Year 10 SC Science Revision

NAME ______________________________

Key Words
The follow words and terms are found in the Stage 5 Science Syllabus. Know what these words mean, their background of use etc. Aim Method Results Conclusion Hypothesis Controlled variables Dependent variables Independent variables Control group Kinetic Potential Force Field Medium for propagation (for waves) Friction Static electricity Dynamic electricity Electromagnet Frequency wavelength electromagnetic spectrum mass vs. weight acceleration velocity renewable energy Newtons three Laws Voltage Resistance Current Series circuit Parallel circuit Absorption (of light) Reflection (of light) Refraction (of light) Scattering (of light) Radioactivity Proton Neutron Electron Subatomic Chemical reaction Physical Reaction Combustion (in chem. Rxns) Corrosion (in chem. Rxns) Precipitation (in chem. Rxns) Neutralisation (in chem. Rxns) Decomposition (in chem. Rxns) Acid + metal (in chem. Rxns) Acid + carbonate (in chem. Rxns) Electronics Indicator (in acid/base Rxn) Multicellular Unicellular Watson & Crickss Discovery DNA Gene Chromosome Evolution Infectious disease Non-infectious disease List parts of the endocrine system List parts of male & female reproductive system Big Bang Theory Plate Tectonics Theory Fossil Asthenosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere Convection currents Plate Boundary Social & ethical issues of biotechnology

non-renewable energy pollution contamination fossil fuel greenhouse effect

Biotic Abiotic Ecosystems environment medical use of nuclear technology industrial use of nuclear tech.

Look very carefully at the verb in the question. Below is the way to structure your answer to these verbs. Justify your argument/point of view/conclusion Points for Points for Points against Judgement What you based the judgement upon

Evaluate

Discuss identify issue Points for Points against

Explain Cause Effect Why/how Compare Contrast Describe construct a table to show similarities and differences construct a table to show differences only object being compared Characteristics/features

Analysecomponent 1 Component 2 Relationship between them Implication of relationship Assess points for Points against Judgement

Note: your points must contain embellishments. This is an explanation of the point for/against.

-e.g.-

Assess the impact of nuclear technologies in medicine. Point for

Nuclear Technologies have a positive impact in the treatment of patients. Radiation treatment is able to kill cancerous cells and therefore the patient will live longer. embellishment point against However, the negative side is a nuclear reactor makes radioactive waste. This waste is dangerous to living things for thousands of years and may cause cancer, mutations and/or death if not stored correctly. Embellishment Overall I think nuclear technologies are good as it allows patients who would otherwise die of cancer to live longer and the waste can be managed if treated properly.

Judgement

Note: if this question is worth 6-8 marks you will need to either have: Two embellishments for each point or Two points for and two against (plus embellishments)

The Wave Model

5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.1 the wave model: a) identify waves as carriers of energy b) qualitatively describe features of waves including frequency, wavelength and speed. c) Give examples of different types of radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum.

Key Words
Energy Wavelength X-rays Ultra-violet rays Optic fibres Communication Vacuum Amplitude Speed Wave Television Visible light Infra-red Compression wave Transverse wave Frequency Hertz Light Gamma rays Microwaves Radio Electromagnetic spectrum

Summary Notes
All waves carry energy outward from a vibrating source. e.g. ocean waves can move large ships up and down or erode or change the shoreline and can be used to generate electricity, microwaves cook food, light allows plants to produce glucose by photosynthesis, earthquake waves knock down buildings Frequency is the number of vibrations or waves per second measured in hertz (Hz). Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive corresponding points on a wave such as the distance from one crest to another. Speed is how fast a wave travels measured in metres/second (ms1) Electromagnetic radiation Gamma rays astronomy X-rays medical imaging UV rays microchip manufacture, cancer Light rays seeing, photosynthesis Infrared rays night vision, heating Microwaves cooking, communication Radio waves communication

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. A wave is defined as a carrier of e___________________. 2. A wave that involves the energy travelling at right angles to the up and down vibration of particles or electron is called a t____________________ wave. Eg water. L____________ is another example of this kind of wave. 3. A wave that involves the particles of the medium vibrating backwards and forwards in the direction the energy is moving is called a c_______________________ wave, eg sound waves. 4. The speed of sound is much less than the speed of l ______________ energy which explains why lightning is seen before the thunder is heard during a storm. 5. F________________ is the term that describes the number of waves that passing a given point in one second. It is measured in h_____________ (Hz). 6. One h________________ describes one vibration per second or one wave per second. 7. The top of a transverse wave is called the c_________________. 8. The bottom of a transverse wave is called a t________________. 9. The a________________ of a wave is the maximum distance to the top or bottom of a wave ie the crest or a trough. 10. The w__________________ of a wave is the distance between any two points in the same phase of motion of the wave such as the distance between two crests of a wave. 11. Ultra violet, visible light and radio waves are just three forms of energy that belong to the e______________________ s_______________. 12. All forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum travel at the same speed of ____________________Km/sec. 13. The form of electromagnetic energy that has the highest frequency and smallest wavelength is g__________ ___________. 14. Three forms of energy of the electromagnetic spectrum that may damage living tissue are g_____________________, X_______________ and u___________________. 15. Waves of electromagnetic energy can travel through a v______________ like space but sound energy cannot because it can only travel through m_______________. 16. X____________can be used for diagnosis of bone fractures. 17. Radio, television and microwaves can be used by man for c___________________. 18. Another form of electromagnetic energy that can be used as in Number 14 is l______ which is taken advantage of in o____________ f__________ technology where messages are sent in the form of pulses along a fine glass.

Questions
What is a wave?

In the space below sketch a single wave with wavelength of 8cm. Label the amplitude

What term do we use to describe the number of wavelengths that pass a point every second?

What does 10Hz mean?

Which waves travel the fastest, sound or light? Give an example of where we can see this?

In the space below name three members of the electromagnetic spectrum and give one use for each of these members Member of electromagnetic spectrum Use

Newtons Laws of Motion

5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.2 Newtons Laws of Motion to: a) describe qualitatively the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. b) explain qualitatively the relationship between distance, speed and time. c) Relate qualitatively acceleration to change in speed and/or direction as a result of a net force. d) Analyse qualitatively common situations involving motion in terms of Newtons Laws.

Key Words
Force Mass Inertia Speed Newtons First Law Acceleration Decelerating Time Direction Newtons Second Law Distance Time Kilojoule Joule Newtons Third Law

Summary Notes
Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance or speed = (distance/time). Speed is measured in metres/second (ms1) or kilometres/hour (km/h or kmh1) The faster an object is travelling, the greater the distance it covers in a given time interval Force causes objects (masses) to accelerate in the direction of the force An object is said to be accelerating if it is speeding up or slowing down An object is said to accelerate if it changes its speed of travel or its direction of travel The greater the force, the greater the acceleration For a given force, the greater the mass, the less the acceleration Newtons Laws First Law An object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed unless a net force acts on it (a net force is an unbalanced force) - any object at rest has no net force on it. Any vehicle moving at a constant speed has no net force on it (although to reach a constant speed a net force is necessary) Second Law The acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force on it - any object that is speeding up, slowing down or changing direction has a net force acting on it. Third Law If a force acts on an object, an equal and opposite force must act on some other object - The most misunderstood law! There must be two different objects involved in any example of this law. e.g. when a gun is fired, the force propelling the bullet forward also propels the gun in the opposite direction. This is called recoil.

Force Rule

Force (Newtons) =Mass (kilograms) X Acceleration (m/s2) F=mXa

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. Sir Isaac Newton is famous for his laws of m___________ and also explaining that the planets of the solar system are kept in orbit by the force of g__________. 2. Newton's first law of motion states that an object will remain at r_______ or will not change its s_______or d__________n unless it is acted upon by an outside, unbalanced force. 3. This law of motion is also known as the law of i_________________. 4. Inertia is the property of objects that makes them resist c____________ in motion. 5. Newton's second law of motion describes how force depends upon the m____________ of an object and its a________________. ie F = ma 6. Force is measured in a unit called the n________________. 7. Newton's third law of motion states that_____________________________________________________________________ 8. The use of seatbelts in moving cars helps overcome Newtons _______________ law of motion or ________________ in an accident. 9. The launch of a space shuttle relies upon Newton's ________________ law of motion.

10. S__________ is a measure of the rate at which an object moves over a distance. 11. The average speed of moving object is determined by dividing the d_____________ travelled by the t_____________ taken. 12. The term v____________________ is often used to describe how fast objects are moving but this term is different from speed because it involves direction. 13. When determining velocity, the d____________ of the moving object is very important which is not important when determining speed. 14. A moving object may increase its velocity or decrease its velocity. The term a__________________ is a measure of the rate at which the moving object changes velocity. 15. If acceleration is positive, then the object is moving f_________________. 16. If acceleration is negative, then the object is s____________ d______ which is called d______________________ . 17. If oil spots on the road from a car are getting further apart, then the car must be a____________________. 18. If the oil spots on the road start to get closer together, then the car must be s__________ ____________ or d_______________________. 19. When a force is applied to an object to make it move, then w_____________ is done. 20. Work = f__________ x d_______________. 21. The unit used to measure work or energy is the j____________ or k_____________.

Questions
What is a force? What unit is it measured in?

What is mass? What unit is it measured in?

What is acceleration? What unit is it measured in?

What is the relationship between force, mass and acceleration? ________________________________________________________________________________

If a 10Newton force acts on a 2kg mass, what is the acceleration produced?

What is the relationship between distance, speed and time?

If a car travels 100 metres in 5 seconds what is its speed?

Give an example of each of the following of Newtons Laws of Motion An object will remain stationary or travel with constant velocity unless some external force acts on it.

A (unbalanced) force acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate

For every force there is an equal and opposite force.

Electrical Energy

5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.3 electrical energy: a) b) c) d) design, construct and draw circuits containing a number of components. describe voltage, resistance and current using analogies. describe qualitatively the relationship between voltage, resistance and current V=IR compare advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel circuits.

Key Words
Circuit Resistance Voltmeter Parallel Switch Volt Series Battery Conductor Voltage Ohm Insulator Current Ampere V=IR Direct current Ammeter Alternating current

Summary Notes
Make circuits using lamps, switches Voltage is responsible for pushing electrons through an electrical circuit hence voltage produces a current if the circuit is closed (complete circuit) voltage can be compared with pressure in a hose through which water is flowing; applying a greater voltage is like turning on a tap more in both cases, more current flows. Current is the flow of electrons through a circuit current can be compared with the flow of water through a hose; more pressure produces more water flow just as more voltage produces more current Resistance is a measure of how easily current flows through a conductor Series circuit the switch controls all the lights together. They are either all on or all off. If one lamp blows, they will all go off, since the circuit is broken. (Called an open circuit). The voltage of the battery is divided across the lamps. They will be less bright than if each one was connected separately across the battery alone. One advantage of this type of circuit is that low voltage globes can be used in a circuit connected to a high voltage supply without blowing the lamps. Some Christmas light sets use this approach. Forty eight 5 volt globes in series can be connected across the 240 V domestic supply - but if one bulb blows, how do you find the faulty one? Worse still, what if two are blown! Parallel circuit. The switches can be used to control each of the lamps independently. Each lamp has the whole voltage of the battery across it. Given identical lamps and battery, the lamps in the circuit below will be brighter that in the series circuit regardless of whether one or both globes are on in the parallel circuit. Normal house lighting uses parallel circuits, enabling most lights to be operated independently of each other. Voltage, Resistance and Current In a simple circuit, such as a lamp connected to a variable voltage supply such as you would find in a school laboratory, the higher the voltage, the greater the current and the brighter the lamp will glow. The resistance of a lamp increases as the temperature of the filament increases. Resistors that are used in electronic circuits have a resistance that remains constant within the current limits for which it is designed. When the voltage across such a resistor is increased, the current through it increased by the same ratio doubling the voltage doubles the current.

Ammeter - This device is used to measure current in amperes (A). It must be wired into the circuit in series. Voltmeter - a device for measuring voltage (or potential difference), and must be wired into the circuit in parallel

Short Circuit - A short circuit occurs when a conducting object such as a screwdriver lies between two circuits. The electrons take the 'shorter' circuit through the screwdriver.

Cloze Passage

Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. Which atomic particle is involved in the flow of electricity in a wire? e___________ 2. An electric circuit in its simplest form consists of a power supply eg a b_______________ and a w__________ as the conducting pathway that allows electrons to flow around the circuit. 3. A simple electric cell can be used to convert chemical energy into e________________ energy. It is simply made of two different metals dipping into a liquid that caries electricity called an e________________. Eg a copper nail and an iron nail connected by a wire and placed in a lemon. 4. A good carrier of electricity is called a c_________________ of electricity. One example is the commonly used metal called c______________. 5. An electric current will not flow through an i__________________ such as plastic or paper. 6. A s___________ in a circuit controls whether or not the electric current flows. 7. Voltage is measured in v___________using an instrument called a v____________. 8. Voltage (V) depends upon the strength of the: a) Current (I) going through an electrical component which is measured in a_______ with an instrument called an a_______________. b) Resistance (R) of an electrical component in a circuit which is measured in O___________. 9. The formula or equation that describes the relationship between voltage, current and resistance is ________________. 10. The r_______________ of a part of an electric circuit, eg light globe, is a measure of how difficult it is for electrons to flow through that part of the circuit. 11. Good conductors of electricity eg metals, have very little r_____________. 12. When all components of a circuit are in one direct pathway, they are said to be connected in s_______________. 13. Lighting in your house is connected in p______________ so that when one light blows, the others can continue to glow. 14. If a battery is used as a power supply, the current flows in one direction called a d________ c_____________ or DC. 15. The power in your house relies on current that goes backward and forward called an a_________________ c__________ or AC. 16. Draw the symbol for a battery in a circuit.

