DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING, NOORUL ISLAM UNIVERSITY

2011

12.Explain the term Avionics systems . A system in aircraft is dependent on electronics for its operation, although the system may contain electromechanical elements is called avionics systems. All electronic and electromechanical systems and subsystems (hardware and software) installed in an aircraft or attached to it. (MIL-1553A-HDBK) 2. Equipments in Avionics systems are different from ground based equipments in many ways. Justify. 1. The importance of achieving minimum weight. 2. The adverse operating environment particularly in military aircraft in terms of operating temperature range, acceleration, shock, vibration, humidity range and electro-magnetic interference. 3. The importance of very high reliability, safety and integrity. 4. Space constraints particularly in military aircraft requiring an emphasis on miniaturisation and high packaging densities.
13.What are the major drivers for Avionics systems in a typical civil transport aircraft? The avionics systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and efficiently. The mission is the carrying of the passengers to their destination in the case of a civil airliner. Other important drivers for avionics systems are increased safety, air traffic control requirements, all weather operation, reduction in fuel consumption, improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs . 14. List the various mission phases for military and civil aircraft. Mission phases --Air superiority --Ground Support --Passenger Transport 15. What are the typical Avionics system requirements for cruise phase and air-to-air military mission? Requirements for cruise phase ---Minimum Fuel Consumption ---Maximum Range --Maximum Endurance ---Accurate Navigation, Guidance and Control 16. What are the top level requirements for designing avionics systems in a civil aircraft? The aircraft manufacturer makes a very careful analysis of the potential customer structure, image, and operating philosophies to determine the customer future operating environment. The manufacturer then designs an aircraft that provides an optimum, balance response to the integrated set of needs Safety is always the highest priority need and economical operation is a close second 16. What are the steps involved in Avionics system design? 1. Requirement Analysis 2. Preliminary design 3. Detailed design 4. Testing and maintenance 16. Why weight saving is important in aircraft? A weight saving of 10 kg enables an increase in the payload capability of the order of 100 kg. 17. List the functions carried out by the FMS(Flight Management System) Flight Planning Navigation Management Engine control to maintain the planned speed of mach number Control of the aircraft flight path to follow the optimised planned route. Minimising fuel consumption 18. Briefly describe about the communication systems used in aircraft. The communication radio suite on modern aircraft is a very comprehensive one and covers several operating frequency bands. Long range communication is provided by high frequency radios operating in the band 2 30 Mhz. Near to medium range communication is provided in civil aircraft by very high frequency (VHF) radios operating in the band 30-100 Mhz, and in

19. What are the advantages of system integration by using digital data buses? It reduces the no of wiring requirements for integrating the subsystems. So that it reduces the faults and weight of the total system Greater information sharing can be achieved between subsystems 20. Define the term LRU? Line Replacement Unit, a single stand-alone unit with a unique part number that can be installed or removed from an aircraft by line maintenance personnel while the aircraft is on the flight line

1. What is sampling frequency? Sampling is a process of converting continuous time signals into discrete time signals. The time period between two successive samples are called as sampling period (Ts). Sampling Frequency (Fs) is equal to 1/Ts. 2. List few advantages of digital systems over analog systems . Hardware Economy Reduction in weight and volume is of the order of 5:1 for a system of modest complexity Flexibility Control laws and gains can be changed Reduced nuisance disconnects Sophisticated voting and consolidation algorithms enable unwanted disconnections of redundant systems Built in test capability Comprehensive self test capabilities Digital data buses Large reduction in weight, high integrity data transmission 3. Discuss the problems encountered in digital data. 1. Aliasing 2. Quantization Noise 4. Describe flip-flop as a storage element . Flip-Flop is a memory element which is capable of storing one bit binary information 5. Give some features of 8085 microprocessor. 1. It is an 8-bit Microprocessor. 2. It has 16 address lines, hence it can access 64 Kbytes of memory. 3. It provides 8 bit I/O addresses to access 256 I/0 ports 4. It supports 74 instructions with the following addressing modes: a) Immediate addressing b) Register addressing c) Direct addressing d) Indirect addressing e) Implied addressing 6. What is the function of Program Counter? The program Counter is a special purpose register which, at a given time stores the address of the next instruction to be fetched. Program counter acts as a pointer to the next instruction . 7. What is the function of instruction decoder? The processer first fetches the opcode of instruction from the memory and stores this opcode in the instruction register. It is send to the instruction decoder. The instruction decoder decodes it and accordingly gives the timing and control signal which controls the register, the data buffers, ALU and external peripheral signals depending on the nature of the instruction. 8. Explain the function of interrupts. A more desirable method would be the one that allows the microprocessor to be executing its main program and only stop to service peripheral devices when it is told to do so by the device itself, In effect, the method, would provide an external asynchronous input that would inform the processer that it should complete whatever instruction that is currently being executed and fetch a new routine that will service the requesting device. Once this servicing is completed, the processer would resume exactly where it left off. This method is called interrupt method. 9. What is the difference between Microprocessors and Microcontrollers? Microprocessors 1. Microprocessor contains ALU, general purpose registers, stack pointer, program counter, clock

