Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied To Membranes State of The Art and Opportunities

Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454
Computational uid dynamics applied to membranes: State of the art and opportunities
R. Ghidossi a , D. Veyret a , P. Moulin b,
Institut Universitaire des Syst` mes Thermiques Industriels (IUSTI CNRS-UMR 6595), Technop le de Ch teau Gombert, e o a 5 rue Enrico Fermi, 13453 Marseille Cedex 13, France b Laboratoire dEtudes et dApplications des Proc d s S paratifs (LPPE CNRS-UMR 6181), Universit Paul C zanne dAix Marseille, e e e e e Europ le de lArbois, B timent Laennec, Hall C, BP 80, 13545 Aix en Provence Cedex 04, France o a Received 5 July 2005; received in revised form 3 November 2005; accepted 3 November 2005 Available online 13 December 2005
a
Abstract Membrane ltration has become rmly established as a primary technology for ensuring the purity, safety and/or efciency of the treatment of water or efuents. In this paper, we review the improvements that have been achieved concerning the membranes used for microltration, ultraltration, nanoltration/reverse osmosis processes during the last decades. More especially, we review the state of the art computational uid dynamics (CFD) methods applied to membranes processes. Many studies have focused on the best ways of using a particular membrane process. But, the design of new membrane systems requires a considerable amount of process development as well as robust methods. Computational uid dynamics may provide a lot of interesting information for the development of membrane processes. We review the different ways in which CFD methods are used to improve membrane performance. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Computational uid dynamics; Membrane; Review; Opportunities; Flow
1. Introduction Over the past two decades, membrane ltration processes have played a more and more important role in industrial separation. A number of studies have focused on enhancing microltration, ultraltration, nanoltration and reverse osmosis processes. These include: (i) testing of new membrane materials; (ii) use of different pore sizes; (iii) determination of conditions for optimal selectivity; (iv) attempts to determine the optimum trans-membrane pressure or permeate ux to minimize fouling. The design of a new membrane typically requires a considerable amount of process development. The denition of a generic model with applicability to membrane systems requires rigorous and robust methods. Numerous improvements of the technology have allowed membrane selection for a particular process to be done more easily and more quickly. Typically, the development of the membrane is done
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 4 42 90 85 05; fax: +33 4 42 90 85 15. E-mail address: philippe.moulin@univ.u-3mrs.fr (P. Moulin).
sequentially, with the use of a statistical design methodology to minimize the number of experiments needed to explore a wide range of variables. However, there are several aspects of this constantly evolving technology that have not yet been resolved and still pose an obstacle toward its development. One of these important aspects is the understanding of membrane fouling and subsequent permeate ux decline, which is inevitably associated with these processes. In this review, we describe the techniques that are available for the optimization of these processes. The modelling of ow and concentration polarisation in membrane systems or thin channels with permeable walls is not new and computational uid dynamics (CFD) is an important tool used to develop membrane processes. We summarise the methods used to enhance microltration, ultraltration, nanoltration and reverse osmosis processes. In the rst part, we describe the CFD results for laminar and turbulent conditions and more especially for the different models used to describe mass transfer. In the second part, we study the CFD approaches used to understand the decrease in membrane fouling by using different instabilities or turbulence promoters. We try to describe the opportunities that can be used for the optimization of membrane
0255-2701/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.cep.2005.11.002
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R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454
processes. For the sake of clarity, this review will not detail all the assumptions made and the equations used in each study. 2. CFD and membrane models 2.1. Computational uids dynamics The development of this technology is due to the increasing number of different types of applications of these processes in different domains, particularly in the industrial sector. Membrane ltration can be used in a broad range of applications [1]. A membrane is a permselective barrier of a few hundred nanometers to a few millimetres in thickness, which under the effect of a transfer force, will allow or prohibit the passage of certain components between two separate mediums. There are two main models making it possible to better comprehend this phenomenon. The rst model, developed by Kadem and Katchalsky, is a solubilization-diffusion model based on the concept of capillarity. The second one is the model of polarization that results in a progressive accumulation of species (particles, molecules, etc.) stopped on the surface of the membrane. Considerable debate exists regarding the suitable theoretical work to describe this phenomenon. The theoretical work describing the phenomenon has been the subject of much controversy. The effects of various parameters on permeate ux decline and the mechanisms of membrane fouling have been investigated. However, little progress has been made in understanding the fundamental mechanisms of membrane fouling. Therefore, efforts have been made towards the theoretical modelling of the fouling phenomenon as well as towards the prediction of ux and rejection as a function of time. The complexity of these models is reduced by using numerical simulations. These CFD simulations yield a better understanding of these complex processes and help minimize the number of experiments. As a consequence, CFD has become an effective tool to achieve the goal of a better design more rapidly and cost effectively. The impressive improvements in computer performance have been matched by developments in numerical and mathematical methods [2]. As computation opens new application areas, it stimulates new ideas for mathematical and physical modelling and algorithms. Experimental studies provided only qualitative or perhaps semi-quantitative information on concentration polarization, cake formation and fouling phenomena. Several techniques in the elds of nanotechnology, microuidics, optics, spectroscopy and sensors need to be rened in order to improve their accuracy and resolution. The relative complexity of these ow problems highlights the necessity to understand the physics and mathematics of the underlying problems. CFD offers the possibility to model many situations, provided suitable computing power is available. Fluid transport phenomena are of great importance for membrane separation systems. They occur while the various separation mechanisms are at work. A membrane module is the housing for a membrane that physically seals and isolates the feed stream from the permeate ux. The performance of a module is inherently linked to the uid movement through its volume, and thus its geometrical conguration is an important design consideration. The system will take into account the ow, the bulk region of
the module, the boundary layer transport, the diffusive transport and the separation activity driven by the surface wet-ability, as well as the electrostatic, chemical and physical interactions at the membrane surface. All these processes are interdependent and non-linear. A CFD approach is suitable for combining them into a numerical simulation. Commercial CFD packages are often used to make such numerical studies. The attraction of these methods is that they make it possible to see the effects of different parameters on the system performance. Models exist which allow the analysis of the effects of the variable permeation, rejection changes, variable physical properties of the solution being processed and gravitational inuence. Many of the models, although simplied, have proved to be remarkably accurate at predicting membrane performance over some limited ranges. 2.2. CFD equations under laminar conditions The basic transport equations that govern the ow of a viscous uid are mathematical representations of conservation principles under laminar or turbulent conditions. Specically, they represent the conservation of three physical quantities: mass, momentum and energy. The principle of mass conservation applied to a owing uid result in the equation: + div() = 0 t (1)
where (kg m3 ) is the density and is the x component of the velocity (m s1 ). The principle of conservation of linear momentum dictates that, for any uid element: () P + div( grad ) + SMy + div(u) = y t (2)
where P is the pressure (Pa), the viscosity (Pa s) and SMy the source term in the y direction. All these equations are solved by different programs under laminar and turbulent conditions. It is theoretically feasible to use the governing equations described in this section for turbulent as well as laminar ows. The major difference between the simulations of turbulent ows and laminar ows is the manifestation of eddy motions with an extensive range of length scales in the turbulent ow regime. However, todays computers are not fast enough and they do not possess the required storage capacity to solve these equations directly. The reason is that turbulent motion contains scales that are typically 103 times smaller than the extent of the ow domain. To resolve the motion on these scales by means of a numerical procedure requires a mesh discretization beyond the capabilities of modern computers. Even though it is unreasonably hard to apply the governing equations to turbulent ows, it is possible to describe turbulent motion in terms of time-averaged quantities and to use the resulting descriptions in the conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy. The main consideration of the time-averaged method is that time dependent ow properties can be described as the sum of a time-averaged steady mean component and a time-varying
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uctuating component. These equations could be written as + div(U) = 0 t where U is the average x component of velocity (m s1 ): (U) + div(U U) t = P (u 2 ) (u ) + div( grad U) + + SMx y x y (4) (3)
Fig. 1. Velocity eld in a shell and tube system with inner tube wall permeability in the radial direction [14].