17.

Draw the symbol for a switch in an electrical circuit.

18.

Draw the symbol for a lamp in a circuit

19.

Draw a symbol for an ammeter in a circuit.

20. Draw a simple electric circuit that includes the symbols for the battery, switch, lamp and ammeter connected in series.

Questions
Give the correct electrical symbols for these components:

Conductor (wire)

Battery

Light bulb

Switch (open)

Resistor

Earth

`voltmeter

Ammeter

In the space below sketch a simple circuit that has a single cell connected in series to a switch and a light bulb. The voltage of the light bulb is to be measured. Connect the voltmeter correctly to do this.

What unit are each of the following measured in? Give the symbol for the unit. Voltage ________________________________

Current _________________________________

Resistance ________________________________

If voltage = current x resistance what is the voltage of a circuit with a total resistance of 60 ohms and a current flowing of 4 amps? _________________________________

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of connecting a circuit in parallel. Advantage Disadvantage

Light Energy
5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.4 light energy to: a) distinguish between absorption, reflection, refraction and scattering of light and identify everyday situations where each occurs.

Key Words
Reflection Convex lens Transparent Absorption Translucent Scattering Opaque Spectrum Refraction Dispersion Concave lens

Summary Notes
Absorption of light occurs when the Reflection of light occurs when the light bounces off the surface that it strikes. Reflected light entering the eyes makes the object from which the light is reflected visible. Light is reflected from a smooth surface, such as a mirror, at the same angle at which it strikes the surface. When all colours are strongly reflected from a surface, the colour of the object is white. When some colours are absorbed and others are reflected, the wavelengths of the reflected light determine the colour seen by the eye. Refraction of light is the bending of the path followed by the light due to a change in speed. Refraction occurs when light enters a transparent medium at an angle other than perpendicular to the surface. Scattering of light occurs from rough surfaces when rays of light striking the surface parallel to each other are reflected in different directions. Scattering of light is what allows an object to be seen from any angle, since the scattered rays travel in all directions. Lenses found in cameras, the eye, projectors, photocopiers, telescopes, microscopes and binoculars all rely on the phenomenon of refraction for their operation. They bend the path of light passing through them to modify the image in some way. Rainbows are also produced as a result of refraction. Different colours are refracted by slightly different amounts, separating them and producing the spectrum of colours characteristic of rainbows. Reflection is essential in the process of seeing objects light reflected from objects enters the eye, which produces an image using the reflected light. The reflection of some colours and the absorption of others produces colour. Red objects reflect red light and absorb other wavelengths.

REFLECTION

Light travels in straight lines. Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection The object in front of a mirror is the same distance as the image is behind the mirror.

REFRACTION

Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another (e.g. air to glass). When travelling from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to water), light rays refract closer to the normal, and the angle of incidence is more than the angle of refraction. When travelling from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. water to air), light rays refract away from the normal, and the angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When light rays bounce off a surface, we say that r_______________has occurred. We see objects because light is r______________ from the objects to our eyes. The range of colours in white light is known as a s_______________. White light is separated into its colours by the process called d________________. White light is made up of many colours which are_______________________________________________________________. 6. An object appears g________ in colour because it reflects green light to our eyes. 7. An object appears white if it reflects a_____ colours of the light. 8. An object appears b__________ if it absorbs all colours of light. 9. Light rays can be reflected in many different directions. This is called s____________ of light. We cannot see objects clearly on a f_________ morning because the small water droplets in the air scatter the light. 10. Light enters the eye or a camera and forms an i_________ of an object on the retina of the eye or the film of the camera. 11. An object is t_____________ if it allows light to pass through it so that objects on the other side can be seen clearly.

12. An object is t_______________ if it allows some light through but the objects cannot be clearly seen on the other side. Eg the frosted g_____________ in a shower screen. 13. An object is described as o_______________ if it does not allow light through so that objects on the other side cannot be seen. 14. A fish observed in water from above the surface is not where it really is due to r___________________of the light rays as they pass from the water to the air. 15. C_____________ and c____________lenses are two types of lenses that are commonly used for refracting light. 16. A magnifying glass is an example of a c_________________ lens.

Questions
What do each of the following terms mean: TERM Absorption MEANING

Reflection

Refraction

The diagram below shows a light ray hitting a mirror. Complete the diagram to show what happens after it reflects

Light ray

mirror The diagram below shows a light ray hitting a thick piece of glass. Complete the diagram to show what happens as the light ray passes through and out of the piece of glass.

Light ray

Glass slab

What is meant by light scattering? Give an example of where light scattering occurs.

Nuclear Energy
5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.5 nuclear energy to: a) identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms. b) explain radioactivity in terms of particles and energy.

Key Words
Radioactivity Nuclear fission Beta particle Natural radioactivity Nuclear fusion Half-life Alpha particle

Summary Notes
Fission In the process of nuclear fission large amounts of energy are release when a heavy nucleus divides into two smaller ones. Only a few very heavy nuclei undergo fission spontaneously, while others can be made to undergo fission by the addition of energy when a neutron is absorbed. Such fissile materials include U-235 and Pu-239. During the fission process, a number of neutrons are released, and if these go on to cause new fissions, which may result in a chain reaction. The use of a controlled chain reaction is the basis for all nuclear power stations Fusion Nuclear fusion is the energy-producing process taking place continuously in the sun and other stars. In the core of the Sun at temperatures of 10-15 million degrees Celsius, hydrogen is converted to helium providing the energy to sustain life on Earth. In a nuclear fusion reaction as shown above, light nuclei are fused together to form heavier nuclei, releasing energy in the process. For proposed energy production on Earth, different fusion reactions are involved. The most suitable reaction occurs between the nuclei of the two heavy forms (isotopes) of hydrogen deuterium and tritium. Radioactivity Radioactive Decay - Radioactive decay is a natural process, which occurs when a nucleus has too many or too few neutrons relative to the number of protons. Depending on the isotope and element, an atom of a radioactive isotope will decay through one of three common processes: Alpha decay Beta decay Spontaneous fission In the process, usually two of three possible kinds of emanations can be produced: Alpha rays 2 protons and 2 neutrons, identical to a helium nucleus and the source of helium on Earth Beta rays consisting of electrons Gamma rays very high energy electromagnetic waves An alpha or a beta particle is often accompanied by the emission of a gamma ray. Sometimes just a gamma ray is produced. If an alpha or beta particle is emitted, the nucleus of the atom left behind is a different element from the decayed nucleus. This is called a nuclear transformation.

It is important to note that the unstable nucleus, which decays is said to be radioactive, but that the emanations are not. The beta particle interacts with other charged particles because it is an electron that is itself charged. Beta particles slow down and stop when passing through materials, transferring their energy to the matter with which they interact. If they have lots of energy, they may knock another electron off of the atom or molecule they strike, thus "ionising" it. Ionising radiation is a potential hazard because it changes the chemical nature of the molecules that are ionised. These may re-form into different molecules. If these molecules are part of the body, burns and/or cancerous changes in the DNA material may result. Alpha particles have two units of charge and are stopped more easily than beta particles. Small amounts of shielding are usually enough to keep alpha and beta particles from straying where they may do damage. Radioactive materials if ingested or breathed in are very dangerous. They may damage tissues even though these are short-ranged particles. Fission http://www.iclei.org/efacts/fission.htm http://www.spacekid.net/nuclear/fission.html http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/14/1.html Fusion http://www.jet.efda.org/pages/content/fusion1.html Radioactive decay http://www.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/nuclear/stability.html http://howstuffworks.lycoszone.com/nuclear2.htm Applications of Fission Nuclear power stations, nuclear weapons Applications of Fusion Energy production in stars, the hydrogen bomb, possible future energy source on Earth Contexts radioactive decay Dating (especially carbon-14) Nuclear medicine diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as cancer

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. When an atom is unstable, we say it is r_________________. 2. There are three different kinds of radiations released by unstable atoms. a) a____________ particles which are p__________ charged particles that cannot penetrate very far in air, b) b____________ particles which are very small, n_____________ charged, f____ moving particles, c) g____________ rays which are extremely dangerous due to high penetration. 3. Natural radioactivity is emitted by elements like u___________ in the Earths c_______. 4. An artificially made radioactive element is called a radioisotope. Name one radioisotope. ___________________ 5. The time taken for the radioactive substance uranium to change to half its mass or half its radioactivity is called its h_______________ which is about 4.6 billion years, the age of the E___________________.

Questions
What is radioactivity?

How can nuclear energy be used?

Gravitational Force
5.6 Applies basic physical models, theories and laws to situations involving force, and motion. 5.6.6 gravitational force to: a) relate qualitatively the force of gravity between two objects to their masses and distance apart. b) distinguish between mass and weight.

Key Words
Mass Weight Gravity Force Newton Distance

Summary Notes Gravity Gravity produces a force between any objects having mass. The force is very small compared with forces that are electrical or magnetic in origin. The force of gravity depends on how massive the objects are and the distance between the objects. The force is greater if the objects have a greater mass. The force between the Earth and the Moon is much greater than the force between the Earth and a satellite at the same distance. The force rapidly decreases as the distance increases. If the distance between the objects doubles, the force is only a quarter as much this is called the inverse square law Mass and Weight The mass of an object is dependent only on the amount of matter in the object the number and type of atoms present. The mass of an object does not change with its position. A 20 tonne satellite in space still has the same mass as it does on Earth. An astronaut pushing on such a satellite from outside during a space walk would be propelled away from the satellite an application of both Newtons second and third laws. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). The weight of an object is the result of the force of gravity acting on it. In common English usage weight is used to mean what scientists call mass. Scientifically, weight is measured in newtons (N). The weight of a person or object depends on the force of gravity. The force of gravity on the Moon is only one sixth of that produced at the Earths surface, giving an astronaut on the Moon a weight less than his weight on the Earth. He could jump six times higher on the Moon than on Earth. Weightlessness It is well known that astronauts and spacecraft in orbit around the Earth are weightless. A common misconception is that this weightlessness is due to there being no gravitational force acting. The force of gravity on a satellite orbiting 200 km above the Earth is only slightly less than its weight at the Earths surface. The real cause of weightlessness is that there is no force acting against the force of gravity an object is weightless when gravity is the only force acting on the object. The force of gravity acting on a satellite in orbit causes the satellite to follow a circular (or elliptical) orbit. Without the force of gravity, the satellite would simply move off in a straight line. The thrill of a roller coaster ride is the result of brief periods of near weightlessness as the roller coaster falls freely under the action of gravity alternating with large forces produced when sudden changes of direction take place.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. The m__________ of an object refers to the amount of matter contained in the object and is measured in k___________________. 2. The w____________ of an object is defined as the force of Earths gravitational pull on the object. 3. Force is simply a p__________ or a p_________ which is measured with a unit called a n_________________. 4. A person standing on the Moon will have the same m____________ as on Earth but a different w________________ because the Moons gravity is l___________ than Earths gravity. 5. The force of gravity decreases as the d____________________ between two objects increases. 6. The greater the m___________ of an object, the greater is its force of gravity. 7. When an object falls from a height, its acceleration due to gravity is approximately _________ ms-2 (metres/sec/sec).

Questions
What is gravity?

There is a gravitational attraction between the moon and the earth. How would this gravitational force change if the moon a. Was further away from the earth

b. Was closer to the earth

c. had more mass

d. had less mass

What is the difference between mass and weight?

Atomic Theory & Compounds and Reactions

5.7 relates properties of elements, compounds and mixtures to scientific models, theories and laws. Students will learn about: 5.7.1 atomic theory to: a) describe features of and the location of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom. b) distinguish between elements, using information about the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons. c) identify properties of different substances that can be explained in terms of their subatomic structure. d) describe an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure. 5.7.2 compounds and reactions to: a) identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish between atoms and molecules. b) describe some relationships between elements using the Periodic Table. 5.7.3 compounds and reactions to: a) identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than by creating matter. b) classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics. c) construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemical reactions. d) identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical formulae. e) qualitatively describe reactants and products in the following chemical reactions: combustion corrosion precipitation acids on metals and carbonates neutralisation decomposition f) describe the role of indicators.

Key Words
Atom Element Noble gas Corrosion Base Phenolphthalein Molecule Compound Reactants Alkali Litmus Chemical formula Proton Mixture Products Sulfuric acid Limewater Created Neutron Atomic number Precipitate Destroyed Neutralisation Hydrochloric acid Electron Mass number Precipitation pH Salt Alkaline Mendeleev Combustion Decomposition Indicator Acidic Universal indicator

Summary Notes

Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom. The electrons orbit the nucleus at different distances. Protons are positive. Electrons are negative. Protons have the same amount of positive charge as electrons have negative charge. Neutrons have no charge i.e. they are neutral. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as it has protons. Protons and neutrons have about the same mass. It takes about 1800 electrons to have the same mass as a proton. All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and it is the number of protons that determines which element an atom is. The number of neutrons in the nucleus is variable within a small range.

