page 84)  Teams: (page 84)

− Schein: a group is any number of − Katzenbach: a team is a small
people number of people with
· Who interact with one complementary skills who are
another committed to a common purpose,
· Who are psychologically performance goals, and approach
aware of one another for which they hold themselves
· Who perceive themselves mutually accountable.’
to be a group − Self-directed teams (pages 85-
87)
− Self-managed teams (pages 85-
87)

Different types of groups

Formal groups:
 Are established in a planned way either
permanently or temporarily. Their
purpose is to help solve problems
derived from the goals of the
organization
Informal groups:
 Are spontaneously created. They can be
aimed at problem-solving purposes, but
more often fulfill the group member’s
pychological needs

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Formal groups help: Informal groups help:

 To solve complex tasks
 To produce creative ideas
 To coordinate across departments
 To increase decision-making ability
 To facilitate implementation
 To ease socialization and training
 To fulfill affiliation needs
 To develop and maintain a common
identity
 To establish and test social reality
 To reduce fear and insecurity
 To accomplish tasks

Stages of group and team developement

Bass and Ryterband

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Woodcock

Tuckman

Remember Adjourning is in Tuckman 1

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Belbin’s team roles
Teams
High performing team
 In order to develop high performing
teams, it is necessary that the team is
thinking ’we’ instead of ’I’
 Cooperation in the group characterized
by:
− Trust – to the other members of
the team
− Loyalty – to the decisions made
− Initiative – to carry out decisions
− Responsibility – work and
cooperation
− Reliability – in all situations
− Energy - everybody must
contribute
− Respect – we are all different
− Commitment - results
− Evaluation - improvement
Group think
 Even in a strongly cohesive group,
pressure is placed on members to fall
into line and conform to the group norms
 Groupthink: ’a mode of thinking in
which people engage when they are
deeply involved in a cohesive group, in
which strivings for unanimity override
motivations to realistically appraise
alternative courses of action.
 Symptoms of groupthink:
− Groups feels invulnerable;
excessive optimism
− Those who oppose the group are
’stupid’, corrupt and weak
− Pressure is applied to anyone
who opposes the prevailing mood
of the group
− Silence is taken as consent
− Members of the group censor
themselves if they feel they are
deviating from the group norms
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Conflicts:
Intra-group (in the group):
 Extreme personalities in the same
group/team
 The members compete about (limited)
ressources
 Some members are ’free riders
Consequences of competition
Intra-group:
 Increased loyalty within group, no
disagreement
 Increased formalisation
 Focus on the job/task (and not social
activities)
 Acceptance of ’one taking the control’
 Increased structure/organized
 Members must conform to the group
norms
Reactions
Winner reactions:
 Increased group solidarity
 More focus on social aspects (having a
nice time)
 Increased interest in the individual
member: situation and problems
 No focus on experiences/ single-loop
learning
 Meaning they “know” they are
good enough and face the risk
that they might just stop trying.
Inter-group (between groups):
 Some competition between groups are
fine
 But necessary with the ’right balance’
between friendly competition and
cooperation between the groups
 Competition between groups in an
organisation: leads to greater motivation
and is only a good thing?
− Need to be aware of potential
consequences
Inter-group:
 Identification of ’enemies’
 ’We’ and ’the others’
 Strong selective perception and single
loop-learning
Loser reactions:
 ’It is not our fault’; question the result
 Who to blame?
 The group seems to break up
 Some groups try to work their way out
of the problems
 Douple-loop learning
 Meaning they are ”broken” they
have to rethink everything and
start from scratch.
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Social networks:

Casciaro & Lobo

• Organisations are designed to ensure that people interact in ways necessary to get their jobs
done
• Offer insights into how people choose those they work with
• Informal relationships are important

Likeability

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Organisation structure:

Centralisation

Centralisation:
Advantage: decision are more likely to be consistent and jobs at lower levels should be
simplified because important decision are removed
Disadvantage: slows down the pace of decision making, employees can feel that they
have little responsibility /feel that they are not important

Formalisation:
Formalisation is the tendency of an organisation to create and impose written rules and procedures
for working (Brooks, page 182)
E.g. job descriptions, staff manuals

Span of control:
Span of control refers to the number of employees that report directly to a manager (Brooks, page
183)
Number of subordinates reporting directly to a manager is commonly 10-12
As the span of control increases so does the problem of control and coordination

Differentiation:
 Vertical differentiation is the extent to which an organisation structure comprises different
levels of authority’ (Brooks, page 182)
 An organisation with many reporting levels in its hierarchy and which is organised into
many diferent product/service areas whould be highly differentiated

Integration:
 The extent to which different levels in the hierarchy are coordinated (vertical integration)
and the extent to which coordination occurs acress functional areas (horizontal integration)

20
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Functional structure

Divisional structure

Matrix structure

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Influences on structure?

Business
Size ICT
Environment

Structure

Strategy Technology

Greiner:

22
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Phases of growth

Flexibility

Creativity  Collaboration­
Delegation­
phase phase
phase

Leadership­ Red tape­
Autonomy      ???? crisis
crisis crisis
crisis Control­
crisis

Direction­
Coordination­
phase
Stability phase
(Greiner, 1972)

Culture

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Manifestations of culture

Artifacts and creations

Words, logo, gestures, dress-code, jargon, pictures, etc which are manifestations of the
organisational culture
Heroes
Real or imaginary persons, who posses highly valued characteristics of a culture, and
thus serve as models for behaviour (founders)
Myths and stories
Real events or ’urban legends’ replicated among employees that carry the essence of the
organisational culture and its values
Rituals
Collective activities (ways of greeting, social ceremonies) considered essential within
the culture

Three levels of culture.

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National culture

Hofstede

 Four cultural dimensions emerged from his data:

− Power distance
− Individualism/collectivism
− Uncertainty avoidance
− Masculinity/femininity
 Power distance
− Power distance represents the social distance between people of different rank or
position

 Individualism / collectivism
− Individualism reflects the extent to which an individual relies on a group (a
collectivist approach) or takes the individual initiative in making decisions, solving
problems and engaging in productive activity
 Masculinity / femininity
− Masculinity is one of the more complex variables introduced by Hofstede. It reflects
values which are widely considered to be more ’masculine’, such as assertiveness,
competitiveness and results orientation, whereas ’feminine’ values can be seen to be
cooperative and to show greater awareness of feelings and equal opportunities
 Uncertainty avoidance
− Uncertainty avoidance essentially reflects porole’s attitudes to ambiguity in a ociety
or country

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