MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 1

READING #1 INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

Astheacademicdisciplineofexercisephysiologyemerged,soalsodevelopedresearchstrategiesfor objectivemeasurementandproblemsolving,andtheneedtoreportdiscoveriesofnewknowledge.Forthe beginningexercisephysiologystudent,familiarizationwiththemethodsofsciencehelpstoseparatefactfrom hypemostoftenencounteredinadvertisingaboutanendlessvarietyofproductssoldinthehealth, fitness,andnutritionmarketplace.Howdoesonereallyknowforsurewhetheraproductreallyworksas advertised?Doeswarmingupreallywarmthemusclestopreventinjuryorenhancesubsequent performance?Willbreathingoxygenonthesidelinesduringafootballgamereallyhelptheathleterecover? Dovitaminssuperchargeenergymetabolismduringexercise?Willcreatine,chromium,orvanadium supplementsaddmusclemassduringresistancetraining?Understandingtheroleofscienceinproblem solvingcanhelptomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheseandmanyotherquestions.Thefollowingsection examinesthegoalsofscience,includingdifferentaspectsofthescientificmethodofproblemsolving.

General Goals of Science

Thetwodistinctgoalsofscienceoftenseematodds.Onegoalaimstoservemankind,toprovidesolutions toimportantproblems,andimprovelifesoverallquality.Thisviewofscience,mostprevalentamong nonscientists,maintainsthatallscientificendeavorsshouldexhibitpracticalityandimmediateapplication. Theopposingview,predominantamongscientists,maintainsthatscienceshoulddescribeandunderstandall occurrenceswithoutnecessityforpracticalapplicationunderstandingphenomenabecomesaworthygoalin itself.Thedesireforfullknowledgeimpliesbeingableto: Accountfor(explain)behaviorsorevents Predict(andultimatelycontrol)futureoccurrencesandoutcomes. Regardlessofonespositionconcerningthegoalofscience,itsultimateaimsinclude: Explanation Understanding Prediction Control

Hierarchy in Science
Full appreciation of science requires understandingitsstructureandthreelevelsof conceptualization(seefigure1): Findingfacts Developinglaws Establishingtheories

Fact Finding
Themostfundamentallevelofscientific inquiryrequiresthesystematicobservationof measurable(empirical)phenomena.Often
Figure 4. Foundations of science: facts, laws and theories.

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 2

referredtoasfactfinding,thisprocessrequiresstandardizedproceduresandlevelsofagreementaboutwhat constitutesacceptableobservation,measurement,anddatarecordingprocedures.Inessence,factfinding involvesrecordinginformation(data)aboutthebehaviorofobjects.Whilefactsprovidethebuildingblocks ofscience,theuncoveringoffactsrepresentsonlythefirstlevelinthehierarchyofscientificinquiry. Factgatheringoccursinmanyways.Weusuallyobservephenomenathroughvisual,auditory,andtactile sensoryinput.Regardlessoftheobservationmethod,toestablishsomethingasfactdemandsthatdifferent researchersreproduceobservationsunderidenticalconditionsondifferentoccasions.Forexample,the healthyhumanheartsfourchambersandtheaveragesealevelbarometricpressureof760mmHgrepresent indisputable,easilyverifiablefacts.Factsusuallytaketheformofobjectivestatementsaboutthe observationsuchas:Jessesbodymassmeasuredonabalancescaleequals70kg(154lb.),orJessesheart rateuponrisingfollowingeighthoursofsleepaverages63beatsperminute.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION FACTS

ARE

FACTS

Facts exhibit no moral quality; once established, any question about facts arises only from interpretation.Whilesomemaydisagreewiththemeaningandimplicationsofanestablishedfact (e.g.,theaveragewomanpossesses50%ofabsoluteupperbodystrengthofamalecounterpart), noquestionexistsaboutthecorrectnessoftheobservation(thatwomenhavelessupperbody strengththanmales).Inessence,afactisafact....