An isotope of an element contains atoms, all of which have the same number of protons and neutrons. Atoms of different isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Examples of isotopes include carbon-12 (the most common form of the carbon nuclide) and carbon-14, which is the isotope used to date organic remains up to about 50000 years old. The most common isotope of uranium is 238, and the less common U-235 is used for nuclear fission in reactors and weapons. One of the most important artificial isotopes is technetium-99, used in medical diagnostics. The number and arrangement of their electrons determine the chemical properties of an element. The subatomic structure determines whether the atom is radioactive or not. The average mass of the natural isotopes (or atomic mass) of each element is determined by the ratio of the isotopes present and the subatomic structure of the atoms.

The current atomic model is complex, but the main features are a heavy positive nucleus surrounded by a cloud of orbiting electrons. The negative electrons are held in the atom by the attraction of the oppositely charged nucleus. Elements are pure substances consisting of atoms all containing the same number of protons. The atom is the smallest unit of an element. Elements are the simplest pure substances. There are 91 naturally occurring elements (technetium, number 43, is an artificially made element) and about 15 artificial elements with more protons than uranium. The elements are often organised into an arrangement called the periodic table. This shows the elements organised in order of increasing number of protons going from left to right across each row of the table. The vertical columns contain elements having very similar chemical properties. Most elements are metals. The non-metals are found in the upper right of the periodic table. Most periodic tablesshow the symbol for the element, its name, the atomic number (number of protons) and the atomic mass.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS

An Example from the Periodic Table

Atomic Number - the number of protons in an unreacted atom

The law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. Applied to chemical reactions, this means that new compounds are formed (products of a reaction) by rearranging the atoms of the reactants. e.g water, H2O, is formed when molecules of oxygen, O2, react with molecules of hydrogen, H2. In a chemical reaction, the total number of atoms involved, before and after the reaction, is constant. This accounts for the law of conservation of mass in a chemical reaction. Compounds are sometimes grouped according to common chemical characteristics. e.g. carbonates all contain the group of atoms (CO3) which react with acids to produce carbon dioxide. Halides all contain one or more of the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I). Oxides contain oxygen, combined with one other element.

Important Chemical Reactions Combustion Usually the rapid chemical combination of an element or compound with oxygen. e.g. magnesium and oxygen -> magnesium oxide iron + oxygen -> iron oxide (can be rapid) methane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water Other combustion reactions are possible e.g. iron + chlorine -> iron chloride Corrosion Usually describes a slow reaction of an element (typically a metal) with oxygen. e.g. iron + oxygen -> iron oxide copper + oxygen -> copper oxide Corrosion may involve the slow reaction of metals with other elements. Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of an insoluble compound when two dissolved soluble compounds are mixed together. e.g. silver nitrate + sodium chloride -> sodium nitrate + silver chloride (ppt) copper sulfate + sodium carbonate -> copper carbonate (ppt) + sodium sulfate lead nitrate + sodium iodide -> sodium nitrate + lead iodide (ppt) Acids on Metals Acids react with many metals to form a salt of the metal and hydrogen gas. Typically with such a reaction, bubbles of hydrogen can be observed coming from the surface of the metal in the acid. The hydrogen gas can be tested for by the pop test. hydrochloric acid + zinc -> zinc chloride + hydrogen (gas evolved) sulfuric acid + calcium -> calcium sulfate (insoluble) + hydrogen nitric acid (dilute) + iron -> iron nitrate + hydrogen Acids on Carbonates Acids react with carbonates to form salts of the acid, water and carbon dioxide gas. The reaction is usually vigorous and effervescent. hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate -> sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water

sulfuric acid + copper carbonate -> copper sulfate + carbon dioxide + water nitric acid + ammonium carbonate -> ammonium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water Neutralisation Acids react with bases to form salts having a pH typically around the neutral value of 7. Water is the other product of this type of reaction. hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide -> sodium chloride + water sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide -> potassium sulfate + water Decomposition Decomposition is the term applied to reactions in which compounds are broken down into simpler substances, including elements. Very high temperatures often promote decomposition and furnaces are used industrially to break dangerous compounds down into less dangerous products. e.g. copper carbonate -> copper oxide + carbon dioxide http://misty.com/people/don/bulb1.html Indicators and their Role Indicators are used to show how acidic or basic a substance is. A scale called the pH scale is used to state this property as a number in the range 1 (acidic) to 14 (basic). Indicators usually change colour at a particular pH. Indicators are used to determine the pH of water in a swimming pool.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. The smallest unit of an element that exists naturally is an a___________. 2. A m________________ is a particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together. eg CO2, H2O, O2 3. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. The current accepted idea of the structure of an atom is known as a m_________ of the atom. 4. Describe the accepted idea or model about the structure of an atom. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What 2 atomic particles make up the nucleus of the atom? p____________, n______________ Which atomic particle orbits around the nucleus of the atom? e__________. Which atomic particle has a positive charge? p_________________ Which atomic particle has no charge at all? n__________________ Which atomic particle has a negative charge? e_________________ The periodic table was first developed by a Russian scientist called M_____________. Are there more metals or non-metals in the periodic table?________________ A group on the periodic table refers to a v________________ arrangement of elements. A row on the periodic table refers to a h______________ arrangement of elements.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Elements in periodic table increase in atomic number from the simplest element to the most complex. What is the simplest element?____________ What is its atomic number?______________ What is the second simplest element?____________ What is its atomic number?________________ The atomic number of an element tells us the number of p______________ in its atom. The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in order of a______________ n________________. An atom with no electric charge always has equal numbers of p____________ and e_________________. The mass number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of its atom. Use your periodic table to find the name of the element that has a mass number of 238 and 146 neutrons. (Hint: do a subtraction to determine the number of protons). When an atom becomes electrically charged, only the e______________ will change in number. A positively charged atom is formed by the l________of e____________. In other words, this atom has more p_______________ than e________________. A negatively charged atom is formed by the g_____________ of e________________. In other words, this atom has more e_______________ than p________________. An atom has an atomic number of 17. If the first energy level or shell can only contain 2 electrons and the second shell only 8 electrons, how many electrons will be in each energy level or shell in the atom? __________________ A noble gas will not take part in chemical changes because each electron shell is completely full. Name one noble gas from the periodic table .________________ Name another element from the periodic table that will have similar properties to the element sodium. _____________________ Describe one chemical property of the active metal sodium._______________________________________________________ Write the name of the elements that have the following symbols. Na ___________ K______________ Cu______________ Fe__________ Pb_______

31. Write the symbol for the following elements. Silver _______ aluminium_________, sulfur______, zinc__________, helium_______ 32. Complete the following sentences about kinds of substances: a) An e__________________ consists of identical atoms and cannot be broken down into anything simpler. b) A c___________________ is made up of particles with two or more atoms of different elements chemically bonded together in definite proportions. c) A m__________________ consists of any number of substances in any proportion by weight. 33. Use the names of the substances above to classify the following materials. water _________ carbon___________ soil_____________ carbon dioxide___________air________copper sulfate_______ seawater_________ sodium chloride_______

34. Name the following common substances. NaCl________________________,HCl____________________NaOH_____________________CuSO4___________ ________, H2SO4________________________, H2_______________ C6H12O6_________________ (produced in photosynthesis) O2_________________ CO2______________ 35. The chemical formula of a substance indicates what e___________ are present and the n__________ of atoms for each element.

36. Name the elements and how many atoms of each element are present in the substance K3PO4. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 37. Complete the following word equation by naming the compound formed when magnesium burns in the presence of oxygen in air. Magnesium + Oxygen __________ + _________ 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. Write the chemical formula of this compound above. ____________________ The substances that react together on the left-hand side of the arrow of an equation are called r______________. The substances formed on the right hand side of the equation are called p_____________. The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter is never c____________or d_____________. Which kind of element goes first in the name of the compound calcium carbonate? m_________ General rule - When a metal and a non-metal chemically combine, the compound formed is named by the following: The m_________ is written first and the non-metal is written last but its ending becomes changed to i_____.

44. Name the compound formed by the chemical combination of: a) iron and sulfur_____________________ b) chlorine and magnesium ____________________ 45. When new substances are formed as a result of a chemical change, a rearrangement of the a_________occurs rather than new matter being c_______________. 46. When the compound calcium carbonate is strongly heated, it breaks down to produce simpler substances of calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. This breaking down chemical reaction is called d________________. 47. The presence of carbon dioxide can be demonstrated by its reaction with l______________ which turns milky. 48. The name of the chemical reaction involving burning in the presence of oxygen is c_______________. 49. Metals may undergo a very slow process of combining with oxygen. This process is commonly called c__________________. 50. Rusting is an example of this process but it only involves the metal called i_________. 51. One example of a metal which would not undergo this process because it is chemically inactive is g_________. 52. What gas is produced when a dilute acid reacts with a chemically active metal like magnesium? h__________________ 53. Describe the test that you would use to indicate the presence of the gas above. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 54. When iron is placed in copper sulfate solution, it rapidly goes reddish brown which cannot be reversed. Is this a chemical change or physical change? _____________________________ 55. What gas is produced when an acid reacts with a carbonate like calcium carbonate? c___________ ______________ 56. Name a rock which would react with acid as above because it is made of calcium carbonate. L_______________________ 57. When the process of neutralisation occurs, an acid reacts with a b__________ or a_______________ . 58. Is caustic soda a base or an acid?___________________ 59. The chemical name for caustic soda is s___________ h____________. 60. An aqueous solution (dissolved in water) of a base is called an a_______________. 61. What 2 compounds are produced by neutralisation? a s__________and w___________.

62. When sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react together, they form a salt called s________________ c______________ often known as common salt. 63. Name one chemical indicator used in the laboratory other than universal indicator .__________________ 64. Name one source of a naturally occurring indicator.__________________________ 65. What colour does universal indicator turn in the presence of an acid? ____________ 66. What colour does universal indicator turn in the presence of an alkali? ____________ 67. If universal indicator is green before adding it to an acid or alkali, what would the colour be when testing the products of neutralisation? g________________ 68. Everyday uses of indicators are: testing the pH or acidity of water in your s_____________ p__________and how acidic or alkaline the garden s____________ is. 69. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14. A substance with a pH of 2 would be classed as a____________c and a substance with a pH of 10 would be classed as a_______________e or b_________c. 70. Water has a pH of ___________.

71. When silver nitrate reacts with sodium chloride, a white insoluble solid called silver chloride is formed. What word is used to describe this insoluble solid? p___________________ 72. What name is given to this kind of chemical change? p___________ion 73. Write a word equation below to represent this chemical reaction. 74. Universal indicator will turn r___________ in the presence of an acid.

Questions
ATOMIC THEORY
Complete the table below Component of atom Electron Location Main features

Proton

neutron

Which of the elements below are the same element

ELEMENT A B C D E

No OF PROTONS 4 5 3 4 5

No OF NEUTRONS 5 6 3 6 7

No OF ELECTRONS 4 5 3 4 4

Answer: ____________________________________________________________

Explain why?

In the space below using a diagram describe a current model of the atom. Your diagram should include labels and your description should be in as much detail as possible.

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Give two examples of atoms

Give two examples of molecules

Give two examples of compounds

What is the Periodic Table? How is it useful?

The following is part of a description written by a student about an experiment: We put the zinc in the beaker with the hydrochloric acid. It started to fizz. Eventually all of the zinc disappeared. When we heated what was left we found a white powder in the bottom of the beaker Write a word equation for this chemical reaction.

Complete the table below: COMMON NAME Water CHEMICAL FORMULA CHEMICAL NAME

Carbon dioxide

Methane

Hydrochloric acid

Give an example of each of the following types of reactions Combustion

Corrosion

Precipitation

Acid and metal

Neutralisation

Decomposition

What are indicators? What do they do? Give two examples of indicators.

Cell Theory & Watson Crick Model of DNA

5.8 relates the structure and function of living things to models, theories and laws. 5.8.1 cell theory to: a) explain that systems in multicellular organisms serve the needs of cells. b) identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellular organisms. c) identify that abnormal cell function may result in disease.

5.8.2 the Watson-Crick model of DNA to : a) b) c) d) e) explain the advantages of DNA replicating exactly. explain the advantages and disadvantages. identify that information is transferred as DNA on chromosomes when cells reproduce themselves. identify that genes are a part of DNA. identify the role of genes and environmental factors in determining the features of an organism.

