Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Clinical Correlates:
• esophageal atresia – abnormalities in partitioning of esophagus & trachea by tracheoesophageal septum
(may be with or without tracheoesophageal fistulas TEFs)
usually upper portion of esophagus ending in blind pouch, lower segment forms fistula w/ trachea
Larynx
• internal lining of larynx – from endoderm
cartilages & muscles - from mesenchyme of 4th & 6th pharyngeal arches transforms into thyroid, cricoid & arytenoid cartilages
• vacuolization & recanalization of laryngeal lumen pair of lateral recesses, laryngeal ventricles false & true vocal cords
• all laryngeal muscles innervated by branches of CN X (vagus nerve)
superior laryngeal nerve –4th pharyngeal arch
recurrent laryngeal nerve –6th pharyngeal arch
Clinical Correlates:
• surfactant – impt for survival of premature infant
insufficient surfactant – air-water (blood) surface membrane tension becomes high, great risk that alveoli will collapse
during expiration = respiratory distress syndrome RDS/hyaline membrane disease
• ectopic lung lobes – arise from trachea or esophagus; from additional respiratory buds of foregut that develop
independently of the main resp. system
• congenital cysts of the lung –dilation of terminal or larger bronchi; usually drain poorly & frequently cause chronic infxns
URINARY SYSTEM
• develops from mesodemal ridge (intermediate mesoderm) along posterior wall of abdominal cavity
Kidney Systems
I. Pronephros
• beginning of 4th wk – 7-10 solid cell grps in cervical region vestigial excretory units, nephrotomes
end of 4th wk – all indications of pronephric system have disappeared
II. Mesonephros
• from intermediate mesoderm from upper thoracic & upper lumber (L3) segments
• early 4th wk – first excretory tubules of mesonephros appear glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule = renal corpuscle
laterally, tubule enters longitudinal collecting duct, the mesonephric/wolffian duct
• middle of 2nd mo – forms large ovoid organ on each side of midline – forms urogenital ridge
end of 2nd mo – majority of cranial tubules & glomeruli have disappeared
in M, few caudal tubules & mesonephric duct persist & participate in formation of genital system; in F, disappear
III. Metanephros (permanent kidney)
• appears in 5th wk; definitive kidney; functional near 12th wk.
• from metanephric mesoderm
• collecting system
* from ureteric bud (outgrowth of mesonephric duct close to its entrance to cloaca)
* bud dilates to form primitive renal pelvis and splits into cranial & caudal portions, future major calyces
* tubules of second order enlarge & absorb 3rd & 4th generations to form minor calyces
* tubules of 5th & successive generations elongate & converge on minor calyx, forming renal pyramid
* ureteric bud ureter, renal pelvis, major & minor calyces, and approx. 1-3million collecting tubules
• excretory system
* metanephric tissue cap covers distal end of each collecting tubule forms renal vesicles becomes glomeruli =
nephrons/excretory units
* proximal end of each nephron forms Bowman’s capsule
* continuous lengthening of excretory tubule proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle & distal convoluted tubule
• Kidney = metanephric mesoderm (excretory units) + ureteric bud (collecting system)
• nephrons formed until birth: approx. 1 million per kidney
• urine production begins early in gestation, soon after differentiation of glomerular capillaries, wc form by 10th wk.
• at birth, kidneys have lobulated appearance; lobulation disappears during infancy as result of nephron further growth (no ↑ in #)
Clinical Correlates:
Renal dysplasias & agenesis
• multicystic dysplastic kidney – numerous ducts surrounded by undifferentiated cells; nephrons fail to develop,
ureteric bud fails to branch, collecting ducts never form, show Potter sequence – anuria, oligohydramnios, hypoplastic lungs
• congenital polycystic kidney – numerous cysts form from collecting ducts or from all segments of nephron
• duplication of ureter – from early splitting of ureteric bud
ectopic ureter – ureter entering vagina, urethra or vestibule; from development of 2 ureteric buds
Clinical Correlates:
• during ascent, kidneys pass thru arterial fork formed by umbilical arteries; failure to ascend:
pelvic kidney - remains in pelvis close to common iliac artery
horseshoe kidney – kidneys pushed so close together during passage thru arterial fork that lower poles fuse; usually
at level of lower lumbar vertebrae(ascent prevented by root of inferior mesenteric artery)
• accessory renal arteries – from persistence of embryonic vessels formed during ascent of kidneys; usually arise
from aorta & enter superior or inferior poles of kidneys
Clinical Correlates:
• urachal fistula – lumen of intraembryonic portion of allantois persists; cause urine to drain from umbilicus
• urachal cyst – only a local area of the allantois persists, secretory activity of its lining results in a cystic dilation
• urachal sinus – lumen in the upper part of allantois persists
• exstrophy of the bladder – ventral body wall defect, bladder muscosa is exposed; caused by lack of mesodermal
migration into region between umbilicus & genital tubercle, followed by rupture of thin layer of ectoderm