where U is the average velocity vector (m s1 ), u the timeaveraged uctuating x direction velocity (m s1 ), v the timeaveraged uctuating y direction velocity (m s1 ) and SMx is the source term in the x direction. All of these equations represent the laminar and the turbulent conditions. There are several turbulence models that could be used to solve these equations. Conventional models include the mixing length, k, RNG k, Reynolds stress and algebraic stress models. Recent models include the LED (large eddy) method which is based on spaceltered equations. 2.3. CFD for laminar conditions Many authors are interested in the simulation of laminar conditions since most of the ltration processes work under these conditions [337]. The rst simulations of ow in a membrane were undertaken under laminar conditions in channels with porous walls [3,4]. Laminar conditions were studied rst as it is easier to generate ow in the membrane. Later, Friedman et al. [5] considered the effect of the viscosity in their computation. The enhancement of these models culminated with the investigation of laminar ow in a porous pipe with variable wall suction or variable radial mass ux or numerical solution of micropolar uid in porous wall [6,7]. A summary of the recent developments on the role of uid mechanics in membrane ltration was made by Belfort et al. [8,9]. They described several attempts to model both steady one and two-phase ows as well as unsteady ows. Many authors are very interested in using this method to optimize membrane processes [1116]. For example, Karode [11] studied the pressure drop for a uid ow in a rectangular slit and cylindrical tube with porous walls. They assumed the wall permeability to be constant. The pressure drop prediction using their expression for constant wall permeability was within 210% of the numerical CFD solution. The accuracy of the numerical routine was veried by comparing numerical predictions for constant wall velocity using Bermans solution. The agreement was best for low recoveries. For example, in the case of ultraltrationmicroltration, where the channel pressure drop would be a signicant fraction of the inlet pressure, the expressions presented in their work for constant wall permeability could be more accurate. Marriot et al. [12,13] worked on a more general approach to model hollow-bre and spiral-wound membrane modules. The model was developed from rigorous mass, momentum and energy balances. The high precision of
the results presented revealed the importance of this complete study. This new CFD approach was veried by application to gas separation, pervaporation and reverse osmosis case studies. Their work is to be distinguished from most existing models, which are usually process specic and are only applicable within a restricted operating range. Simulation results for these systems agreed with experimental data. Their very interesting paper demonstrated the generality of the detailed model by considering a range of different membrane systems. Moreover, since these early works, better performing solvers have been developed to improve computational uid dynamics. They use more equations, as they use both the NavierStokes and Darcys equations. The Darcy equation is J = Lp (TMP ) (5)
where TMP is the transmembrane pressure (Pa), J the permeate ux (m sl ), the osmotic pressure difference across the membrane (Pa), the Stavermann reection coefcient, Lp the permeability (m s1 Pa1 ). Nassehi et al. [14] used Darcys equation to represent the porous wall conditions. The ow tangential to the porous tube surface was modelled by the NavierStokes equations. They developed a new method for the imposition of permeable wall conditions in viscous ow domains. It was based on the nite element method and was more robust because they added more complex governing equations and boundary conditions. This method offers a means of linking of the free ows modelled by the NavierStokes equations to the ows through permeable walls described by the Darcy equation. This technique was applied to model the feed stream and permeate ux in an axisymmetric case. The results allowed visualization of a complex ow in a porous tube. Since this work, we can for example visualize and evaluate the pressure loss in a porous tube more easily (Fig. 1). Thus, this model for crossow ltration can be considered as the rst step towards creating a complete model. The attraction of these semi-analytical models is that it is possible to tailor them for relatively quick and easy investigation on the effect of different parameters on the performance of a membrane system. Accurate modelling of the ow and concentration polarisation in pressure-driven membrane processes is inhibited by the complex couplings between the ow equations and the variable solution properties. Das et al. went on developing this model a few years later [15]. Their results showed that the model developed can predict the patterns expected for ow and mass transport systems involving a porous wall. The velocity eld and
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Fig. 3. Geometry of a crossow unit [18].
Fig. 2. Representation of laminar ow in a tubular membrane with a cylindrical coordinate system [16].
the ow circulation near the interface for different permeability were described. Their model provides a robust mean of analysis of the ow hydrodynamics. Another very interesting study was performed by Damak et al. [16]. They worked on a laminar, incompressible and isothermal ow in a cylindrical tube with a permeable wall. They assumed the ow to be axisymmetric. As Das et al. did, they used the NavierStokes equations and Darcys law to explain the transfer in the tube and in the porous wall. Moreover, with an adequately long entrance region without upstream suction, the tube was considered to generate a ow that is fully developed at the porous tube entrance. Furthermore, the classical assumption of constant physical properties of the system, such as density, viscosity and porosity of the wall was made in order to simplify the problem (Fig. 2). The ow in the free uid region and in the porous medium in the radial direction was described by the NavierStokes equations and Darcys law, respectively. First, the model was carefully veried. Then, various simulations based on different axial Reynolds numbers and ltration numbers were presented. The results were discussed to study the validity of classical assumptions made in simplied models. Moreover, the relative divergence between the axial velocity prole with and without wall suction was characterized. Therefore, the development of mathematical models has offered a theoretical structure for the understanding of the phenomenon responsible for ux decline. All the recently reported works regarding the simulation of ltration processes are based on these models. This gives the opportunity of simplifying all the existing theories and of understanding these phenomena better. We consider that these works are a good beginning for the modelling of uid ows in membrane processes under laminar conditions. Many specic cases could be treated in laminar conditions. Progress could be made towards the development of more accurate models. 2.3.1. Cake and polarisationconcentration models Several methods have been used for in situ monitoring of concentration polarization in order to better appreciate the physicochemical processes governing the growth of a polarized layer of solutes near a membrane surface. They include light deection techniques, magnetic resonance imaging, direct pressure measurements, direct observation through the membrane, direct visualization above the membrane, laser triangulometry and optical laser sensors [17]. But, despite the potential of these techniques to advance the understanding of membrane ltra-
tion, the investigations available are quite limited in scope. The studies published provided only qualitative or perhaps semiquantitative information on concentration polarization, cake formation and fouling phenomena. Several of these methods need renements to improve accuracy and resolution. This is the reason why computational uid dynamics is so often used to develop and understand these processes. Simulations are more precise and easier to perform than experimental studies but require the input of suitable constitutive relations for quantities such as viscosity, diffusivity, rejection coefcient, etc., which are not always known to estimate the cake thickness, the rejection or the prole of the ow. For example, Geissler et al. [18] developed a dynamic model of crossow microltration in at channel systems under laminar ow conditions, often used in bio-technological processes. The model was based on the description of the hydrodynamics in channels with rectangular cross section, permeable walls and some empirical parameters. This kind of simulation is suitable for estimating the necessary membrane area for the ltration process (Fig. 3). Their numerical code is based on a nite volume method, which solves the NavierStokes equations. The authors theoretical predictions were veried by measuring the local permeate ux and local cake height during the non-stationary phase of crossow ltration. They veried their computation with experimental results. The module was made of Plexiglas, which allowed visualisation of the mechanism of particle deposition and measurement of the lter cake height with a camera. The simulations were made in several cases and the authors concluded that for absolute stationary values the computation agreed with the experimental results within a range of 15% for all parameters and suspension systems studied. The model developed in their paper is nearly suitable to predict the course of a ltration process in a at channel crossow unit and to estimate the cake thickness quite well. A more precise model was then developed by Lee and Clark [19] who worked with a standard type of channel used for crossow ultraltration. From the study of dead-end ltration of monodisperse colloidal suspensions, they succeeded in showing that when the particle size decreased, the specic cake resistance increased. However, it did not increase as predicted by the KozenyCarman equation. They also showed that an increasing transmembrane pressure resulted in a denser cake layer, which increased the specic cake resistance. Their goal was to write a law that could be applied to describe the effect of transmembrane pressure on the specic cake resistance more accurately. The numerical model of cross ow ltration developed in their paper successfully explained the fundamental mechanisms involved in ux decline during crossow ultraltration of colloidal suspensions. The model provided a useful tool for investigating the