Key Words
Cell Multicellular Watson Crick Gametes Ovaries Dominant Recessive Genetic engineering Nucleus DNA Ovum Mendel Cytoplasm Mitosis Sperm Male Colour-blindness Chromosome Replicate Fertilisation Female Gene Meiosis Conception Clone

Summary Notes
Systems in multicellular organisms include the Circulatory system Reproductive system Digestive system Respiratory system Nervous system Endocrine system These systems help cells to survive by providing them with nutrient requirements, removing waste products, coordinating their functions and controlling the cellular environment. Multicellular organisms have specialised cells that perform specific jobs, working together to ensure the survival of the organism. Cells divide, a process in which one cell splits into two after first duplicating the DNA in the cell. Cell division is essential for growth provides new cells to repair damaged tissues in the organism produces specialised sex cells for reproduction

If cells do not function properly, the result may be disease. Pathogens (disease causing microorganisms) may stop cells from functioning normally. Other reasons why cells may not function normally include genetic faults effects of toxic substances and drugs WATSON CRICK The structure, function and reproduction of most cells is controlled by the DNA in the nucleus. DNA is a large molecule consisting of base pairs arranged in a double helix. The double helix structure is the key to the replication of the DNA molecule. The two sides of the strand separate during the process and the complementary bases are attached to the separated sides, forming two copies of the original molecule. Exact replication of DNA is important because the DNA codes information that is transferred to new cells when cells divide. DNA replication enables characteristics of a species to be passed from parent to offspring DNA controls the way the cells in an organism work. Unless the DNA is copied exactly to each new cell, the cell may not function normally Mutation Mutation is an alteration to the base sequence in the DNA molecule. Mutations may be the result of substitution of a different base or the addition or deletion of bases. Mutations are usually harmful to an organism. This is a disadvantage. Mutations may occasionally give rise to variations benefiting the organism. This is the basis of evolution. Genes Genes are segments of DNA that carry the code for specific proteins that control processes in the body. These include development, growth, reproduction of cells and most chemical processes that take place in the body. Scientists are still unravelling the way that genes work. Every cell with a nucleus (excluding sex cells) contains all the genes, so clearly not all genes are functioning all of the time, for example, the ones that tell an organism to keep growing. There is an interaction between gene action and the environment. The sex of some reptiles is determined by the eggs temperature whilst they are incubating. Recently (September 2002) it has been discovered that a gene in fruit flies controls the sexual behaviour of the male fly. Below 30 the males with this gene try to mate with females. Above 30, they change their behaviour and chase after other males.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. All living things are composed of c_____________. 2. A human is an example of a m___________________ organism because it is made up of millions of cells. 3. The control centre of a cell is its n_______________. 4. The thick fluid surrounding the control centre and filling the cell is called c_____________. 5. A cell is surrounded by a c___________ m______________ which controls movement of substances in and out of the cell. 6. This control centre also contains strands of genetic material called c________________ which are necessary for inheritance. 7. These strands are made of a special chemical called D___________.

8. A molecule of the DNA looks like a spiral ladder and is called a d__________ h________. The two scientists who developed the model of DNA were W__________and C___________. 9. The DNA molecule is made up of small units called g____________ which are responsible for different characteristics. 10. C__________ is an example of a non-infectious disease caused when the genetic code on the chromosomes is not correctly copied resulting in the formation of abnormal cells. 11. The growth of a baby is brought about by a special cell division of body cells called m__________. 12. When a cell divides, the DNA molecules copy themselves or r______________ in order to pass a set of instructions to each new cell. 13. There are __________chromosomes in a human body cell. 14. How many chromosomes are in a human sex cells? ___________ 15. Sex cells are made by a cell division process called m__________. 16. The two kinds of cell division processes are m___________ and m______________. 17. Sex cells are generally called g_________________. 18. A male gamete is called a s____________. 19. A female gamete is called an o_____________. 20. What sex chromosomes would a female have? __________ 21. What sex chromosomes would a male have?____________ 22. If a skin cell of an animal has 38 chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell, how many chromosomes will be found in the sex cells of that animal?______________________ 23. Genes exist in p_________. One of these may mask the effect of the other and is called a d_______________ gene. A gene which is masked by the presence of another is called a r_______________ gene. 24. If a baby inherits a gene for blond hair and one for dark hair, what do you predict will be the colour of the child's hair? _______________________________________ 25. Which gene above is dominant?_______________________________ 26. Which gene above is recessive?________________________________ 27. What gene combination would you expect the child to have if it is going to have blond hair?_____________________________ 28. During inheritance, half the genes come from the______________ and half come from the_______________. 29. Occasionally, the fertilised egg may have the wrong number of chromosomes. Name one inherited condition of an individual due to having more or less chromosomes than normal.__________________________ 30. Sometimes inheritance is sex-linked and is passed on to children, generally boys, through the mother. Name one sex linked disorder. c_____________________ 31. A p_____________ chart shows family relationships and how characteristics are passed on from one generation to the next. 32. In such a chart, a square represents a m_______________ and a circle represents a f___________________. 33. When a characteristic is being tracked in a family tree chart, the individuals that exhibit the characteristic will be c_______________ or shaded in. 34. Members of a family in the s_________ generation will appear along the same branch of the family tree or pedigree chart. 35. The biologist who first studied inheritance in pea plants was called M_________________. 36. The technology that involves the deliberate manipulation of genes is known as g___________ e_________________. 37. A c_________ is an exact genetic copy made of an organism. Eg D______ the sheep.

Questions
CELLS There are many different types of cells in living thing. What advantage is it to have specialized cells?

Why do cells need to divide? What purposes does cell division serve?

What problems can be associated with abnormal cell division?

What is DNA?

Where is DNA found?

What advantage is it for DNA to make exact copies of itself?

What is a mutation?

Give one advantage of DNA mutation

Give one disadvantage of DNA mutation

DNA What is a gene?

What do genes do?

Apart from genes what else can effect what an organism looks like?

Theory of Evolution
5.8 relates the structure and function of living things to models, theories and laws. 5.8.3 the theory of evolution and natural selection to: a) discuss evidence that present day organisms have developed from different organisms in the past. b) Relate natural selection to the theory of evolution.

Key Words
Evolution Offspring Darwin Reproduce Lamarck Fossil Mendel Environment Variation Radioactive dating Natural selection

Summary Notes
Evidence for evolution includes - fossils - comparative anatomy - comparative embryology - biochemistry - geographical distribution of species. The main points of natural selection are: Genetic variation naturally exists in any species Reproductive overproduction occurs The environment favours some variations over others the environment, both biotic and abiotic, contains selective agents Favourable variations enable better adapted individuals in the population to breed more successfully and pass on to following generations their favourable genetically determined characteristics Natural selection leads to changes in the frequency of some genes (this is called evolution).

Cloze Passage

Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. Charles D_________________ first suggested that living things developed from simpler organisms over very long periods of time. This theory is known as e________________. 2. The unaccepted theory that explained that changes in organisms were acquired during their lifetime and passed onto their offspring was proposed by L______________________. 3. Support for the theory of e__________________ comes from the study of ancient life forms called f_______________. 4. Similarity of the e_____________ of vertebrates indicate that they may share a common ancestor. 5. The process by which species change and form new species is explained by the theory of n_____________ s__________________ which is often called the survival of the fittest. 6. This theory above explains evolutionary changes occur because members of a single species show v____________. In the struggle to survive, some members of the species die before they r__________________. The members that survived, possibly due to a characteristic that was an advantage to their survival, were able to pass on their beneficial characteristics to their o_________________. Over time, these organisms become better suited to their e_____________________. 7. The approximate age of fossils may be determined by r____________________dating of the rocks in which they are found.

Questions
What is evolution?

What evidence is there that present day organisms have developed from organisms in the past?

What is the theory of natural selection?

How does natural selection relate to evolution?

What is a fossil?

How can an organism become a fossil?

Humans
5.8 relates the structure and function of living things to models, theories and laws. 5.8.4 humans to: a) describe the role of, and interaction between, coordination systems in maintaining humans as functioning organisms. b) describe some responses of body systems to infectious and non-infectious diseases. c) relate the organs involved in human reproductive systems to their function.

Key Words
Coordination System Hormones Pituitary Infectious Microbe Mutation Antibodies Vaccine Uterus Uterus Embryo Central nervous system Tissue Pancreas Pathogen Antibiotic Testes Immune system Organ Reflex Bacteria Penicillin Ovary Foetus Neurone Immunity Viruses Bacteria Testes Gestation Non-infectious Impulse Pathogen White cells Virus Zygote

Summary Notes
Coordination systems in the human body include the nervous system & endocrine system. The nervous system has sensory nerves (eg retinal cells) and motor (responding) tissue eg muscle connected via the brain or reflex arcs The endocrine system receives stimuli from various sources e.g. from nerves and biochemical changes in the blood. The endocrine system responds by releasing hormones into the blood from glands such as the pituitary and the adrenal glands which affect target cells to produce a response eg coordinate growth and development or reproductive cycles The nervous and endocrine systems interact with each other. e.g. eyes detect danger & the adrenal glands respond by releasing adrenalin, preparing the body for a fight or flight response. Responses to infections: If a body becomes infected by a pathogen ( a disease causing organism) it may (a) become inflamed and send phagocytes (specialised cells) to site of infection (b) produce fever to speed up body's responses (c) produce antibodies to deactivate the pathogen (d) Eject pathogens by coughing, vomiting or diarrhoea (e) Produce antimicrobial substances eg interferon Relating the organs involved in the human reproductive system to their function; Ovaries - through meiosis gametes (eggs) are produced & released periodically Uterus - provides an environment for a fertilised zygote to develop in a lining called the endometrium. Vagina - a lubricated passage in which semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. Testes - by meiosis many gametes sperm) are produced Penis- Enables delivery of the male gametes inside the females vagina

Nervous System

3 MAIN PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Brain 2. Spinal Cord 3. Nerves - Sensory and Motor Nerves

THE NEURONE

Nerve cells are called neurones. A neurone consists of a cell body (with a nucleus and cytoplasm), dendrites which carry electrical impulses to the cell, and a long axon which carries the impulses away from the cell. The axon of one neurone and the dendrites of the next neurone do not actually touch. The gap between neurones is called the synapse.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Central Nervous System comprises the Brain and the Spinal Cord - the parts enclosed and protected by bone. 3 Parts of The Brain 1. Cerebrum (Forebrain) - the largest section of the brain, which lets us think, interpret sensory messages, carry out voluntary muscle movements, remember and have consciousness 2. Cerebellum (Midbrain) - helps us to keep our balance, and have repetitive muscle control 3. Medulla Oblongata (Hindbrain) - control the vital functions of heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain and the spinal cord. There are 2 types of nerves - sensory and motor nerves. Sensory Nerves carry information about the surroundings from the sense receptors in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and tongue, along the spinal cord to the brain to be interpreted. Motor Nerves carry messages from the brain through the spinal cord to the muscles and other organs to produce an action. Some of the nerves of the peripheral nervous system are under voluntary control (e.g. controlling motor nerves and muscles when writing). Other nerves are involuntary or uncontrolled (e.g. regulating heartbeat).

A REFLEX ARC

A reflex arc involves transmission of a nervous impulse or message from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and back to muscles. Later, the message also reaches the brain for interpretation. Example: touching your hand on a hot stove

Endocrine System

Hormone - A hormone is a chemical secreted by an endocrine gland and carried in the bloodstream to target organs where it performs a specific function. Functions of Hormones - The varying actions performed by hormones may be fast-acting (e.g. Adrenalin is a hormone that rapidly speeds up the heart and breathing rates when we get a fright), or may be slow-acting (e.g. Human Growth Hormone regulates the many body processes involved in growing from conception to death). Endocrine Glands - These glands are ductless, and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Examples of Endocrine Glands - adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and ovaries and testes

HOMEOSTASIS (or BODY BALANCE)

Homeostasis - This is the tendency to maintain stability or uniformity in an organism's internal environment. A balance is maintained of temperature, and of chemicals such as water, salts and glucose. A Stimulus-Response Model

Maintaining Human Body Temperature (37oC)

1. If body temperature rises above 37oC - The skin produces sweat which cools the body by using excess body heat to evaporate it. Also the body can consume cool drinks, find cool shade, radiate heat through the skin or by breathing out warm air, and by defaecation or urination. 2. If body temperature falls below 37oC - The muscles may shiver to produce heat through friction, skin muscles may contract to produce insulating air pockets next to the skin with 'goosebumps' and upright hairs, the body consumes warm drinks or finds warm shelter.

Maintaining Water Balance Water is essential to the body for chemical reactions to take place within cells. The amount of water consumed in food and drink should equal the amount of water lost through breathing out, sweating, urination and defaecation.

Maintaining Salt Balance

Excess salt in humans is excreted in both urine and sweat.

Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from 2 parents usually, and involves the joining of gametes (e.g. sperm, pollen, egg) to form a single cell called a zygote (or fertilised egg). The offspring are similar, but not identical to the parents. Advantages of Sexual Reproduction - There is greater genetic variation of the offspring and therefore, greater chance of survival in changing environments. Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction - Energy is expended in finding a mate in many organisms. However some organisms have both male and female reproductive organs that are able to produce gametes simultaneously.

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Gametes are the reproductive cells. The male gamete is called the sperm in many animals, and pollen in many complex plants. The female gamete is called the egg or ovum (Plural: ova). Gonads are the reproductive organs that produce gametes and sex hormones. The human male gonad is called the testis (Plural: testes), and the female gonad is the ovary. Puberty is the time during teenage years when males start to produce sperm, and females start to release eggs. Puberty occurs a couple of years earlier for females than males usually.

Menopause is the time when females stop releasing eggs. This usually occurs between 45 to 55 years of age. However, males do not undergo menopause and produce sperm all their lives following puberty.

