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Logarithms

Definitions :

If n ∈ N and a ∈ <, then an = a · a · a . . . (n times)

If n is a negative, non-zero integer, such that −n ∈ N and a ∈ <,


then a−n = 1.0/an

If a ∈ <, then a0 = 1.0

Theorem : If m ∈ N and a > 0, ∈ < then the equation xm = a has


one and only one real, positive root x ∈ <.
Proof : Let us divide all real numbers into two classes L and R such that
in L we put all negative real numbers, zero, and all positive real
numbers y such that y m ≤ a. All others are put in R . This is a section. Let
R have a least member x. Since x ∈ R x > 0.
∀n ∈N , x − 1/n ∈ L and x + 1/n ∈ R . Thus (x − 1/n)m ≤ a ≤ (x + 1/n)m .
If now n → ∞ then xm ≤ a ≤ xm ⇒ xm = a.
If x0 6= x be another root, x0 6= x ⇒ x0m 6= xm ⇒ a 6= a which is
impossible. Thus x is the unique, positive, real root.
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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.
Logarithms

Definition :

This positive, real root x of xm = a is defined to be a1/m

If n, m ∈ N , a ∈ <, then ∀ q = n/m ∈ Q , we define

aq = an · a1/m

Let x be any real number and a any positive real number. Choose a
monotonically increasing sequence (qn )∞ n=1 where q ∈ Q such that
lim(qn ) = x. This can be done as follows : choose qn such that
x − 1/n < qn < x − 1/(n + 1).

We shall show that the sequence (aqn ) is convergent. Moreover if any


other monotonic sequence of rational numbers (qn0 ) exists which has the
0
same limit, then (a ) also converges and to the same limit.
qn

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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.
Logarithms

If a > 1, (aqn ) is monotonically increasing. Also if k is a rational


number > x then aqn < ak . Thus the sequence is bounded
above and hence convergent.
If a < 1, (aqn ) is monotonically decreasing. Also aqn > 0 so it the
sequence bounded below and hence convergent.

Let (qn0 )∞
n=1 be another sequence with lim(qn ) = x. Then
0
0 0
lim (qn − qn ) = 0. Thus : a
0 qn qn
= a ·a qn −qn
and
0
qn qn 0
qn −qn
lim(a ) = lim(a ) · lim(a ) = lim(aqn ) · a0 = lim(aqn )

This limit, which is a real number lim(aqn ) = y is defined to be y = ax

We also define the real number x to be the logarithm of the real number
y to the base a and write x = loga y

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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.
Series
Consider the sequence (sn ) where sn ∈ < and
P2n i+1
sn = i=1 (−1) /(2i − 1).
»„ « „ « „ « –
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
sn = 1 − − + − + ... − + < 1
3 5 7 9 4n − 5 4n − 3 4n − 1

The sequence is bounded above.

Again,

1 1 1 1
sn = 1− + −...+ −
3 5 4n − 3 4n − 1
1 1 1 1
sn+1 = 1− + −...+ −
3 5 4n + 1 4n + 3
1 1
sn+1 − sn = − > 0
4n + 1 4n + 3
So it is a monotonically increasing. Thus the sequence converges.

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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.
Series
This limit is called the series ∞ i+1
/(2i − 1) The sequence (sn ) is
P
i=1 (−1)
called the sequence of partial sums.
The series is called the Madhava-Gregory series and converges to π/4.

Definition : An expression like i=1 ai is called an infinite series and it


P∞

has a meaning as the limit of the sequence of partial sums

n
! ∞
X X
lim (sn ) = lim ai = ai
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1

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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.
Convergence Theorems
A necessary and sufficient condition for the series ai to
P∞
i=1
converge is : Given  > 0, ∃ n0 : ∀ n, m > 0
˛ ˛
˛ Xm ˛
ai ˛ <  ∀ m > n > n 0
˛ ˛
˛
˛ ˛
i=n+1

If we change a finite number of terms in a convergent series, its


convergence and limit remain unchanged

If ai ≥ 0 bi ≥ 0, ∀i and ai ≤ bi for almost all i, then if


P∞
i=1 bi
converges, so does ∞ i=1 bi .
P

If ai > 0 bi > 0, ∀n and ai+1 /ai ≤ bi+1 /bi for almost all i, then if
i=1 bi converges, so does i=1 ai .
P∞ P∞

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Kolkata J  I
– p.
Convergence Theorems
If ai > 0 and limn→∞ ai+1 /ai = `, then for ` < 1 the series
P∞
i=1 ai
converges. For ` > 0 it diverges. The test fails for ` = 1.
D’Alembert’s Ratio Test

If ai > 0 and limn→∞ (ai )1/i


= `, then for ` < 1 the series
P∞
i=1 ai
converges. For ` > 0 it diverges. The test fails for ` = 1.
Cauchy’s Root Test

If ∞ converges, so does i=1 ai . The converse is not true : all


P P∞
i=1 |a i |
convergent series are not absolutely convergent.
Absolute Convergence

If (ai ) is a non-increasing sequence and limi→∞ ai = 0, then


i=1 (−1) ai converges.
P∞ i

Alternating Series

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IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J  I
– p.

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