Interpreting Facts
Factfindingevaluatestheobservedobject,occurrence,orphenomenonalongacontinuum,either imaginedorrealthatrepresentsitsunderlyingmeasurabledimension.Thetermvariableidentifiesthis measurablecharacteristic.Frequently,quantificationofthevariableresultsfromassigningnumberstoobjects oreventstodescribetheirproperties.Forexample,considerthevariablepercentbodyfatwithnumerical valuesrangingfrom3to60%oftotalbodymass.Otherexamplesincludetheweightofanobjectalonga heavinesscontinuum,orderofteamfinishintheNFL'sAmericanConference,orheartratefromrestto maximalexercise. Somevariableslike50mswimtimeorbloodcholesterolleveldistributeinacontinuousnature;theycan takeonanynumericalvalue,dependingontheprecisionofthemeasuringinstrument.Continuousvariables canfurthercategorizeintoordinal,interval,andrationumericaldata.Ordinalvariableshaverankordered values(e.g.,small,medium,largeboneframesize;firstthroughtenthplacefinishinarace;standingsin leaguecompetition)accordingtosomepropertyabouteachperson,group,object,oreventcomparedto othersstudied.Inorderedranking,noinferenceexistsofequaldifferencesbetweenspecificranks(e.g.,race timedifferencebetweenfirstandsecondplacefinishequalsdifferencebetweenninthandtenthplace). Intervalvariablesexhibitsimilarpropertiesasordinalvariables,exceptthedistancebetweensuccessive valuesonanunbrokenscalefromlowtohighrepresentsthesameamountofchange.Forexample,in marathonrunning,thetemporal20minutedifferencebetweenafinishtimeof2hr:10minand2hr:30min equalsthatof3hr:50minand4hr:10min.Theratioscalepossessespropertiesofintervalandordinal scoring,butalsocontainsanabsolutezeropoint.Thus,avariablescoredonaratiobasiswithavalueof4 representstwiceasmuchcharacteristicasavalueof2;thisdoesnotoccurwithintervalscoredvariableslike temperaturewhere30Fisnottwiceashotas15F. Inadditiontocontinuousvariables,somevariablespossessdiscreteproperties.Scoresfordiscrete variablesfallonlyatcertainpointsalongascale,likescoresinmostsportingeventsalmostindoesnot countingolf,soccer,basketball,orlacrosse.Discretevariablesoccurwhenthescoresvaluesimplyreflects somecharacteristicoftheobject(e.g.,maleorfemale,hitormiss,winorlose,ortrueorfalse).

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 3

Casual and Causal Relationships

Afundamentalscientificprocessinvolvesobservingandobjectivelymeasuringthequantityofavariable. However,itsometimesbecomesmoreimportanttoconsiderhowdatafromonevariablerelatetodatafrom anothervariable.Understandinghowvariableschangeinrelationtoeachotherrepresentsahigherlevelof sciencethanmerelydescribingandquantifyingdiverseisolatedvariables.Forexample,quantifyingthe degreeofassociationbetweenmaximaloxygenuptakecapacity(abbreviatedVO2max)andchronologicalage reflectsahigherlevelofunderstandingthandescribingthefactsconcerningeachvariableseparately. Anextremeexampletoillustratethatassociationbetweenvariablesdoesnotnecessarilyinfercausality considersthestrongdirectassociationinwesternculturebetweenthelengthofonestrousersandstature (i.e.,tallerindividualswearlongerlengthpantsthanshortercounterparts).Itseemshighlyunlikelythat increasingtrouserlengthwouldincreasestature!Inreality,thisassociationiscasual,notcausal,beingdriven morebyculturalmoresthatrequiretrouserstodescendtoanklelevelandleglengthrelatescloselywith overallbodystature. Thewellestablishedpositiverelationshipbetweenincreasingageandincreasingsystolicbloodpressure amongadultsdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatoneshouldexpecttoinevitablybecomehypertensivewith advancingyears.Rather,therelationshipexistsbetweenagingandbloodpressurebecauseotherfactors sedentarylifestyle,obesity,arteriosclerosis,increasedstress,andpoordietoftenincreasewithage.Eachof thesevariablesindependentlycanelevatebloodpressure.Fromascientificperspective,achangeinone variable(X)doesnotnecessarilycausechangesintheothervariable(Y),simplybecauseXandYrelateina mannerthatseemstomakessense.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION CAUSALITY

