You are on page 1of 6

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Formation of the Lung Buds


• 4 wks – respiratory diverticulum (lung bud): appears as outgrowth from ventral wall of foregut
• epithelium of internal lining of larynx, trachea, bronchi & lungs – endodermal origin
• cartilaginous, muscular & connective tissue components of trachea & lungs – from splanchnic mesoderm surrounding foregut
• initially, lung bud in open communication w/ foregut
tracheoesophageal ridges separate lung bud from foregut
ridges fuse, form tracheoesophageal septum, foregut divided into esophagus dorsally, trachea & lung buds ventrally
respiratory primordium maintains communication w/ pharynx thru laryngeal orifice

Clinical Correlates:
• esophageal atresia – abnormalities in partitioning of esophagus & trachea by tracheoesophageal septum
(may be with or without tracheoesophageal fistulas TEFs)
usually upper portion of esophagus ending in blind pouch, lower segment forms fistula w/ trachea

Larynx
• internal lining of larynx – from endoderm
cartilages & muscles - from mesenchyme of 4th & 6th pharyngeal arches  transforms into thyroid, cricoid & arytenoid cartilages
• vacuolization & recanalization of laryngeal lumen  pair of lateral recesses, laryngeal ventricles  false & true vocal cords
• all laryngeal muscles innervated by branches of CN X (vagus nerve)
 superior laryngeal nerve –4th pharyngeal arch
 recurrent laryngeal nerve –6th pharyngeal arch

Trachea, Bronchi, and Lungs


• lung bud - forms trachea & 2 lateral outpocketings, bronchial buds
• 5wks – each bronchial bud enlarges to form right and left main bronchi (R –3 secondary bronchi; L –2 secondary bronchi)
• pericardioperitoneal canals - spaces for lungs on each side of foregut, gradually filled by expanding lung buds
pleuroperitoneal & pleuropericardial folds separate pericardioperitoneal canals from peritoneal & pericardial cavities
remaining spaces form primitive pleural cavities
mesoderm that covers outside of lung  visceral pleura
somatic mesoderm layer that covers body wall from inside  parietal pleura
pleural cavity - space between parietal & visceral pleura
• secondary bronchi divide into 10 tertiary (segmental) bronchi in R lung and 8 in L = bronchopulmonary segments
end of 6th mo. – approx. 17 generations of subdivisions
additional 6 divisions form during postnatal life

Maturation of the Lungs


Branching continues to form terminal bronchioles
Pseudoglandular period 5-16wks
No respiratory bronchioles or alveoli present
Each terminal bronchiole divides into 2 or more respiratory bronchioles,
Canalicular period 16-26wks
which in turn divide into 3-6 alveolar ducts
Terminal sacs (primitive alveoli) form
Terminal sac period 26wks to birth
Capillaries establish close contact
Mature alveoli have well-developed epithelial endothelial (capillary)
Alveolar period 8mos to childhood
contacts
• respiration becomes possible when some of cells of cuboidal respiratory bronchioles change into thin, flat cells
intimately associated w/ numerous blood & lymph capillaries  terminal sacs/primitive alveoli
• 7th mo. – sufficient numbers of capillaries present to guarantee adequate gas exchange, premature infant can survive
last 2 mos of prenatal life – type I alveolar epithelial cells become thinner so surrounding capillaries protrude into
alveolar sacs, making up blood air barrier
mature alveoli not present before birth; end of 6th mo. – type II alveolar epithelia cells develop – produce surfactant
• fetal breathing movements – begin before birth, aspirate amniotic fluid; stimulate lung dev’t & condition resp. muscles
• growth of lungs after birth due to inc. in number of respiratory bronchioles & alveoli (NOT inc. in size of alveoli)
only 1/6 of adult number of alveoli present at birth
remaining alveoli form during first 10 yrs of postnatal life thru continuous formation of new primitive alveoli

Clinical Correlates:
• surfactant – impt for survival of premature infant
insufficient surfactant – air-water (blood) surface membrane tension becomes high, great risk that alveoli will collapse
during expiration = respiratory distress syndrome RDS/hyaline membrane disease
• ectopic lung lobes – arise from trachea or esophagus; from additional respiratory buds of foregut that develop
independently of the main resp. system
• congenital cysts of the lung –dilation of terminal or larger bronchi; usually drain poorly & frequently cause chronic infxns

URINARY SYSTEM

• develops from mesodemal ridge (intermediate mesoderm) along posterior wall of abdominal cavity