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effect of various operating parameters, such as the particle size, feed concentration, axial velocity, and membrane dimensions. That study was made possible by the numerical simulations, which allowed a reduced number of experiments. The model required the specic cake resistance as an input parameter, which was obtained independently from the dead end ltration tests. The simulations showed that the model predictions were in good agreement with crossow experimental results. Carroll [20] developed a model to demonstrate these mechanisms for typical hollow-bre membranes during the dead-end microltration of particulate suspensions. The model accommodated both compressible and incompressible cakes, and predicted highly localised uxes, which are completely absent in planar membranes. These localised uxes combined with transmembrane pressure gradients to produce non-uniform cake growth patterns and non-uniform cake resistance proles. The role of cake properties and operating conditions in determining the permeate ux decline mechanism was established from the evolution of the ux proles. The author deduced from simulations a ux decline model incorporating cake compressibility for microltration through a hollow-bre membrane. This new localised ux decline mechanism in hollow bres has a number of important consequences. Firstly, it is important for establishing the role played by hollow bre properties in the fouling of hollow bre membranes. The rate of ux decline with throughput depends upon the properties of the bres and of the cake. Secondly, the model facilitates predictions of ux decline for hollow bres from the ux decline for planar membranes. Finally, it is essential to consider this localised performance in the situation of more complex crossow systems. The non-uniform patterns of particle deposition in hollow bres and local variation in convective forces could also inuence the rate of cake accumulation in such systems. All these studies show the important role that CFD can play in understanding cake formation. The models created provide a useful instrument for studying the effect of different parameters, such as the particle size, feed concentration, axial velocity and membrane dimensions in many types of ltration. However, all of the studies developed in these papers focused on particular cases. We consider that the fouling mechanisms are too complicated to be simulated successfully for each case (different type of membrane, solution, ltration, operating conditions, etc.). Many parameters have to be taken into account. The model has to solve the NavierStokes equations for the suspension ows as well as the convection diffusion equations, taking into account the effect of the shear rate. Moreover, existing models consider the pressure loss along the membrane using the Hagen Poiseuille law, which is an important approximation. Therefore, the determination of a general model representing these phenomena seems difcult to achieve. 2.3.2. CFD and models of ow through the porous material There have been many studies on ow through a porous membrane [2128]. Experimental studies cannot be complete because sensors cannot be installed inside the porous material. Therefore, computation is an attractive approach to better understand the behaviour of the liquid through the membrane. Moreover, analytical solutions to the convectiondiffusion mass
Fig. 4. Mesh generation in the normalized uid ow channel [21].
transfer equation are very difcult to obtain. Several attempts have been made to solve this problem numerically by nite difference methods to predict the concentration prole within the ow channel. Under an applied pressure, water penetrates through the membrane pores and the solute is rejected by the membrane. As a result, a thin concentration boundary layer is created near the membrane surface and the ux declines. Huang and Morrissey [21] tried to better understand this phenomenon of polarization. The purpose of their work was to use a numerical model to reproduce the process of concentration polarization and to model the solute concentrations on the membrane surface. They aimed to create a method that could be used in the engineering analysis and design of crossow ultraltration processes. They used a nite element method and meshed the surface of the membrane with a very ne mesh to capture the important physical processes (Fig. 4). Specically, when a very small diffusion coefcient is examined, substantially ner meshes must be used in the vicinity of the membrane surface to cope with the steep concentration gradient. Using CFD, the authors illustrated the way in which the diffusion coefcient inuences the thickness of the concentration boundary layer. They showed that for a given permeate ux, there was a linear relationship between diffusion coefcient and thickness of the concentration boundary layer, which is in agreement with classical theory. This model can be used to predict the mass transfer coefcient, which is an important parameter in the creation and analysis of a membrane ltration process. Their work also highlights the need for extremely high resolution near the membrane surface since the boundary layer is very thin. Richardson and Nassehi [22] developed an algorithm based on the Streamline Upwind Petrov Galerkin nite element scheme for the solution of ow and convective dispersion equations in two-dimensional domains with solid and porous walls. Their approach was shown to provide a method for reproducing concentration proles within geometrically complex domains
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Fig. 5. Solution domain with a at porous wall opposite a curved porous wall [22].
(Fig. 5). The characteristic of this approach was the construction of a simple technique for the treatment of concentration boundary conditions along the porous walls. Therefore this model offered a useful step towards the development of a fast engineering technique for the quantitative analysis of crossow lters. The applicability of the model was established in a large range of domains comprising both at and curved porous walls. Moreover, an important step was made because they showed that the model was able to take into account the link between the physical and rheological factors and the fouling on the permeable segment, and thus the process performance [2325]. Chatterjee et al. [26] developed a numerical solution, based on the nite difference method, for modelling the performance of a radial ow hollow bre reverse osmosis module. The three-parameter Spiegler Kedem model was used to describe the mass transport through the membrane. The membrane performance factors as described by the three-parameter Spiegler Kedem model were approximated from experimental data. Fig. 6 shows how both the retentate and the permeate ows pass through a module and how the nite difference grid is used. By comparing these results for different NaCl concentrations, they considered the solution diffusion model adequate for describing the mass transport across the membrane, the parameters evaluated from the present model being not very different from the results obtained by the model Sekino et al. [27,28]. More experimental data for phenol separation were obtained on a hollow bre module and the model was used to analyse the data. Moreover, the CFD results clearly showed that the two parameters model used by Sekino et al. may not be sufcient for accurate design and analysis of many solutemembrane systems. Furthermore, this parameter estima-
tion program can also be used for developing the mass transfer correlation in the radial ow hollow bre modules. These studies show that models can be created to predict the operations for ultraltration, microltration, nanoltration and reverse osmosis with good accuracy. Moreover, the CFD models do not neglect the physical and rheological factors nor the properties of the foulant on the permeable wall. Very ne meshes seem necessary to achieve high accuracy. This requires great computer power and long calculation times, which could be a handicap in enhancing membrane processes. 2.3.3. CFD and osmotic pressure: nanoltration and reverse osmosis Advances in the understanding of membrane transfer processes and their optimisation require models that can simulate all the important physical processes occurring in membrane systems [2937]. The operating osmotic pressure is a basic parameter governing the design and evaluation of a membrane separation system. For example, the performance of a spiral-wound module can be improved by optimizing some key geometrical parameters for given operating conditions. Many authors are interested in this application. For example, Ben-Boudinar et al. [29] made numerical simulations of a spiral wound module. The investigation covered a wide range of feed conditions by using experimental data provided from two different types of modules. In the case of the desalination of sea water, their program facilitated the evaluation of the concentrations, pressures and ow rates in the feed and permeate channels at any point in the module. For illustration, they decided to work with two typical modules. The results were obtained with maximum deviations of about 10% and 15% for the permeate ow and concentration, respectively. They suggested that a better calculation could be achieved if a more precise relationship for the mass transfer coefcient could be established. Many authors assume that spiral-wound modules typically used in nanoltration and reverse osmosis systems can be considered as a succession of channel slits. This slit-type conguration represents the basic model to be studied and characterised for the design and optimisation of such industrial membrane modules [3035]. Such a conguration strongly restricts the circulating ow rates to low values, typically giving rise to laminar ows. Fig. 7 shows a typical geometry used in this modelling approach. When the slit is an open channel, the laminar ow becomes fully developed in its rst stages, as concluded by Geraldes et al. [32], leading to a very high value of the mass transfer resistance or to severe problems of concentration polarisation, as a consequence of the growth of the concentration boundary layer.