AND

SCIENCE

Toinfercausality,science requiresthatachangeintheXvariable (independentmanipulated variable) precedes a change in the Yvariable (dependent variable expected to change), with consideration, accounting for, or control of other variables that might actually cause the relationship. Understanding causal factors in relationships among variables enhances ones understandingaboutobservedfacts. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES Twocategoriesofvariables,independentanddependent,takeonaddedimportancewhendefiningthe natureofrelationshipsamongoccurrences.Thiscategorizationrelatestothemannerofthevariablesuse,not thenatureofthevariableitself.Forcausalrelationships,manipulationofthevalueoftheindependent variable(Xvariable)changesthevalueofthedependentvariable(Yvariable).Forexample,increasesin dietaryintakeofsaturatedfattyacids(independentXvariable)increaselevelsofserumcholesterol (dependentYvariable),whiledecreasesinsaturatedfattyacidintakereduceserumcholesterollevels.In otherwords,thevalueofthedependentvariableliterallydependsuponthevalueoftheindependent variable. Fornoncausalrelationships,thedistinctionbetweendependentandindependentvariablesbecomesless clear.Insuchcases,theindependentvariable(e.g.,thesumoffiveskinfoldsorrecoveryheartrateonastep test)usuallybecomesthepredictorvariable,whilethedependentvariable(percentbodyfatormaximal oxygenuptake)representsthequalitypredicted.Insomecases,anindependentvariablebecomesthe dependentvariable,andviceversa.Forexample,bodytemperaturerepresentstheindependentvariable whenusedtopredictchangeinregionalbloodfloworsweatingresponse;bodytemperatureassumesa dependentvariablerolewhenevaluatingeffectivenessofthermoregulationduringheatstress.

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 4

ESTABLISHING CAUSALITY BETWEEN VARIABLES Scientists attempt to establish cause and effect relationships between independent and dependent variablesbyoneoftwomethods: Experimentalstudies Fieldstudies NATURE OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Anexperimentrepresentsasetofoperationstodeterminetheunderlyingnatureofthecausalrelationship betweenindependentanddependentvariables.Systematicallychangingthevalueoftheindependent variableandmeasuringtheeffectonthedependentvariablecharacterizesexperimentation.Insomecases, theexperimentevaluatestheeffectofcombinationsofindependentvariables(e.g.,anabolicsteroid administrationplusresistancetraining;preexercisewarmuppluscreatinesupplementation)relativetoone ormoredependentvariables.Regardlessofthenumberofvariablesstudied,anexperimentsultimategoal attemptstosystematicallyisolatetheeffectofatleastoneindependentvariableinrelationtoatleastone dependentvariable.Onlywhenthisoccurscanonedecidewhichvariable(s)reallyexplainsthephenomenon. NATURE OF FIELD STUDIES Fieldstudiesmostlyinvestigateeventsastheyoccurinnormalliving.Undersuchnaturalconditions,it becomesimpossibletoexperimentallyvarytheindependentvariable,orexertfullcontroloverpotential interactingfactorsthatmightaffecttherelationships.Inmedicalareas,fieldstudies(termedepidemiological research)investigatethecharacteristicsofagroupastheyrelatetotherisks,prevalence,andseverityof specificdiseases.Toalargeextent,riskprofilesforcoronaryarterydisease,variouscancers,andAIDShave emergedfromassociationsgeneratedfromfieldstudies.Inexercisephysiology,afieldstudymightinvolve collectingdataduringarealworldtestofanewpieceofexerciseequipment,asshowninFigure2. Inthisfieldexperimentthesubjectwearsawristwatchthatreceivessignals fromacheststraptransmitterthatsendstheheart'selectricalsignalstothe watch.ThesubjectthenpedalstheSurfbikeatdifferentspeedstoestimate heartrateduringdifferentexercisedurations.Priortotheaquaticexperiments, thesubjectsheartrateandoxygenuptakeweredeterminedinthelaboratory whilepedalingabicycleergometeratdifferentspeeds.Alinearrelationship betweenlaboratorydeterminedheartrateandoxygenuptakeallowedthe researchertopredictthesubject'soxygenuptakefromheartratemeasured duringSurfbikeexercise.Anestimateofoxygenuptakepermitscalculationof caloricexpenditure.Inthisparticularexperiment,Surfbikeexerciseataheart rateof178beatsperminutetranslatedto10.4caloriesexpendedperminute. Whilefieldstudiesprovideobjectiveinsightaboutpossiblecausesfor observedphenomena,thelackoffullcontrolinherentinsuchresearchlimits theirabilitytoinfercausality.Becauseneitheractivemanipulationofthe independentvariablebytheexperimenternorcontroloverpotential interveningfactorsoccurs,nocertaintyexiststhatanyobservedvariationinthe dependentvariablewillresultfromvariationsintheindependentvariable.