THE HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM THE PATH THAT SPERM TRAVEL Testes

Epididymis

Vas Deferens (or Sperm Duct)

Urethra PARTS OF THE HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testis

There are 2 testes situated in a sac called the scrotum Produces sperm in large numbers in seminiferous tubules Produce male sex hormone called testosterone which regulates sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. hair on face chest armpits and pubic area, deep voice, muscle bulk)

Epididymis

Stores the large numbers of sperm until they are ejaculated out through the penis

Sperm Duct or Vas Deferens

Transports sperm from the testis to urethra

Semen - Producing Glands

Semen is the fluid produced to protect the sperm from dehydration and the acidic environment of the female vagina after sexual intercourse. Semen also allows the sperm to swim more easily. Semen - producing glands are Cowper's Gland, the Seminal Vesicles and the Prostate Gland.

Urethra

This is the tube that normally carries urine from the urinary bladder. When semen containing sperm is ejaculated, it also travels out through the urethra, but the prostate gland enlarges to block off any urine from the bladder at that time.

Penis

The urethra is the tube inside the penis. During sexual intercourse, the spongy cells that surround the urethra fill with blood, and the penis becomes firm and erect.

THE HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM THE PATH THE EGG TRAVELS Ovary

Oviduct or Fallopian Tube

Uterus or Womb

Cervix

Vagina

PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovary

There are 2 ovaries Produces eggs or ova, female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) that regulate the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and the secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. pubic and underarm hair, breasts, enlarged hips) At birth, females have all their eggs formed, but in an immature state After puberty and before menopause, one egg is released about every 28 days from each ovary

Oviduct or Fallopian Tube

Connects between ovary and uterus Place where conception or fertilisation of an egg by a sperm occurs

Uterus or Womb

Strong muscular and elastic organ where an unborn baby develops After an egg is released from the ovary, a blood-filled lining develops on the walls of the uterus in preparation for the nourishment of the unborn baby. If no fertilisation of the egg occurs, then this lining passes out through the vagina over several days as 'periods' or menstruation.

Cervix

The opening between the uterus and the vagina During pregnancy, a mucous plug forms across the cervix separating the uterus from the outside to prevent infection of the unborn baby. This plug falls out, and the cervix dilates before the birth of a baby.

Vagina

Place where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse An elastic and muscular organ that expands during birth to allow for the passage of the baby

THE FEMALE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The menstrual cycle begins at puberty and ceases at menopause. It takes about 28 days. Menstruation is regulated by the female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. Day 1 is the day when menstruation or 'periods' begin Menstruation - Menstruation or 'periods' is the release of the blood-filled lining of the uterus if a woman is not pregnant. It lasts about 5 days. Ovulation is the release of the egg from the ovary between about Days 12 to 16. A woman will become pregnant if fertilisation (the joining of the egg and the sperm) occurs several days after ovulation when the egg is in the fallopian tube. During pregnancy, menstruation ceases.

FERTILISATION OR CONCEPTION

After sexual intercourse, the sperm travels up to join with the egg in the fallopian tube The single-celled fertilised egg is called a zygote 23 chromosomes of the sperm and 23 chromosomes of the egg combine in the zygote's nucleus, so that the developing baby has 46 chromosomes

GESTATION OR PREGNANCY

Gestation in humans lasts about 40 weeks or 9 months The first sign that a woman is pregnant is usually absence of menstruation ('no periods') After fertilisation in the fallopian tube, the zygote multiplies to form a ball of cells which travels down to the uterus The ball of cells (embryo) implants into the wall of the uterus At the place where implantation occurs, an organ called the placenta develops The umbilical cord grows between the placenta and the unborn baby's navel Inside the umbilical cord are blood vessels which provide nutrients and oxygen to the baby, and return wastes such as carbon dioxide back to the mother's bloodstream As the baby grows, it is called a foetus The foetus is protected by amniotic fluid inside an amniotic sac In the ninth month of pregnancy, the foetus turns upside down, and the mother's breasts enlarge ready for milk production

BIRTH

At about 9 months, the 'plug' at the cervix releases, the amniotic sac breaks and fluid comes out through the vagina ('breaking of the waters') Muscular contractions occur to both dilate the cervix, and 'push' out the baby head first from the uterus Further muscular contractions expel the placenta The umbilical cord is cut close to the baby's navel

The mother begins breast milk production The mother begins the menstrual cycle again, after the lining of the uterus from the pregnancy has been expelled over several days Breech Birth occurs when the baby is born legs first Caesarean Birth is the surgical removal of the baby from the mother's uterus Twins - Identical Twins (i.e. 2 sisters or 2 brothers) form when one egg and one sperm join, but as the zygote multiplies to form a ball of cells, the ball splits and the 2 embryos implant separately into the wall of the uterus. Non-identical or Fraternal Twins are formed when 2 eggs are fertilised by 2 sperm.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. C___________________ describes how all the systems of the living body work together so that the body functions efficiently. 2. A t____________is a group of cells that carry out a specialised function in the body. 3. An o_________________consists of one or more tissues to carry out one or more functions in the body. 4. A s_________________ consists of two or more organs working together. eg the c_________________ n________________ s_____________ consists of the brain and spinal cord. 5. The endocrine system consists of glands like the ovaries and testes that produce special chemicals called h_________________. These chemicals are carried in the blood to control certain functions of the body. 6. Some examples of endocrine glands in the body are the o__________, t________________, p__________________ and the p_______________ gland which is the considered the master gland instructing other glands to release their hormones. 7. A r____________ action is a very rapid, unconscious and uncontrolled response by the body to a stimulus which could be harmful to the body. 8. Another name for a nerve cell is n__________________. 9. A nerve message is called an i_________________. 10. Two examples of disease-causing microbes are b________________ and v_____________. 11. Antibiotics kill only the b________________ causing infections in the body, not v__________________. 12. One example of an antibiotic is p___________________. 13. A v_________________taken orally or by injection may be used medically to prevent diseases from bacteria and viruses. 14. Female sex cells are made in hormone producing organs (endocrine glands) called o_____________. 15. Male sex sells are made in hormone producing organs called t________________. 16. The development of a baby occurs in the organ of the female called the u_____________ or w_______________. 17. The period of development of the baby from fertilisation to birth is called g___________________. 18. A fertilised egg is called a z_______________. 19. Conception is the union of a male sex cell with a female sex cell and is also called f______________. 20. The baby in the earliest stage of development is called an e____________. 21. When a baby reaches a stage of development in the uterus that makes it recognisable as human it becomes known as a f______________. 22. Infectious diseases, eg Chicken pox, are caused by microbes known as p__________________. 23. N________________________ diseases cannot be spread from person to person. 24. W_____________ cells in the blood defend the body by destroying invading disease-forming organisms. 25. The immune system produces special proteins called a________________ to fight invading pathogens.

26. Sometimes changes to genes and chromosomes may occur in living things. These changes are called m_______________ and generally have no adverse effect if the changes are minor. These changes may be caused by exposure to radiations like r______________ or c________________. 27. The body provides i____________y to disease by producing substances to attack invading organisms.

Questions

Big Bang Theory

5.9 relates the development of the universe and the dynamic theories and laws and the influence of time. 5.9.1 the big bang theory to: a) discuss current scientific thinking about the origin of the universe. b) identify that some types of electromagnetic radiation are used to provide information about the universe. c) describe some of the difficulties in obtaining information.

Key Words
Big bang Planet Lenses White dwarf Electromagnetic Universe Star Mirrors Supernova Light years Nuclear fusion Planet Plate tectonics Optical telescope Expansion Moon Nebula Galaxy Refractor Black hole Continental drift Radio telescope Solar system Reflector Red giant

Summary Notes
The current theory about the origin of the Universe is called the Big Bang Theory. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe came into existence about 15 billion years ago with the explosion of a massive singularity (object of negligible size). Evidence for the Big Bang is very strong two key pieces being the observed outward expansion of the Universe and the existence of a form of radiation called cosmic background radiation throughout the Universe. The Universe is observed from the Earth using only light telescopes and radio telescopes, since these are the only two forms of radiation that can penetrate the atmosphere from space. Satellites observe the Universe using other wavelengths, including x-rays, infrared and microwaves. Special on-board detectors are placed on the satellites which, being above the atmosphere, are able to see these other forms of electromagnetic waves. Difficulties in observing the Universe most wavelengths do not penetrate the atmosphere so satellite borne detectors must be used expensive and limited light and other waves take a very long time to reach Earth from distant objects therefore the further we look the further back in time we are seeing gas and dust in interstellar space absorbs much of the radiation from distant objects light and other waves from distant objects is very faint, so large telescopes are needed to gather the waves energy The following graphic show time lines for events following the Big Bang.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. The theory that suggests that the universe began with a violent explosion is called the B______ B__________. 2. The universe began about 12 b____________ years ago. 3. The explosion that is thought to have begun the universe may be the reason for the e_______________ of the universe that may continue forever or may eventually cause the universe to collapse in on itself. 4. Astronomers use the speed of l_____________ to measure distances in space. 5. Distances in space are measured in l______________ y_________. 6. Radiotelescopes like Australias P__________ R____________ collect r__________ w__________ from objects in space like s___________ and g_______________. 7. The advantage of collecting r___________signals from space is that this kind of e___________________c radiation is not obstructed by clouds of dust like l___________ energy is. 8. Radiotelescopes can operate all day even in c_________y weather whereas optical telescopes can only operate at n______________ and when there are no c_________. 9. Astronomers use i___________ waves or h_______ energy to study cooler places in the universe such as star forming regions, faint stars and p_______________ and m_______ of our solar system. 10. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation used in the study of the universe are X________, g__________________, and u__________________. These radiations are collected in space by special detectors because they cannot penetrate Earths a___________________. 11. Optical telescopes make use of components called l_____________ or m______________ to collect light energy from space. Consequently, these telescopes are known as refractors and r____________________. 12. A g_____________ consists of billions of stars. Ours is called the M___________ W__________. 13. Stars create their energy from the nuclear f_______________ reaction involving h_______________gas being changed to h_____________ gas. 14. A star undergoes change over time called a l___________ c______________. 15. A n______________ is a cloud of dust and gas. Many are places where s____________are being created. 16. Some large stars end their existence with a huge explosion called a s________________ resulting in a b___________ h_____________. 17. Our Sun will exist for about another 5 b____________ years. As it uses up its fuel, the Sun will become a large star called a r____________ g_______________ near the end of its existence and eventually change to a w__________ d______________.

Questions

Briefly describe what is meant by the Big Bang Theory

What is electromagnetic radiation?

How can electromagnetic radiation be used to find out about the universe?

What problems can be associated with gaining information about the universe?

What is a galaxy? What is the name of our galaxy?

What is the nearest star to the earth?

What is the major gas in a star?

What is the name of the process that powers a star?

Describe some of the changes that can occur to a star over time?

Plate Tectonics & The Universe & Natural Events

5.9 relates the development of the universe and the dynamic theories and laws and the influence of time. 5.9.2 the theory of plate tectonics to: a) discuss evidence that suggests crustal plates move over time. 5.9.3 components of the universe to: a) relate some major features of the universe to theories about the formation of the universe. b) describe some changes that are likely to take place during the life of a star. 5.9.4 natural events to: a) identify that geological history can be interpreted from the formation, by sediments, of horizontal layers in which the oldest are at the base and the youngest at the top. b) describe conditions under which fossils form. c) relate the fossil record to the age of the Earth and the time over which life has been evolving. d) relate movements of Earths plates to convection currents in the asthenosphere and to gravitational forces. e) explain how earthquakes, volcanic activity and new landforms result from interactions at plate boundaries. explain some impacts of natural events including cyclones, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes on the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and/or biosphere.

Key Words
Crust Mantle Eruption Hydrosphere Sedimentation Ring of fire Fault Surface waves Convection current Asthenosphere Atmosphere Pangaea Cyclone Primary waves Lithosphere Biosphere Gondwana Tornado Volcano Magma Subduction Tsunami Secondary waves Lava Earthquake Ridge

Summary Notes
Evidence that the crustal plates move the matching shapes of continents once joined together fit like a jigsaw puzzle. the movement of crustal plates has recently been monitored using GPS technology. Rates of movement range from 2 to 15 centimetres per year. effects of plate movements include earthquakes and volcanoes, especially at plate boundaries, mountain building (Andes and Himalayas) and formation of deep ocean trenches.