Fig. 6. Finite difference meshes construction for a hollow bre module [26].
Fig. 7. Scheme of the NF slit used for the numerical predictions, with uniform inlet velocity and inlet solute concentration proles [31,32].
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Overcoming these effects is important for the optimisation of mass transfer. In fact, mass transfer in slit-type channels can be improved by modifying the hydrodynamic parameters and the design and by decreasing the concentration at the boundary layer. Moreover, the feed ow inuences the growth of the boundary layer and its mixing with the main stream. As a result, the design of membrane modules needs accurate analysis of the concentration polarisation phenomenon. Nanoltration membrane performance can be predicted in terms of either apparent rejection coefcients or permeate uxes resulting from CFD or a mass transfer model using boundary conditions that take into account solutesolventmembrane interactions. For the CFD predictions, the variation of the solution properties of density, viscosity and diffusivity with the solute concentrations were considered. The previous mathematical model described the ow and mass transfer in the feed near the membrane, which acts as a selective barrier. The effect of concentration polarisation on the decline of the permeate uxes was also taken into account in the predictions of these uxes. A correlation for the ratio between the concentration and the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness was then obtained, being valid for the ranges of interest in nanoltration and excellent agreement was obtained with experimental values. Such a correlation gave some insight into the different mechanisms involved in the growth rates of those boundary layers. The use of CFD for the modelling of transport processes occurring at the uid phase adjacent to a nanoltration membrane allowed the evaluation of the concentration polarization effect. Furthermore, the calculation of intrinsic rejection coefcients, which are linked to the membrane characteristics and to the operating conditions in terms of transmembrane pressure and feed solute, concentration could be determining. Wiley and Fletcher [36] proposed a general purpose CFD model of concentration polarisation and uid ow. The model has undergone extensive verication and highlights also the need for very ne meshes near the wall and suitable high order numerical schemes, especially when the polarisation is high. The problem is that very ne meshes necessitate powerful computer and necessitate high cost investment in term of time calculation. The need for selfconsistent physical property models was highlighted. The CFD model developed used explicit equations for property variations, and it can now be easily adapted to include any arrangement of variation in wall ux, rejection, viscosity and diffusivity. The exibility of this model was only limited by the ability of the user to correctly describe the physical properties. The equations were solved using the nite volume code CFX4. The model was extended to examine the consequence of buoyancy in the salt water system under reverse osmosis conditions [37]. In this case the need to choose the location of the boundary condition carefully to ensure that it does not cause non-physical ow was highlighted. Application of the model to brackish water revealed that gravitational effects are only signicant at very low ow rates. The authors also showed that in the reverse osmosis system the extraction rates are not sufcient to generate density differences between the feed concentration and the uid at the surface of the membrane, which can cause signicant buoyancy effects in horizontal at channel systems. These models show a trend towards greater completeness, as not only do they include
the variable uid properties but also explicit the modelling of the membrane, making CFD an increasingly powerful tool. These simulations represent a powerful tool for enhancing nanoltration and reverse osmosis processes and the models become more and more precise. 2.4. CFD under turbulent conditions Most studies have been done for laminar conditions but for some researchers it proved necessary to work under turbulent conditions [3842]. For example, ultraltration modules operate in turbulent regime and the mixing properties of the turbulence are very important to minimize solute concentrating in the near wall region. Pellerin et al. studied the turbulent transport in membrane modules by CFD simulation in two dimensions [39]. The CFD package used was suitable to incorporate separation models based on the chemical and physical interactions between specic membranes and feed solutions for comparison with experimental results. The pressure-related boundary condition for permeate velocity is an essential characteristic for enlarging the model to multi-component systems where the membrane separation performance would be modeled. To this effect the convectiondiffusion equation for solute transport was added and the effect of inlet concentrations and diffusion coefcients were studied. Using CFD, they demonstrated that the most important parameters were the Reynolds and Schmidt numbers. Both dimensionless numbers were found to play a key role in controlling the solute concentration gradients. An important work regarding modelling of concentration polarisation and depolarisation with high frequency backpulsing was reported by Redkar et al. [42]. In this study, a turbulent back transport of rejected solutes from the deposited layer to the bulk was ensured by the action of stirring. In fact, the gel started appearing only when the membrane surface concentration exceeded the solubility limit of the solutes in the solvent. Therefore, this deposited layer was not a true gel layer but may be called a gel-type layer whose properties are supposed to be the same as those of the cake in ltration equipment. As the membrane rejects the solutes, the thickness of this deposited gel layer increases. But at the same time, due to the stirring, some solutes are removed from the cake surface and go into the bulk. The Kozeny Carman equation was used to relate the permeate ux with other operating variables. So this work was a combination of the ltration theory and a gel polarisation model. This model depended on three main parameters, namely the back transport coefcient, permeability coefcient and membrane hydraulic resistance. They gave the predicted and experimental values of the maximum uxes and the corresponding optimal forward ltration times. The optimal forward ltration time increased with increasing backpulse duration, whereas the maximum ux was relatively insensitive to the backpulse duration. Most importantly, the uxes obtained with backpulsing theory predicted that the forward ltration time which maximizes the ux is, in general, slightly longer than the critical value which leads to cake or gel formation. The small number of papers focusing on turbulent conditions tends to prove that modelling in turbulent conditions is difcult. The lack of a turbulent model is signicant in this case and researchers still
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do not agree on the validity of the current commercial models proposed. In fact, it requires the resolution of more complicated equations and very ne meshes. Consequently, the use of more powerful computers is necessary and the computing times should be longer. However, many authors are getting attracted to model turbulent conditions because many membrane processes work under high Reynolds numbers. Several papers have recently been published on this subject and referenced in this part, which could lead to opportunities in membrane processes development. 3. CFD and hydrodynamic conditions The use of CFD allows us to determine, describe and optimize the complex hydrodynamics generated by pulsatile ow and gas sparging [4353], spacers [5465], Dean and Taylor vortices [6679] and geometry [8084]. The performance of pressuredriven membrane processes is limited by factors like concentration polarisation, cake-layer growth and fouling, resulting in low volumetric permeation rates. In recent years extensive studies have been performed modication of the membrane surface, optimization of scouring and hydrodynamic methods for cancelling or reducing these limitations and thus improving membrane processes. In fact, an increase in the shear stress induces a decrease in the cake layer thickness and generally creates a greater permeate ow. Various approaches, including generating turbulent ows, placing inserts in the ow channel, creating turbulence promoters and pulsations of feed ow, have been used to improve the migration of the solute or particles from the membrane surface to the bulk ow. For example, to limit the particle layer growth, high shear rates can be caused by rotating parts of the module. Several studies have shown that uid instabilities like Taylor vortices, established in a rotating annular lter, are very effective in reducing concentration polarisation and particle deposition due to high shear rates. These shear rates increase rapidly with the increasing axial feed ow and lead to enhanced mass transfer between the boundary layer and the bulk phase. But, this way of optimizing the ow is not the only one. We will make a state of the art of all the technology developed to enhance these processes. We will describe the gas sparging and Dean vortices to illustrate respectively the pulse-gas sparging and Dean and Taylor vortices. 3.1. Pulses and gas sparging The improvement of crossow ultraltration has been studied by many authors who injected air in the concentrate inside the membrane [4353]. The use of unsteady ow can lead to signicant benets by increasing heat and mass transfer rates. It was demonstrated that the permeate ux increased with pulsatile ow and that the accumulation of the retained particles at the membrane surface was reduced very effectively, probably mainly through the increased shear. It has already been proved that injecting air could diminish the concentration polarisation layer during ultraltration of macromolecules. The development of the ltration ux was supposed to be due to an increase of the turbulence and also of the crossow velocity inside the