Establishing Laws
Factgatheringgenerallydoesnotgeneratemuchcontroversy;afterall, factsarefacts!Interpretationoffacts,however,raisessciencetoalevelrifefor debate.Interpretingfactsleadstothesecondlevelofthescientificprocess creatingstatementsthatdescribe,integrate,orsummarizefactsandobservations.Suchstatementsareknown aslaws.Moreprecisely,alawrepresentsastatementdescribingtherelationshipsamongindependentand
Figure 2. Field study in exercise to estimate energy expenditure individuals pedaling a surfbike.

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 5

dependentvariables.Lawsgeneratefrominductivereasoning(movingfromspecificfactstogeneral principles).Manyexamplesoflawsexistinphysiology.Forexample,bloodflowsthroughthevascularcircuit ingeneralaccordwiththephysicallawsofhydrodynamicsappliedtorigid,cylindricalvessels.Althoughtrue onlyinaqualitativesensewhenappliedtothebody,onelawofhydrodynamics,termedPoiseuille'slaw, describestheinteractingrelationshipsamongapressuregradient,vesselradius,vessellength,andfluid viscosityontheforceimpedingbloodflow. Lawsarepurposelynotveryspecific;thus,theyremainpowerfulbecausetheygeneralizetomany differentsituations.OnevariationofHookeslawofsprings,madein1678byRobertHooke(16351703),a contemporaryofsirIssacNewton,statesthatelongationofaspringrelatesindirectproportiontotheforce neededtoproducetheelongation.Engineersapplythislawtodesignspringsfordifferentkindsof instrumentsviasimplecalculationsinaccordancewithHookeslaw. Agood(useful)lawaccountsforallofthefactsamongvariables.Manylawshavelimitsbecausethey applytoonlycertainsituations.Alimitedlawproveslessusefulinpredictingnewfacts.Afundamental aspectofsciencetestspredictionsgeneratedfromaparticularlaw.Ifthepredictionholdsup,thelawexpands toadditionalsituations;ifnot,thelawbecomesrestatedinmorerestrictiveterms.Developingnew technologiesoftenpermitstestinglawsinsituationsheretoforethoughtimpossible;thisallowsfor developmentofamorecomprehensivelaw. Lawsdonotprovideanexplanationwhyvariablesbehavethewaytheydo;lawsonlyprovideageneral summaryoftherelationshipamongvariables.Theoriesexplainthehowandwhysaboutalaws.