The above graphic shows the locations of active volcanoes. These occur at the plate boundaries at which movements generate heat and forces giving rise to volcanic activity and earthquakes. The formation of the Universe The Universe began with an event referred to as the Big Bang about 12 to 15 billion years ago. Beginning as an exploding point of matter, smaller than an atom, called a singularity, the Universe rapidly expanded as matter and energy came into existence. The main element formed was hydrogen that formed the stars, organised into huge groups called galaxies. Evidence for the Big Bang includes the observed present day expansion of the Universe, the existence of cosmic background radiation left over from the Big Bang and the relative amounts of hydrogen and helium in the Universe, consistent with evolutionary models of the Big Bang. Evolution of stars Stars of mass similar to the Sun expansion to form red giant and energy pro High mass stars (>8 solar masses) form a dense, hot white dwarf

expansion to form red giant and energy production from helium f collapse of the core resulting in a massive explosion called a supernova, leaving behind either a small, rapidly spinning pulsar (from lower mass stars) or a black hole (from higher mass stars)

Sedimentation Sedimentation occurs when particles of rock, soil and organic matter settle into layers. This most commonly occurs in water when suspended material settles typically as a result of the water becoming less turbulent, for example as it flows from a river into a lake or the ocean. Sedimentation of wind borne material can also take place. Sediments are usually deposited as horizontal layers. Over long time periods, sediments are compressed to form sedimentary rocks. Heat and pressure may alter these rocks physically and chemically to form metamorphic rocks. The third rock type is igneous rocks are formed from molten material such as magma (beneath the Earths surface) or lava (at the Earths surface). Principle of superposition: The scientific law stating that in any unaltered sequence of rock strata (layers), each stratum is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it, so that the youngest stratum will be at the top of the sequence and the oldest at the bottom.

Plate tectonics The Earths solid surface consists of regions separated by boundaries like pieces of a jigsaw. The plates move slowly (speeds ranging from 2 cm/year to 15 cm/year), driven by convective motion of the liquid material underlying the crust (the mantle). The main features of plate tectonics are: * The Earth's surface is covered by a series of crustal plates. * The ocean floors are continually, moving, spreading from the centre, sinking at the edges, and being regenerated. * Convection currents in the asthenosphere beneath the plates move the crustal plates in different directions. * The source of heat driving the convection currents is radioactivity deep in the Earths mantle. Collisions and relative movement between plates produces earthquakes and gives rise to chains of volcanic activity (such as those on the Pacific rim), earthquakes, mountain building and new landforms, (the Himalayas and the Andes are spectacular examples. Check out the USGS site for some excellent explanations and graphics. http://www.usgs.gov/ Layers of the Earth The Earths surface is broadly classified into regions identified as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of gas surrounding the Earth extending to the edge of space at an altitude of about 100 km. Most of the atmosphere is in the first 10 km above the Earth. The key components of the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour. The atmosphere gives rise to weather. It protects us from harmful radiation from space. The hydrosphere is the liquid component of the Earths surface it is mainly ocean. Oceans not only provide resources such as food, but they play a key role in driving the weather and helping to maintain moderate global temperatures. The lithosphere is the solid layer of the Earth, made up of rocks. Most of these are igneous, extending to depths ranging from 15 km under the oceans to 200 km beneath the continents. Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks also make up the lithosphere.

The biosphere is the region in which life is found. It includes the atmosphere, the oceans, the crust. Recently it has been discovered that ancient bacteria are living up to several kilometres into the Earths crust.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words. 1. The crust of the Earth is made up of sections called p________________ which slowly move in different directions over time causing m______________ , e______________ and v_______________to form. The theory that explains this phenomenon is called p______________ t____________________ or is often called the theory of c________________ d_____________. 2. The Ring of Fire describes the region encircling the Pacific Ocean where many v_______________ are located. 3. The movements of the sections of crust is caused by c_________________ c____________ in a special part of the hot mantle inside the Earth called the a__________________________. 4. The single, giant landmass or supercontinent that originally existed 250 million years ago is called P________________. 5. Australia is part the landmass known as G_________________ which separated from the original landmass about 200 million years ago. 6. The process of s________________ involves oceanic crust sliding below continental crust. 7. The San Andreas f_________________ is where two plates are sliding past each other whereas an ocean ridge at the bottom of the A__________ Ocean has been formed by two plates pulling apart. 8. Earthquakes consist of three kinds of waves of which the s________________ waves cause the most damage. 9. The H_______________ mountains have been formed by two plates crashing into each other.

10. The sedimentary rocks of the crust are formed in h__________________ layers under w__________. 11. A f_________ is the remains of ancient life commonly formed by rapid burial in water. 12. A rock near the top of a sequence of rocks is y____________ than the rock at the bottom which is considered the o___________. 13. The sedimentary rock called l___________ had been formed millions of years ago from the skeletons of a_____________ that lived in a warm tropical s___________. 14. Lava from volcanoes cools to form a black rock called b______________. 15. The layer of gases surrounding the Earth is called the a__________________. 16. The crust of the Earth is also called the l_______________________. 17. The biosphere is where all l___________ is found. 18. Oceans, rivers, lakes etc make up the h__________________ of the Earth. 19. Three examples of natural disasters associated with plate movements are volcanic e________________, t___________________ and e________________________. 20. A volcano erupts when m____________ moves upwards through the Earths crust. Magma then becomes known as l__________. 21. Examples of natural disasters that originate in the atmosphere are c_______________, and t__________________.

Questions
What is meant by the term crustal plate movement?

What causes crustal plates to move?

How do earthquakes occur?

If you were looking at some rocks in a road cutting where would you be most likely to find the oldest rocks?

How could a leaf be turned into a fossil?

Approximately how old is the earth?

How long has life been on the earth?

Ecosystems
5.10 assesses human impacts on the interaction of biotic and abiotic features of the environment. Students will learn about: 5.10 ecosystems to: a) distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment. b) describe the importance of cycles of materials in ecosystems. c) describe some impacts of humans on ecosystems. d) discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems with conserving, protecting and maintaining the quality of the environment.

Key Words
Biotic Conservation Decomposition Water Abiotic Farming Bacteria Rain Cycle Mining Fungi Light Ecosystem Evaporation Photosynthesis Erosion Ecology Biodiversity Pesticides Respiration Temperature Oxygen Introduced species

Summary Notes
Biotic features of the environment are those features or components that are living. These include plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms such as bacteria and other single celled organisms. Abiotic features are the non-living components of the environment. These include water, air, temperature, light intensity, nutrients, gravity. Given the finite quantity of natural resources, recycling of materials in the environment is essential to the ongoing viability of the Earths biota (living things). Cycles include the water cycle, nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle. Since humans rely on their environment for their survival, it is important to understand how we can protect it for the benefit of all humans and other living things, since there is an interconnected web of dependence. Nitrogen Cycle

All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., proteins and nucleic acids. Air, which is 79% nitrogen gas (N2), is the major reservoir of nitrogen. But most organisms cannot use nitrogen in this form. Plants must secure their nitrogen in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in compounds such as: o nitrate ions (NO3 ) o ammonia (NH3) o urea (NH2)2CO Animals secure their nitrogen (and all other) compounds from plants (or animals that have fed on plants).

Four processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere:

nitrogen fixation decay nitrification denitrification

Microorganisms play major roles in all four of these. Nitrogen Fixation The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can combine with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy. Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:

atmospheric fixation by lightning biological fixation by certain microbes alone or in a symbiotic relationship with some plants and animals industrial fixation

Atmospheric Fixation The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that are carried to the earth. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 58% of the total nitrogen fixed. Industrial Fixation Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600C, and with the use of a catalyst, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen (usually derived from natural gas or petroleum) can be combined to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of its is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). Biological Fixation The ability to fix nitrogen is found only in certain bacteria and archaea.

Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the legume family (e.g., soybeans, alfalfa). Some establish symbiotic relationships with plants other than legumes (e.g., alders). Some establish symbiotic relationships with animals, e.g., termites and "shipworms" (wood-eating bivalves). Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil. Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are essential to maintaining the fertility of semi-aquatic environments like rice paddies.

Biological nitrogen fixation requires a complex set of enzymes and a huge expenditure of ATP. Although the first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly incorporated into protein and other organic nitrogen compounds. Decay The proteins made by plants enter and pass through food webs just as carbohydrates do. At each trophic level, their metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds that return to the environment, chiefly in excretions. The final beneficiaries of these materials are microorganisms of decay. They break down the molecules in excretions and dead organisms into ammonia. Nitrification Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants usually through their roots. However, most of the ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps:

Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2). Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3).

These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Through their activities (which supply them with all their energy needs), nitrogen is made available to the roots of plants. Both soil and the ocean contain archaeal microbes, assigned to the Crenarchaeota, that convert ammonia to nitrites. They are more abundant than the nitrifying bacteria and may turn out to play an important role in the nitrogen cycle. Many legumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also perform nitrification converting some of their organic nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil when they shed their leaves. Denitrification The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through ecosystems. Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere. Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments where conditions are anaerobic. They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen for the final electron acceptor in their respiration. Thus they close the nitrogen cycle. Are the denitrifiers keeping up? Agriculture may now be responsible for one-half of the nitrogen fixation on earth through

the use of fertilizers produced by industrial fixation the growing of legumes like soybeans and alfalfa.

This is a remarkable influence on a natural cycle. Are the denitrifiers keeping up the nitrogen cycle in balance? Probably not. Certainly, there are examples of nitrogen enrichment in ecosystems. One troubling example: the "blooms" of algae in lakes and rivers as nitrogen fertilizers leach from the soil of adjacent farms (and lawns). The accumulation of dissolved nutrients in a body of water is called eutrophication.

Carbon Cycle The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) is almost 100 times greater than its concentration in the earth (0.19%). So living things extract carbon from their nonliving environment. For life to continue, this carbon must be recycled. That is our topic.

Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as:

carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and dissolved in water (forming HCO3) carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO3) deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas derived from once-living things dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soil

Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophs:

primarily photoautotrophs, like plants and algae, that use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide to organic matter. and to a small extent, chemoautotrophs bacteria and archaea that do the same but use the energy derived from an oxidation of molecules in their substrate.

Carbon returns to the atmosphere and water by

respiration (as CO2) burning decay (producing CO2 if oxygen is present, methane (CH4) if it is not.

Since measurements of atmospheric CO2 began late in the nineteenth century, its concentration has risen over 20%. This increase is surely "anthropogenic"; that is, caused by human activities:

burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) which returns to the atmosphere carbon that has been locked within the earth for millions of years. clearing and burning of forests, especially in the tropics. In recent decades, large areas of the Amazon rain forest have been cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing.

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Despite these "sinks" for our greatly-increased CO2 production, the concentration of atmospheric CO2 continues to rise? Should we be worried? Carbon dioxide is transparent to light but rather opaque to heat rays. Therefore, CO2 in the atmosphere retards the radiation of heat from the earth back into space the "greenhouse effect". Has the increase in carbon dioxide led to global warming? Average temperatures do seem to have increased slightly (~0.7C) in the last century. Some evidence:

Careful monitoring of both ocean and land temperatures. Many glaciers and ice sheets are receding. Woody shrubs are now growing in areas of northern Alaska that 50 years ago were barren tundra. Many angiosperms in temperate climates are flowering earlier in the spring than they used to. Many species of birds and butterflies are moving north and breeding earlier in the spring.

Water Cycle

There are six important processes that make up the water cycle. These are: Evaporation Evaporation is the process where a liquid, in this case water, changes from its liquid state to a gaseous state. Liquid water becomes water vapour. Although lower air pressure helps promote evaporation, temperature is the primary factor. For example, all of the water in a pot left on a table will eventually evaporate. It may take several weeks. But, if that same pot of water is put on a stove and brought to a boiling temperature, the water will evaporate more quickly. During the water cycle some of the water in the oceans and freshwater bodies, such as lakes and rivers, is warmed by the sun and evaporates. During the process of evaporation, impurities in the water are left behind. As a result, the water that goes into the atmosphere is cleaner than it was on Earth. Condensation Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. Condensation occurs when a gas is changed into a liquid. Condensation occurs when the temperature of the vapour decreases. When the water droplets formed from condensation are very small, they remain suspended in the atmosphere. These millions of droplets of suspended water form clouds in the sky or fog at ground level. Water condenses into droplets only when there are small dust particles present around which the droplet can form. Precipitation When the temperature and atmospheric pressure are right, the small droplets of water in clouds form larger droplets and precipitation occurs. The raindrops fall to Earth.

As a result of evaporation, condensation and precipitation, water travels from the surface of the Earth goes into the atmosphere, and returns to Earth again. Surface Runoff Much of the water that returns to Earth as precipitation runs off the surface of the land, and flows down hill into streams, rivers, ponds and lakes. Small streams flow into larger streams, then into rivers, and eventually the water flows into the ocean. Surface runoff is an important part of the water cycle because, through surface runoff, much of the water returns again to the oceans, where a great deal of evaporation occurs. Infiltration Infiltration is an important process where rain water soaks into the ground, through the soil and underlying rock layers. Some of this water ultimately returns to the surface at springs or in low spots downhill. Some of the water remains underground and is called groundwater. As the water infiltrates through the soil and rock layers, many of the impurities in the water are filtered out. This filtering process helps clean the water. Transpiration One final process is important in the water cycle. As plants absorb water from the soil, the water moves from the roots through the stems to the leaves. Once the water reaches the leaves, some of it evaporates from the leaves, adding to the amount of water vapor in the air. This process of evaporation through plant leaves is called transpiration. In large forests, an enormous amount of water will transpire through leaves.

http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/N/NitrogenCycle.html http://mbgnet.mobot.org/fresh/cycle/ http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Watercycle.shtml http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CarbonCycle.html

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words.

