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Definitions :
Definition :
aq = an · a1/m
Let x be any real number and a any positive real number. Choose a
monotonically increasing sequence (qn )∞ n=1 where q ∈ Q such that
lim(qn ) = x. This can be done as follows : choose qn such that
x − 1/n < qn < x − 1/(n + 1).
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Logarithms
Let (qn0 )∞
n=1 be another sequence with lim(qn ) = x. Then
0
0 0
lim (qn − qn ) = 0. Thus : a
0 qn qn
= a ·a qn −qn
and
0
qn qn 0
qn −qn
lim(a ) = lim(a ) · lim(a ) = lim(aqn ) · a0 = lim(aqn )
We also define the real number x to be the logarithm of the real number
y to the base a and write x = loga y
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Series
Consider the sequence (sn ) where sn ∈ < and
P2n i+1
sn = i=1 (−1) /(2i − 1).
»„ « „ « „ « –
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
sn = 1 − − + − + ... − + < 1
3 5 7 9 4n − 5 4n − 3 4n − 1
Again,
1 1 1 1
sn = 1− + −...+ −
3 5 4n − 3 4n − 1
1 1 1 1
sn+1 = 1− + −...+ −
3 5 4n + 1 4n + 3
1 1
sn+1 − sn = − > 0
4n + 1 4n + 3
So it is a monotonically increasing. Thus the sequence converges.
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Series
This limit is called the series ∞ i+1
/(2i − 1) The sequence (sn ) is
P
i=1 (−1)
called the sequence of partial sums.
The series is called the Madhava-Gregory series and converges to π/4.
n
! ∞
X X
lim (sn ) = lim ai = ai
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Convergence Theorems
A necessary and sufficient condition for the series ai to
P∞
i=1
converge is : Given > 0, ∃ n0 : ∀ n, m > 0
˛ ˛
˛ Xm ˛
ai ˛ < ∀ m > n > n 0
˛ ˛
˛
˛ ˛
i=n+1
If ai > 0 bi > 0, ∀n and ai+1 /ai ≤ bi+1 /bi for almost all i, then if
i=1 bi converges, so does i=1 ai .
P∞ P∞
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Convergence Theorems
If ai > 0 and limn→∞ ai+1 /ai = `, then for ` < 1 the series
P∞
i=1 ai
converges. For ` > 0 it diverges. The test fails for ` = 1.
D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
Alternating Series
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.