Kidney Systems
I. Pronephros
• beginning of 4th wk – 7-10 solid cell grps in cervical region  vestigial excretory units, nephrotomes
end of 4th wk – all indications of pronephric system have disappeared
II. Mesonephros
• from intermediate mesoderm from upper thoracic & upper lumber (L3) segments
• early 4th wk – first excretory tubules of mesonephros appear  glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule = renal corpuscle
laterally, tubule enters longitudinal collecting duct, the mesonephric/wolffian duct
• middle of 2nd mo – forms large ovoid organ on each side of midline – forms urogenital ridge
end of 2nd mo – majority of cranial tubules & glomeruli have disappeared
in M, few caudal tubules & mesonephric duct persist & participate in formation of genital system; in F, disappear
III. Metanephros (permanent kidney)
• appears in 5th wk; definitive kidney; functional near 12th wk.
• from metanephric mesoderm
• collecting system
* from ureteric bud (outgrowth of mesonephric duct close to its entrance to cloaca)
* bud dilates to form primitive renal pelvis and splits into cranial & caudal portions, future major calyces
* tubules of second order enlarge & absorb 3rd & 4th generations to form minor calyces
* tubules of 5th & successive generations elongate & converge on minor calyx, forming renal pyramid
* ureteric bud  ureter, renal pelvis, major & minor calyces, and approx. 1-3million collecting tubules
• excretory system
* metanephric tissue cap covers distal end of each collecting tubule  forms renal vesicles  becomes glomeruli =
nephrons/excretory units
* proximal end of each nephron forms Bowman’s capsule
* continuous lengthening of excretory tubule  proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle & distal convoluted tubule
• Kidney = metanephric mesoderm (excretory units) + ureteric bud (collecting system)
• nephrons formed until birth: approx. 1 million per kidney
• urine production begins early in gestation, soon after differentiation of glomerular capillaries, wc form by 10th wk.
• at birth, kidneys have lobulated appearance; lobulation disappears during infancy as result of nephron further growth (no ↑ in #)

Clinical Correlates:
Renal dysplasias & agenesis
• multicystic dysplastic kidney – numerous ducts surrounded by undifferentiated cells; nephrons fail to develop,
ureteric bud fails to branch, collecting ducts never form, show Potter sequence – anuria, oligohydramnios, hypoplastic lungs
• congenital polycystic kidney – numerous cysts form from collecting ducts or from all segments of nephron
• duplication of ureter – from early splitting of ureteric bud
ectopic ureter – ureter entering vagina, urethra or vestibule; from development of 2 ureteric buds

Position of the Kidney


• initially in pelvic region, later shifts to a more cranial position in abdomen
ascent of kidney – caused by diminution of body curvature & by growth of body in lumbar & sacral regions
• in pelvis, metanephros receives arterial supply from pelvic branch of aorta
during ascent, arterial supply from aorta at continuously higher levels

Clinical Correlates:
• during ascent, kidneys pass thru arterial fork formed by umbilical arteries; failure to ascend:
pelvic kidney - remains in pelvis close to common iliac artery
horseshoe kidney – kidneys pushed so close together during passage thru arterial fork that lower poles fuse; usually
at level of lower lumbar vertebrae(ascent prevented by root of inferior mesenteric artery)
• accessory renal arteries – from persistence of embryonic vessels formed during ascent of kidneys; usually arise
from aorta & enter superior or inferior poles of kidneys

Bladder and Urethra


• 4th-7th wks. – cloaca divides into urogenital sinus anteriorly & anal canal posteriorly
• urorectal septum – layer of mesoderm between primitive anal canal & urogenital sinus; tip forms perineal body
• 3 portions of urogenital sinus:
* urinary bladder - upper & largest part; initially continuous w/ allantois, but when lumen of allantois is obliterated, a
thick fibrous cord, the urachus, remains & connects apex of bladder w/ umbilicus (median umbilical ligament in adult)
* pelvic part – gives rise to prostatic & membranous parts of urethra in males
* phallic part – definitive urogenital sinus
• Due to ascent, orifices of ureters move farther cranially; mesonephric ducts move close together, enter prostatic urethra in males &
become ejaculatory ducts
• mucosa of bladder formed by incorporation of ducts (trigone of bladder) – mesodermal
eventually replaced by endodermal epithelium, so inside of bladder is completely lined with endodermal epithelium
Urethra
• epithelium in both sexes – endoderm + surrounding connective and smooth muscle tissue - splanchnic mesoderm
• end of 3rd mo. – epithelium of prostatic urethra forms buds  prostate gland (males) or urethral & paraurethral glands (females)