1. The biotic features of an ecosystem include all the l______________ o________________. 2. The a__________________ features of an ecosystem include the non-living things such as t_________________, w____________, l_______________ and o______________________. 3. E__________________is the study of the interaction of organisms with each other and the environment. 4. In an e__________________, organisms interact with each other in a balanced way. 5. C___________________is the management of resources to protect Earths natural resources. 6. Water can exist in all three states, ie s_____________, l_______________ and g______________. 7. The water on Earth moves through a cycle from the e______________ of oceans and other water bodies, to the a_______________ and back to the land and used for living things via the r_____________. 8. The great variety of living things is called b_________________________. 9. Humans are affecting the biodiversity by causing loss of habitat through activities such as f_______________, m____________,

building c_______________, using p_________________ for control of pests in agriculture and by adding introduced s_________________ eg the rabbit, which may compete with native species for food. 9. The clearing of land for agriculture has also caused huge problems such as e_______________ along river banks and gullies. 10. The element c___________ ,which is present in all living things, is cycled through nature particularly via the processes of r________________, p________________ and d______________________ of dead organisms. 11. The process of making food in plants from water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants) is called p____________________. 12. R________________ is the chemical process that occurs in all cells of living things involving the breakdown of food (glucose) in the presence of o_________________ to produce energy. 13. D_________________ involves the breakdown of dead organisms by bacteria and f______________.

Questions
What are biotic features in an environment?

What are abiotic features in an environment?

Why are cycles (eg water, carbon, nitrogen) important to ecosystems?

Energy Resources & Waste from Resource Use

5.11 analyses the impact of human resource use on the biosphere to evaluate methods of conserving, protecting and maintaining Earths resources. Students will learn about: 5.11.1 energy resources to: a) discuss the importance of energy as a resource and identify renewable and non-renewable sources of energy b) identify properties that make some natural resources economically important and describe their uses. 5.11.2 waste from resource use to: a) relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances. b) identify excessive use of fossil fuels as contributing to a greenhouse effect.

Key Words
Renewable Non-renewable Acid rain Coal Methane Greenhouse effect Nuclear Tidal energy Petroleum Natural gas Biomass Photovoltaic cells Pollution Fossil fuel Solar energy Geothermal Ore Law of conservation of energy

Summary Notes
(a) A resource is anything we make use of. Resources help us to survive. Examples of resources include food, water, oxygen, fossil fuels, solar energy. Some resources provide the energy, which is essential for our industry and technological way of life. For example, electrical energy is produced by burning fossil fuels, in hydroelectric power stations by moving water and by fission reactions in nuclear power plants. Some sources of energy are renewable this means they will not run out if used wisely (ie they can be maintained and are continually replenished) Examples of such energy resources include solar energy, wind, moving water. Non-renewable resources are only available in limited supplies and can run out. Examples include coal, oil and natural gas (the fossil fuels) which are mined from the ground (b) (i) Fossil fuels are an economically important natural resource because they contain a great deal of stored chemical energy which can be converted into useful forms easily by burning them. they are relatively easy to find and extract from the ground Some important uses include producing electricity in coal-powered stations fuel for cars and trucks transportation raw materials for materials such as plastics (ii) Wood - this is economically important because it is easy to grow (renewable) and harvest it has a properties which allow it to be used for a variety of things including

- as a fuel for heating and cooking - constructing dwellings - making furniture - making decorative items * Exam questions on resources often involve analysis of data from tables or graphs and/or the drawing of graphs There is also often a link made between environmental problems like Global Warming, Acid Rain, the thinning of the Ozone Layer and the use of fossil fuels. Make sure you understand the basic nature and causes of each of these environmental problems and how our use of non-renewable energy resources may be contributing to them. Major Sources of Pollution These can be broken into different kinds of sources: 1. Point sources - where pollutants come directly from one identifiable place like a chimney stack. 2. Non-point sources - where the pollutants are emitted from over a wide area, such as emissions from cars in the metropolitan area. 3. Natural sources - Lightning is a major source of nitrogen oxides, which can be a serious pollutant. References: http://www.airwatch.gov.au/otherStuff/majorSources.xml http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/eae/Acid_Rain/Older/Natural_Sources.html http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/eae/Global_Warming/Older/Fossil_Fuels.html http://icp.giss.nasa.gov/research/methane/greenhouse.html http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/eae/Global_Warming/Older/Greenhouse_Effect.html http://esa.sdsc.edu/carpenter.htm http://www.enfo.ie/Library/fs/fs16.htm

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words.

1. All energy on Earth originally comes from the S___________. This energy is commonly called s____________ energy. 2. F______________ f_____________ are examples of non-renewable resources because they cannot be replaced when used up. 3. Examples of the fuels above are c_____________ which has been formed from p_______________ in swampy conditions, p__________________ and n_____________ g__________. 4. One disadvantage of burning the fuels above is that c___________ d_______________ is produced which contributes to global warming known as the g________________ e________________. 5. Another problem for the environment from the burning of fossil fuels is a_____________ r____________ which is the result of sulfur gas emissions that eventually dissolve in water in the atmosphere. 6. Two examples of renewable sources of energy are w______________ and t________________ energy. 7. Ores containing m________________ are examples on non-renewable resources. 8. Some countries use the energy from hot rocks. This is called g_____________________ energy. 9. The energy stored in fuels is called c_______________ potential energy. 10. When fuels are burned their energy is converted to h____________. 11. Energy can never be c_____________ or d________________. It becomes changed into other forms of energy. This is called the law of c___________________ of e_______________. 12. Special devices called p__________________cells can change solar energy into e____________________ energy. 13. Decaying plants and animals, or any matter obtained from biological sources commonly called b________________, produce m_______________ gas as a waste product that can be used as a renewable fuel. 14. Hydroelectric power stations use the energy of falling w____________ to drive turbines which generate e__________________. 15. N______________ power stations use radioactive fuels such as p_______________ and u________________ to heat water which changes to s_______________. This drives the turbines to make e_____________________. 16. The environment is said to be p______________________ when it is contaminated with unwanted substances. 17. Recycling of substances is considered to be a method of reducing pollution and the use of some non-renewable materials. Some of the materials commonly recycled are p______________, g___________, p________________, and the metals a ___________ and i_________.

Questions
Describe some of the effects that humans can have on ecosystems?

Why is it important to protect and maintain the quality of the environment?

Give an example of a renewable energy resource?

Give an example of a non renewable energy resource?

What is meant by the term pollution?

What is a fossil fuel?

Technology
5.12 describes scientific principles underlying some common technologies. 5.12 technology to: a) identify that simple machines make tasks easier or more convenient. b) identify some advantages of levers, pulleys, gears and inclined planes. c) describe some everyday uses and effects of electromagnetic radiation, including applications in communication technology. d) discuss, using examples, how developments in electronics have changed technology, and identify some applications. e) give examples of medical and industrial uses of nuclear energy and discuss the benefits and problems associated with these uses. f) Describe some benefits and problems and some of the social and ethical issues of using biotechnology. Describe ways in which technology has increased the variety of materials.

Key Words
Lever Gears Fulcrum Friction Microwaves Plastic Genetic engineering Pulley Inclined plane Ramp Work Television Radio Light Satellite Polymer Geostationary Computer Genetically modified foods DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Summary Notes
Simple machines include levers, pulleys and inclined planes. The wheel and axle is sometimes classified as a simple machine, however it is really a special type of lever. Wedges and screws are variants of the inclined plane, but they too are sometimes classified as simple machines in their own right. These are the building blocks of many more complex machines. A lever used to magnify a force to pull a nail (the load) out of a piece of wood. With this type of lever, the force on the load is greater than, and acts in the opposite direction to the force applied at the other end of the lever. Levers are sometimes used to move a load faster than the force applied is moved this is called a speed magnifier. A pulley can be used to change the direction of an applied force. Due to friction, the applied force is always less than the force acting on the load. Combinations of pulleys can be used to magnify the effect of a force, at the expense of the distance moved by the force applied being greater than the distance moved by the load. http://www.swe.org/iac/LP/pulley_03.html An inclined plane is used to magnify the effect of a force, again at the expense of the distance moved. A person climbing a shallow ramp will find the effort less than a person climbing a steep ramp, but the former will have to move a greater distance. Electromagnetic radiation & communication http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html ultraviolet Some frequencies are used in optical fibre communications technology visible Used in optical fibre communication technology voice, music, data, video information can be transmitted using light near-infrared Used in optical fibre communication technology voice, music, data, video information

infrared Used in optical fibre communication technology voice, music, data, video information. Used by hand-held remote control devices. microwaves Cellular phone networks, wireless computer networks voice, music, data, video information. TV waves TV transmission of audio, video information. Soon text and other data will also be transmitted using digital TV. radio waves Radio voice and music, some amateur enthusiasts transmit pictures as well. Some radio wavelengths are reflected by atmospheric layers and therefore overcome line of site limitations of shorter wavelengths. Electronics and its Applications Electronic devices typically make use of microcircuits based on silicon semiconductors. In the last fifty years, since the invention of the transistor, electronic technology has transformed society. It has given us radio, television, music and video and computers. There is a plethora of consumer electronic devices including microwave ovens, CD players, computers, mobile phones, electronic games, remote control units, digital cameras etc. Optical fibre communications has revolutionised communications. This involves a union of electronics and the rapidly developing technology of photonics. Nuclear Applications In Australia we have no nuclear electricity generation. We produce radioisotopes for medicine and industry. Medical isotopes are used for both diagnosis (medical imaging) and treatment of diseases such as tumours. Nuclear energy is used to produce electricity in countries including Japan, France, Germany, USA and Great Britain. There are some environmental issues associated with mining uranium and in dealing with radioactive waste products. These issues must be balanced against environmental issues associated with coal powered electricity generation, including effects of mining and production of carbon dioxide and other combustion products. Biotechnology Biotechnology applications include: Animal and plant breeding in agriculture, such as embryo splitting in animals, cloning of plants such as the Wollemi pine. http://earthsci.org/geotime/wollemi/wollemi.htm http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/HTML/Wollemi.html http://www.forests.qld.gov.au/educat/btl/dinosaur.htm Production of vaccines and other products such as Hepatitis-B vaccine and human insulin, using genetically engineered bacteria http://rex.nci.nih.gov/PATIENTS/INFO_TEACHER/bookshelf/NIH_immune/html/imm17.html Herbicide resistant crops Bt cotton (to fight cotton bollworm) http://www.biotechnology.gov.au/biotechnologyOnline/Food/InsectResCotton/ProblemInsect/ kill_using_biotech.htm Cloning reproductive and therapeutic DNA fingerprinting Genome decoding, including human There are clear benefits from using biotechnology, but there are potential risks and ethical issues for many people. We still cannot say for certain that genes from genetically engineered crops will not transfer to wild species and what effects this might produce.

Cloze Passage
Complete the sentences below. Some words are not in the key words.

1. Work can be done more easily with the help of simple machines like the l___________, p______________, g____________ and i_______________ p___________. 2. The turning point of a lever is called the f__________________. 3. Another name for inclined plane is a r_______________. 4. Two other applications of inclined planes are the s_______________ and w__________. 5. A p__________ is a grooved wheel and axle around which a rope or cable can be used to change the direction of a force called the e__________ needed to move a load. 6. When a simple machine has two or more pulleys, it becomes known as a b__________ and t______________. 7. Wheels and axles that have teeth are called g___________. 8. Simple machines enable w__________ to be done more conveniently. 9. Machines are never 100% efficient due to the loss of energy through f________________. 10. Energy of movement is called k_____________ energy. 11. Communication in todays society takes advantage of electromagnetic waves such as r________________and t___________________ waves, m________________ and laser l____________ in optic fibres. 12. In Australia, s_____________ in space are used to transmit radio, television and telephone signals to all parts of the country and the world. 13. Mobile phone technology relies on the transmission of r__________waves. 14. The telephone used in the home converts the s____________ of your voice to pulses of electricity. 15. One very useful development in electronics is the c_______________ which can store and process data to make decisions. 16. The electromagnetic radiation called m_________________ are every useful in todays society. They are used in the home to cook food and also by g____________________satellites in communication. 17. Technology has enabled the development of many useful materials such as p____________ commonly called p__________. 18. G_____________ e_________________ is an example of biotechnology. It involves the altering of the D_____ of life in the laboratory. This process has presented e_______________ issues in society eg, the production of g_________________ m________________ foods. 19. Describe one use of any radioisotope in medicine: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________

20. One technological use of a radioactive substance in industry is _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________

Questions
Where do we use electromagnetic radiation in everyday life?

Give one medical use for nuclear energy?

What is biotechnology? Give two examples.

What benefits can biotechnology bring?

What problems could occur as a result of biotechnology?

SKILLS
1. What are the correct headings that should be used when writing a report?

2. What is an Hypothesis?

3. What is an Aim?

4. When writing the results to an experiment how should they be presented?

5. How should diagrams be drawn?

6. What are the rules for drawing graphs

7. What is a control in an experiment? Why do we have them?

8. What is a variable in an experiment? Why do we have them?

9. Why do scientists repeat experiments?

Use some graph paper to graph the following results of an experiment that shows the distance travelled for a ball over time. Dist (m) Time (s) 0 1 3 7 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27

10

11

Describe the motion of the ball

How could you explain the change after 4 seconds

The thermometer scale below shows a reading of

60

50

40

Look at the diagram below Label the equipment

What would you be doing with this equipment.