Developing Theories
Theoriesattempttoexplainthefundamentalnatureoflaws.Theoriesofferabstractexplanationsoflaws andfacts.Theytrytoexplainthewhyoflaws.Theoriesinvolveamorecomplexunderstanding(and explanation)ofvariablesthandolaws.ExamplesoftheoriesincludeDarwin'stheoryofnaturalselectionand evolution,Einstein'stheoryofrelativity,Canon'stheoryofemotions,Freud'stheoryofpersonalityformation anddevelopment,andHelmholtz'stheoriesofcolorvisionandhearing. Theoriesconsistofthreeaspects: 1. Hypotheticalconstruct Hypotheticalconstructsrepresentnonobservableabstractentities,consciouslyinventedand generalizedforuseintheories.Forexample,theconstructofintelligenceemergedfrom observationsofpresumablyintelligentandnonintelligentbehaviors.Physicalfitness representsanothercommonconstructinareasrelatedtoexercisephysiology. 2. Associationsamongconstructs Scientificinquiryoftenrequiresdefiningrelationshipsamongconstructs.Forexample,the constructphysicalabilitybecomesclarifiedbyitsassociationtotheconstructphysical fitness,whichitselfbecomesoperationallydefined(seebelow)bynumerousspecificfitness tests.Inessence,themeaningofoneconstructbecomesunderstoodthroughitsrelationshipto othermoreclearlydefinedconstructs. 3. Operationaldefinitions Thescientificprocessrequiresrefinementofconstructsintoobservablecharacteristicsfor objectivequantificationandrecording.Operationaldefinitionsassignmeaningtoaconstructby clearlyoutliningthesetofoperations(likeaninstructionmanual)tomeasurethequantityof thatconstructortomanipulateit.Forexample,theconstructintelligenceonlybecomes understoodwhenoperationallydefined(scoreonaspecificIQtest).

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 6

The Surety of Science

Experimentationrepresentsthescientificmechanismfortestinghypothesis;scientistseitherrejectorfailto rejectanhypothesis.Rejectingahypothesisrepresentsapowerfuloutcomebecauseitmaynullifyatheory andspecificpredictionsgeneratedfromthetheory.Failuretorejectanhypothesisindicatesthatthe observableresultsappeartosupportthetheory.Thetermsrejectandfailtoreject(incontrasttoproveand disprove)deservespecialattention.Failuretorejectdoesnotindicateconfirmationorproof,onlyinabilityto rejectanhypothesis.However,ifotherexperiments(particularlyfromindependentlaboratories)alsofailto rejectagivenhypothesis,astronglikelihoodexists(highprobability)ofacorrecthypothesis.Thestructureof sciencemakesitimpossibletototallyconfirmatheory'sabsolutecorrectnessbecausescientistsmaystill deviseafutureexperimenttodisprovethetheory.Thestrengthoftheexperimentalmethodliesinrejecting hypothesesthathavedirectbearingontheoriesorpredictionsfromtheories.Thenotionofdisproof representsanimportantdistinguishingfeatureofthescientificmethod.

Publishing Results of Experiments

Factfinding,lawformulation,andtheorydevelopmentrepresentfundamentalaspectsofscience. Allowingfellowscientiststocritiqueonesresearchfindingspriortotheirdistributioncompletestheprocess ofscientificinquiry.Mostjournalsthatdisseminateresearchrelyontheresearcherspeerstoreviewandpass judgmentonthesuitabilityandqualityofmethods,experimentaldesign,appropriatenessofconclusions,and contributiontonewknowledge.Whilethisaspectofscienceoftenreceivescriticismforfailingtoachievetrue objectivityandfreedomfromprofessionalbias,fewwoulddiscountitsimportance;whenexecutedproperly, peerreviewinrefereedjournalsmaintainsalevelofqualitycontrolindisseminatingnewinformation. Imaginethemanyinstanceswhereanexperimentaloutcomecouldbeinfluencedbyselfinterestand/or professionalbias.Athleticshoeandnutrientsupplementmanufacturerssponsorsophisticatedlaboratoriesto conductdetailedresearchontheefficacyoftheirproducts.Toassurecredibility,researchfromsuch laboratoriesmustbereviewedbyexpertshavingnoaffiliation(directorindirect)withthecompany.Without asystemofchecksandbalances,suchstudiesshouldberightfullyviewedwithskepticism,andlack trustworthinessasalegitimatesourceofnewknowledge.