Clinical Correlates:
• urachal fistula – lumen of intraembryonic portion of allantois persists; cause urine to drain from umbilicus
• urachal cyst – only a local area of the allantois persists, secretory activity of its lining results in a cystic dilation
• urachal sinus – lumen in the upper part of allantois persists
• exstrophy of the bladder – ventral body wall defect, bladder muscosa is exposed; caused by lack of mesodermal
migration into region between umbilicus & genital tubercle, followed by rupture of thin layer of ectoderm
epispadias – open urinary tract extends along dorsal aspect of penis thru bladder to umbilicus
• exstrophy of the cloaca – more severe ventral body wall defect, migration of mesoderm to midline is inhibited, tail
(caudal) fold fails to progress; extended thin layer of ectoderm ruptures

EYE
Optic Cup and Lens Vesicle
• 22-day – pair of shallow grooves on sides of forebrain = outpocketings optic vesicles  invaginate, form double-walled optic cup
* inner&outer layers of cup separated by lumen intraretinal space (wc soon disappears so 2 layers appose each other)
* invagination of part of inferior surface forms choroid fissure that allows hyaloid artery to reach inner chamber of eye
* 7th wk – lips of choroid fissure fuse, mouth of optic cup becomes round opening, the future pupil
• cells of surface ectoderm elongate and form lens placode wc invaginates and develops into lens vesicle
* 5th wk – lens vesicle loses contact w surface ectoderm & lies in mouth of optic cup

Retina, Iris, and Ciliary Body


• pigmented layer of retina – outer layer of optic cup
• devt of inner/neural layer of optic cup:
* pars optica retinae - posterior 4/5, cells bordering intraretinal space that differentiate into light-receptive elements rods & cones
* mantle layer - adjacent to photoreceptive layer, neurons & supporting cells (outer nuclear, inner nuclear, ganglion cell layer)
* fibrous layer – surface, axons of nerve cells in deeper levels that converge to optic stalk (becomes optic nerve)
* pars ceca retinae – ant. 1/5, 1 cell layer thick  pars iridica retinae (inner layer of iris) and pars ciliaris retinae (ciliary body)
• region between optic cup and overlying surface epithelium filled with mesenchyme  sphincter and dilator pupillae muscles
* pars ciliaris retinae – has marked foldings; has external mesenchyme layer (for ciliary muscle) and internal elastic fiber network
(for suspensory ligarnment / zonula)

Lens
• primary lens fibers – cells of posterior wall elongate anteriorly, form long fibers filling the lumen – reaches anterior end @ 7th wk
• 2° fibers are continuously added

Choroid, Sclera and Cornea


• End of 5th week – eye primordium is completely surrounded by loose mesenchyme
• differentiates into inner choroid layer (pia mater-like, highly vascularized) and outer sclera layer (continuous with dura mater)
• anterior aspect of eye: anterior chamber – made via vacuolization; splits mesenchyme into inner iridopupillary membrane (will
be resorbed), and outer substantia propria of the cornea
• Cornea = epithelial layer (ectoderm) + substation propria / stroma + epithelial layer border
Vitreous body
• Mesenchyme infiltrates inside of optic cup via choroid fissure  forms hyaloid vessels (supplies lens; vascular layer of retina)
• Forms fiber network between lens and retina  spaces filled with gelatinous substance = vitreous body
• Hyaloid vessels obliterated, leaving the hyaloid canal

Optic Nerve
• Optic cup connected to brain via optic stalk, has groove on ventral surface (choroid fissure; closes @ 7th wk) with hyaloid vessels
• Afferent nerve fibers of retina lie in inner wall of stalk
• Increase in nerve fibers = inner wall of stalk increases in size = inner (network of neuroglia) and outer walls fuse = optic nerve
• Optic nerve = central artery of the retina + outer choroid (pia arachnoid layer) and sclera (dura layer)