epispadias – open urinary tract extends along dorsal aspect of penis thru bladder to umbilicus
• exstrophy of the cloaca – more severe ventral body wall defect, migration of mesoderm to midline is inhibited, tail
(caudal) fold fails to progress; extended thin layer of ectoderm ruptures
EYE
Optic Cup and Lens Vesicle
• 22-day – pair of shallow grooves on sides of forebrain = outpocketings optic vesicles invaginate, form double-walled optic cup
* inner&outer layers of cup separated by lumen intraretinal space (wc soon disappears so 2 layers appose each other)
* invagination of part of inferior surface forms choroid fissure that allows hyaloid artery to reach inner chamber of eye
* 7th wk – lips of choroid fissure fuse, mouth of optic cup becomes round opening, the future pupil
• cells of surface ectoderm elongate and form lens placode wc invaginates and develops into lens vesicle
* 5th wk – lens vesicle loses contact w surface ectoderm & lies in mouth of optic cup
Lens
• primary lens fibers – cells of posterior wall elongate anteriorly, form long fibers filling the lumen – reaches anterior end @ 7th wk
• 2° fibers are continuously added
Optic Nerve
• Optic cup connected to brain via optic stalk, has groove on ventral surface (choroid fissure; closes @ 7th wk) with hyaloid vessels
• Afferent nerve fibers of retina lie in inner wall of stalk
• Increase in nerve fibers = inner wall of stalk increases in size = inner (network of neuroglia) and outer walls fuse = optic nerve
• Optic nerve = central artery of the retina + outer choroid (pia arachnoid layer) and sclera (dura layer)
Clinical Correlates
• Coloboma iridis – choroid fissure fails to close; cleft in iris, sometimes upto ciliary body, retina, choroid and optic nerve
• Congenital cataracts – opaque lens in intrauterine lfe, Rubella increases chances, deafness may occur if infected after 7th month
• Hyaloid artery persistence – cord or cyst
• Micropthalmia – eye is too small (2/3 of normal volume) associated with other abnormalities, due to intrauterine infections
(cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis)
• Anopthalmia – absence of eyeball, accompanied by cranial abnormalities
• Congenital aphakia (absence of lens) and aniridia (absence of iris) – rare, due to disturbances in induction and formation
• Cyclopia (single eye) and synopthalmia (eye fusion) – spectrum of defects due to loss of midline tissues (Day 19-21) , associated
with cranial defects (holoprosencephaly)
EAR
Develops from 3 distinctly different parts:
* external ear – sound collecting organ
* middle ear – sound conductor from external to internal ear
* internal ear – converts sound waves into nerve impulses and registers changes in equilibrium
I. Internal Ear
• 22 days – thickening of surface ectoderm on each side of rhombencephalon - otic placodes – invaginate rapidly to
form otic or auditory vesicles/octocysts – each divides into a ventral component saccule & cochlear duct and a
dorsal component utricle, semicircular canals & endolymphatic duct (collectively, the membranous labyrinth)
Auricle
• from 6 mesenchymal proliferations at dorsal ends of 1st & 2nd pharyngeal arches surround 1st pharyngeal cleft
these swellings auricular hillocks (3 per side of external meatus) fuse & form definitive auricle
initially, external ears in lower neck region, but w dev’t of mandible, they ascend to side of head, level to eyes
Clinical Correlates:
Deafness and External Ear Abnormalities
• Congenital deafness – caused by abnormal devt of membranous & bony labyrinths or by malformations of auditory
ossicles & eardrum; most forms caused by genetic factors, but environmental factors (ie. Rubella virus – affects embryo in 7th-
8th wk, causes severe damage to organ of Corti) may also interfere w devt
• External ear defects – often associated w other malformations (ie. chromosomal syndromes)
• Periauricular appendages – skin tages anterior to ear; may be due to accessory hillocks
Periauricular pits – shallow depressions anterior to ear; may indicate abnormal devt of auricular hillocks
GENITAL SYSTEM
Gonads, ductal system, external genitalia
Derived from
• Gonadal ridge (mesothelium & mesenchyme) – lateral to metanephron, becomes ovary/testes
• Primordial germ cells – at lateral portion of yolk sac, proximal to allantois; migrate cephalad to gonads – influence development
to ovary or testes; amoeboid movement and migration influenced by X&Y chromosomal factors & hormones (Leydig cells of testes
produce testosterone): sex cords wín testes & fibrous covering (tunica albuginea) develop; cords become convoluted w/
communication w/ rete testis & metanephros
Clinical correlates
• Ectopic testis
Precrytorchid testis – undescended testis in abdominal area; infertility & high likelihood for malignancy
• Hernia – intestinal loop goes down to processus vaginalis
Hydrocoele – if there’s fluid in processus vaginalis
Genital Ducts
Indifferent stage
• Mesonephric duct or wolffian duct
• Paramesonephric duct or mullerian duct – atrophies with influence of mullerian influencing substance (MIS)
*mesonephros from epigenital tubules to become mesonephric ducts which communicate with seminal vesicle (+ ductus deferens to
form ejaculating duct)
Clinical correlates
• hypospadias – external urethra meati nonclosure; abnormal urethral orifices