Empirical vs. Theoretical Basic vs. Applied Research

Differentapproachesleadtosuccessful experimentationandknowledgeacquisition. Figure3showstwodifferentcontinuumfor experimentation.Thetheoreticalempirical researchcontinuumhasatitsfoundation experimentationrelatedtoestablishinglaws andtestingtheories.Scientistsintheoretical researchmaintainthatfactfindingalone representsanunfocusedwasteofenergyifthe processdoesnotemanatefromandcontribute totheorybuilding.Scientistsattheopposite endofthecontinuumcollectfactsandmake observationswithlittleregardforbuilding theory.TheinfluentialpsychologistB.F.

Figure 3. Research continuum in science.

MVS 110 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

PAGE 7

Skinnerexemplifiestheproponentoftheempiricalresearch(experiencerelated)approach.Hisdiscoveries aboutreinforcementarewardforsuccessfulbehaviorincreasestheprobabilityofsuccessinsubsequent trialswereuncoveredbyaccident.Skinnerianempiricistsarguethattheoreticalscientistsoftendonot uncovermeaningfulrelationshipsbecausetheybecometoolockedintotheoreticalformulationsand abstractmodels. Basicappliedresearchrepresentsanothercontinuum.Appliedresearchincorporatesscientificendeavors tosolvespecificproblems,thesolutionofwhichdirectlyappliestomedicine,business,themilitary,sports performance,orsocietysgeneralwellbeing.Appliedresearchinexercisephysiologymightfocuson methodsforimprovingtrainingresponsiveness,facilitatingfluidreplenishmentandtemperatureregulation inexercise,enhancingenduranceperformance,bluntingtheeffectsoffatiguebyproducts,andcounteringthe deteriorationofphysiologicfunctionduringprolongedexposuretoaweightlessenvironment. Basicresearchliesattheotherendofthiscontinuum;noconcernexistsforimmediatepracticalapplication ofresearchfindings.Instead,theresearcherpursuesalineofinquirepurelyforthesakeofdiscoveringnew knowledge.Oftentimes,uncoveringfactsthatinitiallyseemoflittlevaluefillatheoreticalvoidandlike magic,awonderfulnewpracticalsolution(orproduct)emerges.Nowherehasthistakenplacewithmore regularitythanwithresearchrelatedtothespaceprogram.Factsuncoveredinaweightlessenvironment aboutfundamentalbiologicalandchemicalprocesseshavecontributedtopracticaloutcomesthatbenefit humans.Experimentsonhowcertainchemicalsreactinzerogravity,forexample,haveresultedinthe discoveryofatleast25newmedicines.Mannedspacemissionshaveprovidedfreshinsightsintoalmost everyfacetofmedicineandphysiology,fromtheaffectsofweightlessnessonbonedynamics,bloodpressure, andcardiac,respiratory,hormonal,neural,andmuscularfunction,togrowthofgeneticallyengineeredplants andanewgenerationofpolymers.Eachnewinsightandobservationspawnsnumerousnewideasand additionalfactsthathelptocreateproductswithpracticalapplications. ResearchcanbegenerallyclassifiedintooneoffourcategoriesdepictedbythequadrantsinFigure6. BasicempiricalresearchinQuadrant1hasnoimmediatepracticaloutcomesandlittletodowiththeory. Researchwithoutimmediatepracticalimplications,butmotivatedbytheory(establishinglawsand conductingexperimentsthatbearontheory),fallsintoQuadrant2.Quadrant3containstheoreticalapplied researchprimarilyfocusedonproblemsolvingwithintheframeworkofanexistingtheoreticalmodel,while Quadrant4classifiesempiricalappliedresearch(nottheorybased),butaimedatsolvingproblems.Often, linesofdemarcationarenotasclearcutasinthefigure,andaparticularresearcheffortmightqualifyfor inclusioninmultiplequadrants.