Draw the equipment scientifically.

School Certificate Defintions Science

A B
abiotic features of ecosystems big bang theory The non living factors that effect an ecosystem eg The theory of the origin of the universe where the weather, soil, light universe commenced with a large explosion when energy was turned into matter. Absorption of light biotechnology When light is totally taken into a substance ie there is no The use of technology to help develop new substances reflection usually associated with black surfaces and techniques for studying living things eg changing bacteria to produce antibiotics can have many benefits to society can create problems acceleration biotic features of ecosystems Any change in velocity measured in ms-2 The living things that effect an ecosystem. They can include food, predators, parasites acid on carbonate Acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water acid on metal Acid + metal salt + hydrogen Eg hydrochloric acid + magnesium magnesium chloride + hydrogen age of earth The earth is thought to be about 4600 million years old. age of life First life is thought to have evolved about 2000 million years ago asthenosphere The part of the earth just below the crust atom
the smallest quantity of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction

boiling When liquids reach their boiling point. The energy required to turn a liquid into a gas.

cell division compound The process where cells divide to form new cells. Mitosis Two or more elements chemically bonded together. They cannot identical cells produced, meiosis cells with half be separated by physical means. Eg water. chromosome number(sex cells) change of state and energy condensation When energy is increased in a substance its state can When gas particles loose enough energy so they cool and change from solid to liquid to gas. In order to reverse this become a liquid eg when steam touches a cool surface energy is ie gas to liquid to solid you must take energy away lost from the steam and it turns to water chemical indicator conduction Any chemical or substance that changes colour in an acid A method of transferring heat energy from one point of or base high temperature to another along a substance(medium) chemical reaction conservation When two or more chemicals are combines and a new The sensible use of the earths resources chemical/s are formed. chromatography The process of separating different substances, liquids, by allowing them to move along a material that absorbs the substances at different rates. Eg separating black texta ink on blotting paper chromosomes Threadlike structures found in the nucleus of most cells that carry genetic information on genes. There are 46 chromosomes in a human body cell consumer Any organism that eats producer organisms in order to survive

convection A method of transferring heat from one point to another in a fluid by the movement of the fluid. Hot fluids rise, cool fluids move in to take their place

circuit diagram core A short hand way of representing an electric circuit. The central part of the earth composed of iron Typical symbols include Conductor(wire) lamp Resistor open switch

circulatory system corrosion Responsible for the transport of materials throughout A chemical reaction between a metal and oxygen that the body. Contains blood, (red, white, platelets) plasma, usually occurs slowly eg rusting iron hormones, nutrients, wastes, carbon dioxide, heat classification crystallisation The arrangement of organisms into groups based on The process of forming crystals from a liquid or gas eg physical characteristics. forming crystals of sugar from sugar cane liquid combustion current A chemical reaction where a substance reacts with The number of electrons that pass a point in a circuit oxygen quickly to produce heat eg burning petrol every second measures in amperes (amps) A

decomposition earthquakes The breakdown of organic matter into simpler The shock that results from the movement of the earth substances beneath the earth. Can be measured with a seismometer. The Geiger scale is a scale of earthquake intensity density ecosystem The mass of a substance divided by the volume density A collection of organisms and the environment in which is measured in kgm-3 they live Kilograms per cubic meter deposition electrical energy The placement of moved material at a point on the A form of energy that is due to electrically charged earth. Usually associated with rivers washing silt and particles (electrons which have a negative charge) depositing out to sea digestive system Responsible for breaking down raw food into chemicals( proteins, carbohydrates etc) that the body can use. Useful products are absorbed into the bloodstream through villi. mouth oesophagusstomach small intestine large intestine bowel anus distance How far an object travels measured in metres electromagnetic spectrum The range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. Includes radio waves, infra red waves, light waves, x rays, gamma rays

electron A small negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus in shells distillation electrostatic charge The process of boiling a liquid and cooling the vapour to A charge a body gains as a result of gaining or loosing separate substances with different boiling points electrons. This can happen as a result of friction(rubbing) or by being touched by another charged object. DNA element Deoxyribonucleic acid a chemical that makes up A substance that cannot be decomposed (broken down) chromosomes into a simpler substance. There are 92 naturally occurring elements and these can be found on the periodic table erosion The movement of weathered material(broken down) from pone place to another by wind, water, gravity evaporation When particles gain enough energy to escape from a liquid as a gas. Eg water molecules when heated can gain enough energy to escape the liquid as a gas. evaporation The process where energy is provided to a liquid that allows the liquid to turn to a gas evolution The slow change in organisms over time excretory system Responsible for the removal of wastes from the body includes skin, kidneys, bladder

F
filtration A process of separating substances using a filter. Eg separating sand from water using a filter paper. food chain A list of organisms linked by who they eat and how energy flows. Grass cow man food web A collection of food chains that gives a more detailed view of the relationships between living things in an area

galaxies A collection of stars, dust and gas held together by gravitational forces. Our galaxy is the Milky Way gases in atmosphere The major gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen 78%, oxygen 20%, other gases (carbon dioxide, argon, helium, and others 2%) genes A part of a chromosome that contains information for one characteristic they have specific locations on chromosomes force gravity What causes objects to change velocity. A force of attraction that exists between any two objects F=ma that have mass. The earth has a large mass so it exerts a large gravitational force on objects. fossil formation greenhouse gases A living thing dies, is covered with silt, compressed, Carbon dioxide is the major green house gas. As levels of turned to rock. greenhouse gases increase in the atmosphere they trap heat in the atmosphere, raising the earths temperature fossil fuels Coal, oil, natural gas fuels used by man as a source of energy freezing When a liquid turns to a solid eg water turns to ice frequency The number of waves that pass a point every second. Wave frequency is measures in Hertz (Hz) friction A force that opposes motion between two surfaces. Friction usually results in a transfer of energy from kinetic to heat.

H
heat energy A form of energy that results from a body radiating energy due to its temperature. human reproduction The process where offspring are produced as a result of sexual intercourse, fertilisation, gestation and birth.

I
industrial uses of nuclear energy For irradiating food to kill bacteria, used in smoke detectors infectious disease Any disease that can be passed from one person to another eg flu

L
law of conservation of energy In any reaction energy can not be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another eg when you burn a piece of magnesium the heat energy you get out is equal to the stored chemical energy in the magnesium life of a star A collection of gas builds and eventually has so much gravitational force that atoms are forced together (fusion). This releases energy. Eventually the star runs out of matter and either explodes or enlarges to a very large gas ball

M
magnetic force A force an object has as a result of being magnetised. This magnetism can be permanent or as a result of an electric current passing through a wire wrapped around a piece of iron

magnetic poles The two points, North and South, at either end of a magnet. mantle The layer of the earth between the core and the crust composed of molten material that moves and causes continents to move. light energy mass vs weight A form of energy that is due to electromagnetic Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object radiation. Our eyes are sensitive to visible light measured in kilograms. Weight is mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity. W=mg light scattering medical uses of nuclear energy When light rays refract and move in different directions. Nuclear isotopes can be used to help kill cells (cancer) or Scattering of light in the sky causes the sky to be blue as used to find problems within our bodies by injecting the blue light is scattered towards the earth isotopes and tracking them with x rays lithosphere The earths crust melting When a solid turns into a liquid eg ice turns to water metals Substances that are usually good conductors of heat and electricity, and are generally shiny when freshly cut. As a solid they can be bent microorganism Any organism (living thing) that can only be seen under a microscope. minerals A naturally occurring substance that usually forms in crystals. Minerals make up rocks. Minerals are also part of a diet. mixture Two chemical substances put together they can usually be separated by physical means eg a mixture of sand and iron filings model of the atom The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons with electrons moving around the nucleus in clouds or shells with a maximum number in each shell. The number of protons equals the number of electrons molecule The smallest part of a chemical compound that you can get. Eg a molecule of water has 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom mutation Any change in the genetic makeup of an organism. Can be caused by radiation, chemicals

N
natural resource Any substance found naturally in the environment that can be utilised by others. Eg wood natural selection The process where the fittest organisms in a population survive. This is part of the process of evolution. nebulae A collection of gases in the universe that have not yet come together to form a star or are the remnants of an exploded star neutralisation When an acid and a base react to become neutral. Acid + base salt + water neutron The particle with no charge found in the nucleus of an atom newtons laws of motion 1. A body stays at rest or moving unless some force changes it. 2. F=ma force = mass times acceleration. 3. When one object pushes on another the 2nd body pushes back with the same force night and day and the earths rotation As the earth rotates the side that faces the sun is in daylight. The side facing away from the sun is in darkness non infectious disease Any disease that cannot be passed from one person to another eg cancer non metals Substances that are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity, and are generally dull when freshly cut. As a solid they are brittle (break when bent) non renewable energy Any energy source that is not replaced naturally eg oil, coal

O
organ A collection of tissues that perform a function eg heart is made up of muscle, nerve, blood tissue our solar system Consists of the sun, 9 planets, various moons, asteroids and comets. ozone A gas made up of oxygen. The ozone layer is found high in the sky and helps in the absorption of ultra violet radiation

parallel circuit radiation Any circuit where current can travel through two or The movement of energy in the form of electromagnetic more possible routes if one component goes out the waves. It does not require a medium to transfer heat by others keep working radiation. Radiation can also be the movement of particles from a radioactive source particle theory of matter radioactivity All matter is made up of particles. Solids have particles The spontaneous decay of a substance as a result of packed in close together and do not move. Liquids have having an unstable nucleus. Substances that are particles packed in close together that can move past radioactive include radium and uranium. each other. Gases have particles that are well spaced and can easily move past each other. Periodic Table reactant in a reaction A table that shows all of the elements arranged in groups The things you mix together in a chemical reaction with similar characteristics. photosynthesis The process where plants convert sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen. plate boundaries The edge of large plates where many continents meet. This is where there is a lot of earthquake and volcanic activity plate tectonics The movement of plates across the earths surface. This movement is powered by convection currents in the mantle pollution Any substance found in the environment that is not naturally found there eg smoke, noise Reflection of light When light bounces off a surface eg a mirror. The angle if incidence equals the angle of reflection relationship between voltage, current and resistance Voltage = current x resistance V=IxR renewable energy Any energy source that is replaced naturally eg wood

reproduction in unicellular organisms Unicellular organisms reproduce by mitosis a process where the cell makes an exact copy of itself. The daughter cell is an exact copy of the parent. Also known as asexual reproduction precipitation resistance The process where two liquids are combined and one of A measure of how much energy is lost in a circuit or in a the products is a solid. part of a circuit measured in ohms () producer respiration Any organism that converts sunlight and carbon dioxide The process where glucose and oxygen combine to into food. Eg plants produce energy and carbon dioxide. This process is what keeps cells alive. product of a reaction respiratory system What is produced in a chemical reaction Responsible for the exchange of gases between the air and the body. Oxygen is absorbed across a membrane (lung or gill) and carbon dioxide is exhaled. Controlled by diaphragm. proton rocks and geological history The positive particle found in the nucleus of an atom Rocks can show us the history of the earth. Studying rocks can help us determine the past history of our planet.

sedimentary rocks the role of genes and the environment in determining Rocks made from other rock fragments, or living material the features of an organism eg sandstone, shale, limestone, coal Both genes and the environment can influence how an organism looks. The environment can alter how organisms look eg sun can bleach hair. sedimentation tissue The process where a solid is allowed to settle to the A collection of similar cells that perform the same bottom of a liquid. Eg shake sand and water and the function eg muscle tissue sand settles to the bottom. series circuit Any circuit where the components are connected in a single continuous line. The disadvantage is that if one component goes out they all go out eg some Christmas light sieving The process of passing different sized solids through a grate or series or different sized grates that separate the mixture solute The substance dissolved in a solvent to make a solution eg sugar is the solute in sugar water solution A mixture of a solvent and a solute. Eg sugar water solvent A liquid that dissolves another substance in it. Eg water is a solvent for sugar sound energy A form of energy that results from a vibrating source producing waves that travel through air (or any other medium). Not all sound can be heard by humans speed Speed equals distance travelled divided by the time taken. Speed is measured in metres per second (ms-1) stars A collection of gases (mainly hydrogen) that is undergoing nuclear fusion and produces light and heat structure of an atom The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons with electrons moving around the nucleus in clouds or shells with a maximum number in each shell. The number of protons equals the number of electrons symbols for elements A short hand way of representing elements eg H for hydrogen, O for oxygen system A collection of organs that work to perform a function. Eg digestive system

U
uses of electromagnetic radiation X-rays, for medical uses Light to see Microwaves cooking, communication Infra red photography velocity see speed

volcanic activity When molten material forces its way to the earths surface resulting in volcanoes voltage A measure of the energy in an electrical circuit measured in volts (V)

W
water cycle The recycling of water on the earth. Water evaporates into the air (and from photosynthesis and respiration )and collects as clouds and falls back to the earth. Watson Crick model of DNA This model is describes as a double helix structure ( a twisted ladder) with 4 different base pairs. wavelength The distance( in metres) between two points on a wave that are moving in the same direction and have the same amplitude. the length of one wave waves A way of carrying energy from one point to another. It involves a regular disturbance in a medium. weathering The breakdown of rocks over time by wind, water, heat