membrane. This theory has been demonstrated in several studies [4351]. This way of creating turbulence by injecting gas allows creation of a gas liquid two-phase crossow operation that can signicantly increase the permeate ux and, moreover, can improve the membrane rejection characteristics. This idea was developed by Stanton et al. [52]. In fact, injecting air bubbles into the liquid feed to generate a two phase ow stream has proved to be an effective, simple and low cost technique for enhancing ultraltration processes and has allowed better rejection. Previous studies had been based on the analysis of the experimental data and mass transfer correlations. The authors attempted to model the slug ow ultraltration process using the volume of uid method with the aim of understanding and quantifying the details of the permeate ux enhancement resulting from gas sparging. For this numerical study, the commercial CFD package FLUENT was used. This CFD was used to simulate the motion of a single Taylor bubble rising in a liquid owing through a circular cross-section tube. In vertical pipes, Taylor bubbles are axisymmetric and have round noses, while their tail is generally assumed to be nearly at. The Taylor bubble occupies most of the cross-sectional area of the tube. When the bubble rises through a moving liquid, the liquid that is owing ahead of the nose of the bubble is displaced as a liquid lm. It starts owing downwards in the annular space between the tube wall and the bubble surface. Alongside the bubble, the liquid lm accelerates until it reaches its terminal velocity, provided the bubble is long enough. At the rear of that bubble the liquid lm plunges into the liquid plug as a circular wall jet and produces a highly agitated mixing zone in the bubble wake. It is generally believed that a kind of vortex exists in this mixing zone. This region is believed to be responsible for mass transfer enhancement due to the increase in the wall shear stress (Fig. 8). The authors thought that it is essential to understand and quantify the details of slug ow dynamics and to identify their effect on ultraltration performance. In their paper, they explained that permeate ux enhancement was due to gas sparging by examining the hydrodynamics of gasliquid two-phase ow and the increase in mass transfer. They showed that the enhancement can be explained by the increase in the mass-transfer coefcient. The turbulence just behind the air bubble, caused by the annular lm owing downward, is of signicant intensity, and plays a pivotal role in permeate ux enhancement in tubular membranes. Furthermore, the permeate ux enhancement due to gas sparged ultraltration with tubular membranes can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Taha et al. also worked on this subject [53]. They tried to develop a model using a tubular membrane module. Their representation was based on dividing the membrane surface area into various regions depending on the hydrodynamic regime in the vicinity of the membrane, as shown in Fig. 9. By analysing the uid ow in these regions, it is possible to calculate the mass transfer coefcients for each region. The averaged permeate ux for the membrane can be assessed. The model results were compared with experimental data and with theoretically calculated data. Simulation studies were also performed to check the effects of some process factors on permeate ux development. The authors succeeded in determining three distinct mass transfer zones in the slug ow regime called falling
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domain is for researchers. This method of enhancing membrane process performance is easy to use and this was true for each case studied, as shown by the number of papers. Furthermore, the lack of recent papers tends to prove that this method cannot be optimized any further. Many improvements have already been made to enhance microltration, ultraltration, nanoltration, reverse osmosis processes and to lead to a better understanding of these phenomena with the help of CFD. 3.2. Spacers The term turbulence promoters is nowadays accepted in the literature, although the stable ows may not necessarily exhibit the characteristics of fully developed turbulence. The presence of spacers leads to increased pressure drop, as well as to the formation of localized stagnation or dead zones, where the above phenomena may be increased. Thus, the important role of membrane spacers has been recognized in the past years, and several experimental and theoretical studies have aimed at understanding the underlying phenomena and optimizing spacer congurations [5465]. Thus, although it is common knowledge that the presence of a spacer can greatly improve the membrane mass transfer, detailed understanding of uid dynamics in the channel has not been developed because of experimental and numerical complexities. The spiral wound membrane module conguration is one of the most common membrane congurations in the eld of membrane technology applications. In spiral wound membrane modules, spacers are used to enhance wall shear stress and to promote eddy mixing, thereby reducing wall concentration and fouling. The effect of spacer laments on ow patterns in narrow channels can just be quantied using computational uid dynamics. To nd an optimal spacer design, it is essential to determine the ow pattern and turbulence distribution in a spacer lled channel or spiral wound module. With the development of more powerful computing techniques, it has become possible to simulate ow in spacer-lled channels. Many authors have experimentally and numerically investigated ow around a cylinder between two walls. Cao et al. [54] investigated CFD simulations of net-type turbulence promoters in a narrow channel. They ran simulations in two dimensions. FLUENT was used as the CFD package to simulate the ow in a spacer-lled channel. The general governing equations were
Fig. 8. Simulation of slug ow [52].
lm zone, wake zone and liquid slug zone. The mass transfer coefcients for each of these zones were determined. With these values, the averaged permeate ux for gas-sparged ultraltration was determined. There was reasonably good agreement between experimental data and theoretically predicted data. The results of simulation studies show that gas sparging can be greater at higher feed concentration and transmembrane pressure. Also, increasing liquid ow rate has contradictory effects in single phase ow as well as in gas sparged ultraltration. These studies show the potential of computational uid dynamics in this domain. The large numbers of papers published shows how attractive this
Fig. 9. Flow regimes for two-phase ow [53].
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applied on a curvilinear grid to enable computations in complex or irregular geometries. Several turbulence models could be used to solve the NavierStockes equations. In the turbulent regime, the RNG k model used by the authors was rst used in quantum eld theory. They investigated the effects of different arrangements of turbulence promoters. Spacers come in various forms that are composed of a net-like arrangement of laments aligned parallel, transverse or at an angle to the module axis. The spacer causes ow disturbance before and after the transverse laments. In order to elucidate the likely extent of the ow disturbance, the CFD simulations were directed towards the effect of cylindrical objects positioned normal to the ow. The simulations revealed the detailed ow patterns, velocity distributions, and turbulent kinetic energy distributions in the spacer-lled channel. It was found that the location of the high shear stress region and of the eddies was closely related to the spacer cylinder geometry and their position in the channel. By comparing simulation results, it can be concluded that careful selection of the location of the transverse laments and of the distances between them is very important in spacer optimisation. It was found that the mass transfer differences between the top and bottom membrane surfaces could be equalised by placing the transverse spacer cylinders alternately on the top and bottom wall or suspending them in the middle of the channel. The simulation suggested that suspending transverse spacer cylinders in the channel is more desirable. The simulation also suggested that reducing the distance between the transverse spacer cylinders could reduce the distance between the shear stress peaks and produce more efcient eddy activity, which may improve mass transfer at the membrane surfaces. However, it was established that the reduction in the distance between transverse cylinders could also signicantly increase the channel pressure drop and consequently increase the operating costs. The selection of optimum geometry involves a trade-off between these competing effects. Koutsou et al. [56] carried out the numerical simulation of the ow in a plane-channel containing a periodic array of cylindrical turbulence promoters. The ow in a model two-dimensional geometry, consisting of a plane-channel in which an array of cylinders is located, was studied in order to obtain a better understanding of the behaviour, the dominant features and structures, as well as the statistical characteristics of the spacers. This work was intended to get a better understanding of transport phenomena in membrane elements, where feed ow spacers tend to enhance mass transport characteristics, possibly decreasing fouling and concentration polarization phenomena while increasing pressure drop. Model ow geometry was considered, consisting of a plane-channel, in which a regular array of cylinders was inserted, acting as turbulence promoters, as shown in Fig. 10. Direct numerical simulations using the NavierStokes equations were performed over a range
of Reynolds numbers typical of such membrane modules. A CFD code, based on the nite-volume method, was used. During each simulation the governing equations were integrated in time by imposing a constant mean pressure gradient until the ow reached a statistically steady state. Above a critical Reynolds number of 60 the ow became unstable due to mechanisms similar to those operating in the case of a cylinder in unbounded ow. Above a Reynolds number of 78 walls eddies appeared. This characteristic of the ow in the channel wall was due to the interaction of the vortices shed by the cylinders with the vortices layers created on the channel walls. Three-dimensional effects were not considered in that study. This approach, which is common practice in turbulent ow numerical simulations, may also be useful to solve the mass transfer problem in order to obtain local mass transfer. The understanding achieved in that study is expected to facilitate optimization studies of membrane spacer congurations. Schwinge et al. [62] studied an unsteady ow in narrow spacer-lled channels for spiral-wound membrane modules. They inspected the subcritical and supercritical ow patterns in narrow two-dimensional channels for single and multiple laments. As the cylindrical spacer laments were oriented transverse to the main ow direction, two-dimensional CFD simulations could be used. These two-dimensional calculations are an excellent viewing device for future estimation of more complex spacer geometries. The uid used was water at a temperature of 293 K. This uid was supposed to be incompressible, isothermal and to have constant uid properties. The uid movement was governed by the NavierStokes equations. These equations were suitable for all Reynolds numbers, but under laminar conditions they could be solved without considering the resolution of turbulent eddies. These equations were solved using a CFD code. Five lament congurations were examined (Fig. 11). Computational uid dynamics calculations showed complex interaction between all the parameters introduced in the numerical simulation. For a single lament in a narrow channel the wall reduced the transition, which occurred at slightly higher Reynolds numbers than for a cylinder in a free ow channel. However, the authors showed that a good adequation between process parameters and ne meshes is required. This increases the computational cost but enhances the accuracy of the results. Therefore, they suggested that calculations to three dimensions would necessitate careful and methodical identication of appropriate modelling procedures. Wiley et al. [63] explained the interest of a numerical simulation model of pressure driven membrane processes describing the selective trapping of certain particles in the feed channel and the pas-
Fig. 10. Schematic of ow geometry [54].