Clinical Correlates
• Coloboma iridis – choroid fissure fails to close; cleft in iris, sometimes upto ciliary body, retina, choroid and optic nerve
• Congenital cataracts – opaque lens in intrauterine lfe, Rubella increases chances, deafness may occur if infected after 7th month
• Hyaloid artery persistence – cord or cyst
• Micropthalmia – eye is too small (2/3 of normal volume) associated with other abnormalities, due to intrauterine infections
(cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis)
• Anopthalmia – absence of eyeball, accompanied by cranial abnormalities
• Congenital aphakia (absence of lens) and aniridia (absence of iris) – rare, due to disturbances in induction and formation
• Cyclopia (single eye) and synopthalmia (eye fusion) – spectrum of defects due to loss of midline tissues (Day 19-21) , associated
with cranial defects (holoprosencephaly)
EAR
Develops from 3 distinctly different parts:
* external ear – sound collecting organ
* middle ear – sound conductor from external to internal ear
* internal ear – converts sound waves into nerve impulses and registers changes in equilibrium

I. Internal Ear
• 22 days – thickening of surface ectoderm on each side of rhombencephalon - otic placodes – invaginate rapidly to
form otic or auditory vesicles/octocysts – each divides into a ventral component saccule & cochlear duct and a
dorsal component utricle, semicircular canals & endolymphatic duct (collectively, the membranous labyrinth)

Saccule, Cochlea, and Organ of Corti


• 6th wk – saccule forms tubular outpocketing at lower pole - cochlear duct – penetrates surrounding mesenchyme in
spiral fashion til it completes 2.5 turns at end of 8th wk
connection of cochlear duct w/ remaining portion of saccule confined to a narrow pathway – ductus reuniens
• mesenchyme surrounding cochlear duct differentiates into cartilage
10th wk – cartilage undergoes vacuolization to form 2 perilymphatic spaces - scala vestibuli & scala tympani
cochlear duct separated from scala vestibuli by vestibular membrane & from scala tympani by basilar membrane
lateral wall of cochlear duct attached to surrounding cartilage by spiral ligament
median angle of cochlear duct connected to & partially supported by long cartilaginous process modiolus (axis of bony cochlea)
• epithelial cells of cochlear duct form 2 ridges inner ridge (future spiral limbus) & outer ridge
outer ridge forms 1 row inner & 3-4 rows outer hair cells – sensory cells of auditory system, covered by tectorial
membrane (hair cells + tectorial memb. = organ of corti)
impulses received by organ of corti transmitted to spiral ganglion then to CNS by auditory fibers of CN VIII

Utricle and Semicircular Canals


• 6th wk – semicircular canals appear as flattened outpocketings of utricular part of otic vesicle
one end of each canal dilates to form crus ampullare, other end forms crus nonampullare
• cells in ampullae form crest crista ampullaris w/ sensory cells for maintenance of equilibrium
similar sensory cells maculae acusticae develop in walls of utricle & saccule
impulses in sensory cells as result of change in body position carried to brain by vestibular fibers of CN VIII
• statoacoustic ganglion – formed from small grp of cells from otic vesicle wall & neural crest
splits into cochlear portion - supplies sensory cells of organ of Corti, and vestibular portion – supplies sensory cells
of saccule, utricle & semicircular canals

II. Middle Ear


Tympanic Cavity and Auditory Tube
• tympanic cavity – originates in endoderm, derived from first pharyngeal pouch
tubotympanic recess - distal part of pouch, gives rise to primitive tympanic cavity
auditory tube/Eustachian tube – fr proximal part of pouch; thru wc tympanic cavity communicates w nasopharynx
Ossicles
• malleus and incus – from cartilage of 1st pharyngeal arch
stapes – from 2nd pharyngeal arch
ossicles appear during 1st half of fetal life but remain embedded in mesenchyme til 8th mo.
• Tensor tympani – muscle of malleus; innervated by mandibular branch of trigeminal nerve
Stapedius muscle – attached to stapes; innervated by facial nerve
• in late fetal life, tympanic cavity expands dorsally by vacuolization of surrounding tissue to form tympanic antrum
after birth, epithelium of tympanic cavity invades bone of developing mastoid process to form epithelium-lined air
sacs (pneumatization)

III. External Ear


External Auditory Meatus
• develops from dorsal portion of 1st pharyngeal cleft
beginning of 3rd mo, epithelial cells at bottom of meatus proliferate to form solid epithelial plate meatal plug
7th mo – plug dissolves & epithelial lining of floor of meatus participates in formation of definitive ear drum

Eardrum or Tympanic Membrane


• 3 origins = ectodermal epithelial lining at bottom of auditory meatus + endodermal epithelial lining of tympanic cavity +
intermediate mesodermal layer of connective tissue that forms fibrous stratum
• major part firmly attached to handle of malleuss
remaining portion forms separation bet external auditory meatus & tympanic cavity