Fig. 11. Different congurations developed [62].
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Fig. 12. The basic shapes of commercial net spacers [64].
sage of others to the permeate channel. The effects of changes in rejection, wall permeation rates and solution properties on ow rate and concentration proles are presented for empty channels and channels with turbulence promoters. Therefore, the authors decided to use CFD because this method can integrate the modelling of a ow in complex geometries which includes the recirculation and the difference in uid properties between the bulk solution and the membrane wall. The nite volume code CFX4 was used to solve the continuation equations. The ow was also assumed to be steady, incompressible and laminar but the viscosity and diffusivity were likely to change. The model was conrmed with a high number of semi-analytical solutions. While the model developed has been corroborated for a series of situations, it can readily be adapted for other conditions of physical properties and of permeation rates. The advantage of the model is that it may help to estimate the effect of various assumptions on concentration polarisation. This kind of information is essential to use membrane systems properly. Moreover, their paper revealed that it was necessary to improve the CFD package used for the representation of membrane systems by including a model allowing the description of selective component exclusion. The modular nature of this validated CFD model makes it a powerful tool for the design of membrane systems. Li et al. optimized commercial net spacers in spiral wound membrane modules [64]. They decided to compare the two main types of commercial net spacers frequently usedwoven and non-woven spacers, as shown in Fig. 12. A non-woven spacer can be characterized by four parameters: the distance between spacer laments l1 and l2, the angle between the spacer laments and the ow attack angle (Fig. 13). This study focused on cylindrical laments. The diameter of the laments (d) was half the channel height (h). The inuence of the four geometric parameters on mass transfer enhancement and mechanical energy dissipation were investigated. Results from CFD simulations indicated that if l/h is small, the ow between
Fig. 14. CFD uid ow results [65].
Fig. 13. Geometric characterisation of a nonwoven spacer [64].
two neighbouring laments consists mainly of one dead eddy, which does not contribute much to mass transfer. If the value of l/h is very high l/h = 10, shedding of vortices will only enhance mass transfer in the direct neighbourhood of the laments, resulting in lower average mass transfer. This means that an optimum value of l/h exists. The geometric parameters and also play an important role in enhancing mass transfer. It was found that the spacer geometry is optimal for l/h = 4, = 30 and = 120 over a large range of power number values. The results of the CFD simulations were validated using a few experimental data. The experiments conrmed that the geometric parameters of spacers have a considerable inuence on mass transfer for a given crossow power consumption. Comparison of the experiments carried out with different non-woven spacers showed that there is an optimal spacer geometry, which agrees with the optimal geometry obtained by CFD simulations. On the other hand, Karode et al. [65] reported results from a computational uid dynamics study performed to visualize the steady state uid ow structure through spacer lled channels in at sheet form. A commercially available CFD routine called PHOENICS was used to implement the uid ow equations. The simulation was done with a rectangular test cell showing spacer laments and a typical grid (Fig. 14). Water was taken as the bulk uid for all CFD simulations. These simulations were run for inlet velocities ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 m s1 , which encompassed typical cross ow velocities in commercial membrane modules. Computational uid dynamics simulations were run on several commercially available spacers to evaluate the effectiveness of spacers in terms of pressure drop and average shear stress. The main factors inuencing the design of an effective spacer (high wall shear and low pressure drop) seem to be the ratio of lament diameter to inter-lament distance, the lament diameter and the angle between the spacer laments. The lament diameter is an important parameter since it limits the packing density in the nal membrane module. The ratio between lament diameter and inter-lament spacing inuences the bulk ow pattern. The order of spacers when arranged in increasing average shear rate was found to be different for high (1 m s1 ) and low (0.25 m s1 ) inlet velocities. The authors compared each spacer for each case and gave advice on the choice of the spacer. Therefore, there
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where Re is the Reynolds number (dimensionless), di the internal diameter and dc the curve diameter (m): Re = di (7)
Fig. 15. Representation of Dean vortices in coiled pipe [74].
seems to be important characteristics to take into account before choosing a spacer. Spacer development is a typical application using CFD because ow or pressure sensors are impossible to insert in such a process. However, it seems that the latest studies performed in this way give the nest spacer optimization and that further progress would be difcult to achieve. In many cases, energy consumption considerations should also be taken into account in deciding on the best spacer geometry. 3.3. Dean vortices It is possible to make these vortices visible in a helically coiled membrane (Fig. 15). Experimental results show an enhanced ltrate ux and improved ltration process. The effect of Dean vortices on the ltration ux and efciency of membrane processes in sinusoidal curved and helically coiled tubular membranes has been investigated by several research groups [6679]. The Dean number is the ratio of the centrifugal force to the viscous force. The Dean number in a curved pipe is dened as this dimensionless parameter: De = Re di dc (6)
Experimental studies have shown that the efciency of crossow ltration in curved membranes can be much higher than in straight membranes. CFD simulations were run, illuminating two important effects of secondary ow: an increase in the wall shear stress causing a reduced particle deposition and an enhanced mass transfer at the boundary layer. In addition, a detailed study of the performance of helical screw thread inserts in tubular membranes was carried out by Bellhouse et al. [66]. This study was designed to examine the complete uid dynamic processes contributing to ux enhancement when screw thread inserts are used with tubular membranes. The computational uid dynamics code FLUENT was used to predict the behaviour of membranes tted with inserts. The design combined a mainly helical ow, in which Dean vortices are engendered, with an approximately axial ow, which modies the Dean vortices into a continuous corkscrew vortex. This support created an excellent adjustment of the feed uid and minimized concentration polarisation effects. The inserts (Fig. 16) were tested under microltration conditions using yeast solutions, under ultraltration conditions using reconstituted powdered milk solutions, and under nanoltration conditions using synthetic dyes. The authors succeeded in showing signicant boost (by factors of 610) of the ltration uxes in the presence of inserts compared to the classical tubular membranes under the same operational conditions. They compared their experimental results with CFD results and good conformity was found between the CFD calculations and experimental measurements. Moulin et al. wrote a paper in which a numerical simulation of shear stress was proposed to determine the inuence of the geometric parameters in four different tubesstraight, torus, helical and woven [68]. The mathematical model consisted in the resolution of the NavierStokes and continuity equations for a 3D steady, laminar ow of an incompressible Newtonian uid with constant physical properties. This method consisted in creating vortices in modules without moving parts. They ran numerical simulations with nonporous cylindrical straight tubes and compared the wall shear stress at the surface of the material. They worked under laminar conditions and established several
Fig. 16. Single and three start helical screw-thread inserts [66].
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Fig. 17. Representation of the secondary velocity vectors made [74] (helical tube Re = 1, De = 0.4, = 520 , di = 3:2 mm, dc = 20 mm, b = 30 mm, water, = 1000 kg m3 , = 103 Pa s).
Fig. 18. Projected trajectories of numerical tracers in a half section made by Moll et al. (helical tube, Re = 1627, di = 3.2 mm, dc = 20 mm, b = 30 mm, water, = 1000 kg m3 , = 103 Pa s, particle diameter = 0.5 m) [72].
relationships. They concluded that Dean vortices increase the shear stress to the same extent as they enhance permeate ux in pervaporation process. They also showed that the simulation allows analysis of the ow behaviour from the laminar to the turbulent regime. Moreover, any geometry design may be simulated so that the inuence of Dean vortices in straight, helical tubes as well as woven bres can be predicted with the use of CFD. The simulations may be used to visualize the Dean vortices: their location in the ow, their centre and their rotation can be determined as shown in Fig. 17. The results obtained were in good conformity with published results obtained using imaging methods. Moll et al. developed this rst concept [72]. They supposed the effect of the feed concentration was not completely understood. Their goal was to give new insight by comparing laser visualisation results with CFD results. They also used a mathematical model that consisted in solving the NavierStokes and continuity equations for a 3D steady, laminar ow of an incompressible homogeneous and Newtonian uid. The algorithm which was based on the nite element method used a projection method in order to approximate the solution of the equations. In the case studied, attention was restricted to rigid, nonpermeable bounded walls. The authors compared their results with several experimental techniques of visualisation that had previously been used to reveal secondary ows. For example, Winzeler et al. [75] had used a ne aluminium suspension in a methylene blue solution and Bolinder et al. [76] had used laser Doppler velocimetry and laser visualisation in order to visualize the vortices. The numerical simulation was easy to apply and more precise than all the methods developed before. Therefore, it allowed comparison of the experimental results with the CFD simulations. Moll et al. worked at several Reynolds numbers and examined two different cylindrical tubes, straight and helical, for numerical tracers. Simulation results were considered for expanded velocity distributions and for different Reynolds numbers. They chose different sections in the channel and they obtained the positions of the particles in those consecutive sections. A trajectory was deduced from all the successive positions of a given particle. This trajectory can be anticipated in local coordinate systems, which leads to gures like Fig. 18. Considering all the results, this paper gives new insight into the effects involved in the ux enhancement
caused by Dean vortices. As the Reynolds number increases, due to the centrifugal force, the maximum of the axial ow is transferred to the opposite of the membrane. A wide range of Reynolds numbers was treated and we can see that the axial ow was closer to the wall, which is in accord with laser visualisation. In some cases, the enhancement of mass transfer can be totally explained by the wall shear stress augmentation due to the Dean vortices. Considering this paper, when particles such as those of the bakers yeast were present in the solution, a second effect of Dean vortices was noticeable which can be understood by considering swirling motion effects. In fact, at low concentrations, the regions where accumulation of retained matter occurs remain very thin whatever the geometry. Thus, this distribution of the accumulation is similar in straight and helical tubes. In these cases, the main mass transfer improvement is due to the averaged wall shear stress improvement. When the concentration increases signicantly, gradients of retained matter are modied and the inuence of the channel geometry is more and more noticeable. Therefore, in this case due to the curved pathlines, the mass transfer mechanism is different from that observed in a straight membrane: this might suggest that accumulation of retained matter occurs in a thinner zone in the helical geometry, which provides a kind of recirculation effect. These studies show the importance of numerical simulation in membrane processes to better understand these complex phenomena. Even with the most powerful sensors, we could not have obtained such precise results with experiments. Another study was performed to optimize the module design and in order to inspect the mechanisms inuencing membrane ltration performance, by Bulboz et al. [77]. They focused on crossow microltration in helically coiled membranes, and specically in sinusoidal curved tubular membranes. Experimental and theoretical studies were carried out. Numerical calculations were performed to get a better perception of why Dean vortices are so efcient in limiting cake layer growth. At the beginning of the theoretical analysis, the three-dimensional velocity and pressure eld were calculated by solving the NavierStokes equations numerically in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with a nite control volume method for laminar uid ow in a helically coiled and a sinusoidal curved tube with impermeable walls. The solu-
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Fig. 19. Geometry of the sinusoidal curved tube and streamlines of the velocity eld in the cross-section after three 180 curvatures developed [77]: (a) De = 100, Re = 500; (b) De = 400, Re = 2000; (c) De = 600, Re = 3000.
tion of the governing equations was achieved for the case of an incompressible, isothermal, fully developed and steady state Newtonian uid ow. The geometry of the tube is described in Fig. 19. This simulation allows using different crossow velocities for different solute concentrations, Dean numbers and Reynolds numbers. The benecial effect of a curved membrane can be explained by an increase of the particle lift force, which can be correlated with the wall shear stress. The rapid mixing between boundary layer and bulk phase, results in an improved mass transfer in the cross section. Further progress in modelling the ltration process should be made to reach a better understanding of the ow and mass transfer in curved membranes. Based on these results and on future results, the design of new optimized crossow microltration modules could be proposed. The authors also can suggest optimum parameters for the ltration of a latex and yeast suspension solution. The results of these simulations corresponded to the results of the experimental investigation, which showed that the highest ux improvement occurred for Reynolds numbers about 2000 and Dean number about 400. They also demonstrated that curved membranes are more effective than straight membranes. They were able to design a new type of optimized membrane more effective than a straight membrane. All these developments in modelling the ltration process allow a better understanding of ow and mass transfer in curved membranes. The efciency of this approach for enhancing membrane processes is evident for large numbers of papers published. Unfortunately, manufacturers do not use this approach to improve the performance of these ltration processes. 3.4. Geometry One of the most important characteristics of these membrane processes is the compactness of the membrane. The exchange surface is large, which enhances ltration. For example, inorganic membranes are manufactured especially in at-disc, tubular or multichannel congurations. The channel surface is covered with a skin layer which has small pores and acts as a separat-
ing barrier. The performance of a membrane separation process can be characterised by the product of the permeate ux and the total ltration area. These kind of developments interest many researchers [8084]. A very interesting paper was written by Tarabara et al. [81]. This paper showed that the geometry has an important place in the membrane enhancement. They presented results of computational uid dynamics modelling of the ow within a crossow membrane ltration cell whose dimensions replicated those of the SEPA CF. They used a commercial CFD package FLUENT based on the nite-volume method. Flow eld was characterized in terms of velocity, pressure, and shear stress. Flow was found to be unidirectional over the greatest part of the channel area with the exception of the corners of the channel. Stagnation areas were observed in dead ends at the inlet and outlet of the channels. The relation between the highest shear rate created in this geometry and the average inlet velocity was given. This paper showed that it was highly possible to enhance membrane geometry by using CFD. Dolecek et al. carried out many studies in this domain [82,83]. Their rst study dealt with the modelling of permeates ow in a multichannel ceramic membrane. The aim was to simulate numerically the permeate ow in porous body of a multichannel membrane element and to estimate the effect of the element conguration on the ux performance. It was limited to pure permeate ow simulation, leaving the simultaneous ltration for future work. Permeate ow in the porous body of a multichannel membrane element was replicated numerically using the nite element method. A simple honeycomb conguration was chosen to reveal the effect of geometry parameters on the performance. The geometry of a ceramic membrane element was chosen for the simulation of the permeate ow. This simple rectangular honeycomb conguration is used, for example, in ceramic membrane monoliths made by CeraMem Corp (Fig. 20). The authors wanted to check the inuence of many parameters. The parameters that inuence the performance of a membrane element are: permeability, permeate viscosity, ow channel pressure, permeate conduit pressure,
Fig. 20. A repeating section of the element [81]: (1) permeate conduits; (2) ow channels; (3) repeating section.