Auricle
• from 6 mesenchymal proliferations at dorsal ends of 1st & 2nd pharyngeal arches surround 1st pharyngeal cleft
these swellings auricular hillocks (3 per side of external meatus) fuse & form definitive auricle
initially, external ears in lower neck region, but w dev’t of mandible, they ascend to side of head, level to eyes

Clinical Correlates:
Deafness and External Ear Abnormalities
• Congenital deafness – caused by abnormal devt of membranous & bony labyrinths or by malformations of auditory
ossicles & eardrum; most forms caused by genetic factors, but environmental factors (ie. Rubella virus – affects embryo in 7th-
8th wk, causes severe damage to organ of Corti) may also interfere w devt
• External ear defects – often associated w other malformations (ie. chromosomal syndromes)
• Periauricular appendages – skin tages anterior to ear; may be due to accessory hillocks
Periauricular pits – shallow depressions anterior to ear; may indicate abnormal devt of auricular hillocks

GENITAL SYSTEM
Gonads, ductal system, external genitalia

Derived from
• Gonadal ridge (mesothelium & mesenchyme) – lateral to metanephron, becomes ovary/testes
• Primordial germ cells – at lateral portion of yolk sac, proximal to allantois; migrate cephalad to gonads – influence development
to ovary or testes; amoeboid movement and migration influenced by X&Y chromosomal factors & hormones (Leydig cells of testes
produce testosterone): sex cords wín testes & fibrous covering (tunica albuginea) develop; cords become convoluted w/
communication w/ rete testis & metanephros

Influence of primordial germ cells on indifferent gonad


44+XY 44+XX
Y influence absence of Y
Indifferent Gonad
Testes Ovary
Medullary cords develop medullary cords degenerate
No cortical cords cortical cords develop
Thick tunica albuginea no tunica albuginea

Testicular descent associated with: (initially located abdominally)


• Enlargement of testes & atrophy of mesonephros
• Atrophy of paramesonephric ducts
• Enlargement of processus vaginalis
 needs to descend or will not function properly: no spermatogenesis (temperature in scrotal sac cooler than abdomen)

Gubernaculum will give rise to


• Male: gubernaculum testis
• Female: ovarian ligament & round ligament of uterus

Clinical correlates
• Ectopic testis
Precrytorchid testis – undescended testis in abdominal area; infertility & high likelihood for malignancy
• Hernia – intestinal loop goes down to processus vaginalis
Hydrocoele – if there’s fluid in processus vaginalis

Genital Ducts
Indifferent stage
• Mesonephric duct or wolffian duct
• Paramesonephric duct or mullerian duct – atrophies with influence of mullerian influencing substance (MIS)

Influence of sex glands on further sex differentiation


• Sertoli cells – Mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS)  paramesonephric ducts suppressed
• Leydig cells – Testosterone  mesopnephric ducts stimulated (vas deferens, epididymis); Dihydrotestosterone – external genitalia

*mesonephros from epigenital tubules to become mesonephric ducts which communicate with seminal vesicle (+ ductus deferens to
form ejaculating duct)

Genital Ducts Derivatives


• Mesonephric tubules = efferent ductules
• Mesonephric duct or wolffian ducts = epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicle, ureter
Vestigial Remnants
• Mesonephric (wolffian) remnants in males = appendix epididymis, paradidymis
• Paramesonephric remnants in males or mullerian duct = appendix testis

* genital tubercle elongates, carries urethral folds inside to be enclosed

*ductus deferens and ureter have same origin: mesonephric duct


*epigenital tubules – mesonephric duct derivative; communicate w/ rete testis
*paragenital tubules – mesonephric duct derivative; no communication
*paradidymis – remnant of paragenital tubule

Urogenital sinus derivatives:


1. urethra
2. prostate gland
3. bulbourethral gland

Development of external genitalia


Indifferent stage
Genital tubercle  phallus
Cloacal fold  urogenital fold; anal fold
Cloacal membrane  urogenital membrane; anal membrane
Genital swelling  labioscrotal sac

*genetic sex determined at fertilization


*morphologic sex determined at 7th wk of life

Development of external genitalia derivatives


EMB structure Male
Phallus Penis
Urogenital fold (urethral fold) Spongy urethra
Labioscrotal swelling Scrotum

Clinical correlates
• hypospadias – external urethra meati nonclosure; abnormal urethral orifices

You might also like