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distance between permeate conduits, number of ow channels between two adjacent layers of permeate conduits, porous wall thickness and ow channel width. When the permeability of the membrane element porous body is very high compared to permeability of the active membrane layer the permeate ux is controlled by the latter and the ux performance is proportional to the membrane packing density. When the permeability of the active membrane increases the effect of the membrane element conguration becomes signicant. Generally, for a given value of the permeability the maximum permeate ux per unit volume of a membrane element can be found. When the distance between permeate conduits decreases the active membrane surface increases, which affects ux performance positively. On the other hand, for very short distances, the cross section available to the permeate ow decreases, affecting the permeate ux negatively. When the number of channels increases, the membrane surface increases but at the same time the permeate from inner channels must travel a longer distance to reach a permeate conduit. Thus the contribution to the overall ux is relatively small from the inner channels for high numbers of channels. There are dead zones of small pressure gradient around the inner channels. This work can help to develop new membrane geometry. A more complex study was performed by the same authors two years later. Their goal was to develop congurations with the highest possible ltration area per unit of membrane volume. The ltration area packing density of inorganic multichannel membranes can reach 400 m2 /m3 . The purpose of this study was to extend the results to the simulation of permeate ow in the porous support of inorganic 19 channel membranesprobably the most used multichannel conguration. This conguration is also more suitable for an experimental verication of numerical results. The effects on the permeate ow distribution of the membrane geometry and of the ratio of skin layer to support permeability were studied. The results of numerical simulations can be used both for ltration and backush operating modes. It was found that channel contributions depend signicantly on the ratio of the skin layer to porous support permeabilities and to a lesser extent, on the membrane geometry. The authors proved that the enhancement of the multichannel membrane performance is not generally proportional to the increase in ltration area packing density. If the permeability of the porous support is much greater than that of the skin layer the permeate ow is controlled by the latter and the contributions of all the channels are uniformly distributed. This study showed that channel contributions to total permeate ux in inorganic 19 hexagonal channel membranes depend signicantly on the ratio of skin layer to porous support permeabilities and to a less extent, on the membrane geometry (Fig. 21). For low values of the permeability, the permeate ow is governed by the skin layer resistance and the contributions of all the channels are nearly equivalent; in this case, the membrane performance is proportional to the ltration surface. For high values of the permeability, a region of nearly constant pressure formed in the internal part of the membrane and contributions of middle and central channels were signicantly smaller than those of corner and wall channels because the transmembrane pressure was lower in the middle of the membrane. Therefore manufacturers have to take this into account when they produce
Fig. 21. Membrane geometry [82].
new membranes. There is no use in placing a lot of channels in the membrane to increase its surface if the inner channels do not work. On the other hand, if the permeability of the skin layer is high or if the channels are not covered with the skin layer at all, then the channels near the membrane surface contribute signicantly to the total permeate ux while the contributions of the inner channels are negligible (Fig. 22). In this case, the permeate ow is controlled predominantly by the porous support permeability. Moreover, another parameter is to be taken into account: the authors called it coefcient . In fact, this parameter represents the ratio between the ow channel width and the inter channel wall thickness. This review is very important and shows that it is essential to respect a minimum width between two channels. This minimum width allows a minimum of transmembrane pressure and thus the permeate in the porous can be ejected more easily. They also insisted on the fact that the larger the number of channels, the larger the surface, but at the same time the permeate from inner channels must travel a longer distance to reach a permeate conduit. Thus the contribution of the inner channels to the overall ux is relatively small for large numbers of channels. Darcovich et al. [84] proposed a new approach to develop these processes. The objective was to design a thin channel membrane module with very uniform ow properties, to use a statistical experimental design approach to determine the module parameters and to select module parameters which give uniform ow conditions over a broad range of practical operating conditions. The ow through the module channel was simulated using a nite difference code. The computational uid dynamics scheme which calculated the above module characteristics was a turbulent transport model which used the nite difference method. Therefore, the aim of their study was to design for research purposes a membrane module with uniform ow characteristics over the permeating area. A thin channel cross ow module with a uniform ow eld was designed for the characterization of at ceramic membranes. A total of ten variables were considered for the module design. This design was used to evaluate the predicted module performance for each combination of the design variables. It was found that running the simulation at the highest cross ow velocity and the lowest module pressure always resulted in the worst
452
Fig. 22. CFD results: isobars and streamlines in the porous media [82].
performance for a given module design. All these observations were made inside the porous material. With experiments, we could not have observed all of these characteristics and could not have progressed in the design of new membrane geometries. Therefore, computational uid dynamics is an essential tool to progress in this eld. Moreover, enhancing membrane processes by modifying the geometry characteristics seems an interesting approach. In these studies, the goal generally reached is to increase the wall shear stress at the membrane surface to limit the polarisationconcentration phenomenon. 4. Conclusion This review shows the interest of coupling numerical simulation and membrane processes. The large number of publications suggests the high potential of this approach for enhancing membrane processes. The increasing number of studies is clearly related to the recent developments in computer power and to the use of ner grid meshes in the vicinity of the membrane. This review shows that two approaches have been particularly considered: the comprehension of the hydrodynamics and of the mass transfer. The hydrodynamics allows the increase of the shear stress near the wall, thus allowing the enhancement of membrane processes. Commonly, the rst simplifying assumptions can be summarized by: the stronger the shear stress, the weaker the fouling. Therefore, a large number of studies relate to the diphasic ows, the turbulence promoters, and to the geometries of membranes capable of generating secondary ows. The study of hydrodynamics reveals the optimum operating conditions and the most suitable geometry characteristics. However, in most cases, the membranes are created with the aim of improving the transfer of solvent. The second approach associates the models of mass transfer in the vicinity of the membrane and the hydrodynamic models. In most cases, the studies were performed under laminar conditions. Several studies were done using the models of concentration of polarization, and other studies were carried out inside the porous matrix of the membrane. Some recent studies consider turbulent ows, but the signicant
number of turbulence models in numerical simulations and their comparison with experimental results in the case of membrane processes is not excellent, which limits the use of CFD in turbulent regime. The understanding of the phenomena involved in mass transfer is without any doubt a very attractive approach of membrane processes. The hydrodynamic approach in complex geometries makes it possible to predict the shear stress near the wall. The latest publications show however that coupling these two approaches leads to difculties. Thus, CFD is without any doubt an important tool for understanding mass transfer in membrane processes. Opportunities for the development of new membrane geometries are numerous. The latest studies seem to show the importance of the comprehension of the mass transfer in the development of a membrane. Such a membrane should exhibit the largest specic surface, the highest shear rate at its surface and the lowest dead volume. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank David FLETCHER [Computational Fluid Dynamics Research and Consultancy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia] for many helpful discussions. References
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Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 3. Geometry of a crossow unit [18].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 4. Mesh generation in the normalized uid ow channel [21].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 8. Simulation of slug ow [52].

Fig. 9. Flow regimes for two-phase ow [53].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 10. Schematic of ow geometry [54].

Fig. 11. Different congurations developed [62].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 12. The basic shapes of commercial net spacers [64].

Fig. 14. CFD uid ow results [65].

Fig. 13. Geometric characterisation of a nonwoven spacer [64].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 15. Representation of Dean vortices in coiled pipe [74].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

Fig. 21. Membrane geometry [82].

R. Ghidossi et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 437454

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