Microcontrollers . Microcontroller contains the circuitry of microprocessor and in addition it has built-in ROM, RAM, I/O devices, timers and counters . Less flexible in design point of view. . Microcontroller based system requires less hardware reducing PCB size and increasing the reliability. 10. What is memory mapping? Memory mapping is a process of connecting external memory to the microprocessor. It gives the starting address and ending address of the connected memories 11. What are the needs of memory address lines? The memory capacity is directly proportional to the no of address lines. If memory is having 12 address lines and data lines, then Number of registers/memory locations = 4096. Microprocessor 8085 can access 64Kbytes memory since address bus is 16-bit. But it is not always necessary to use full 64Kbytes address space. The total memory size depends upon the application. 12. What is memory word size? 1 word = 8 bits 13. What are the classifications of memories? Memory . Read Only Memory(ROM) . Masked ROM . PROM . EPROM . EEPROM . Read/write memory(RAM) . Static RAM . Dynamic RAM 14. What is aliasing affect? When, the spectrum of the samples overlapping with each other. This is called aliasing effect = maximum frequency component present on the signal 15. What is the difference between volatile and non-volatile memory? The volatile memory retains its contents after switch off the power supply. But the non-volatile memory losses its contents when the power is switched off. 16. What is the function of multiplexer? A multiplexer is a digital switch which routes inputs from several sources to only one sink. The selection of input is achieved by suitable bit combinations of selection lines

1. What is the need for two different speeds in ARINC429? ARINC429 operates at two different speeds. There are 1. Low Speed(12 14 kbps) For general purpose low critical applications High Speed(100Kbps) For flight critical applications 2. Differentiate between centralized, Federated and Distributed architectures Centralized Signal conditioning and computation take place in one or more Computers in a LRU located in an avionics bay, with signals transmitted over one way data bus Federated Data conversion occurs at the system level and the data digital form called Digital Avionics Information Systems (DAIS) Distributed It has multiple processors throughout the aircraft that are designed for computing takes on a real-time basis as a function of mission phase and/or system status. Data Processing is performed in the sensors and actuators. 3.What is the need for Manchester II Bi-phase encoding? It provides a self-clocking waveform with equal positive and negative values and suitable for transformer coupling 4.What is DATAC? Digital Autonomous Terminal Access Communication (DATAC). A carrier sense, multiple access, collision avoidance two-way data bus concept with an operating frequency and word structure identical to MIL-STD-1553B data buses but without a bus controller. Now it is called ARINC629. 5.What is distributed architecture? It has multiple processors throughout the aircraft that are designed for computing takes on a real-time basis as a function of mission phase and/or system status. Data Processing is performed in the sensors and actuators. 6.In Which Data Bus Dynamic bus control acceptance is used and why? Dynamic bus control acceptance is used in MIL-STD-1553B. The operation of a data bus system in which designated terminals is offered control of the data bus (The bus controller gives permission to another terminal for act as a Bus Controller). 7.What are the similarity between ARINC 629 and MIL-STD-1553B?

Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). Each and every terminal on the bus transmits the data autonomously without a Bus Controller. 9.What is the difference between Simplex bus and Duplex bus? In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one way street. Only one of the two stations on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are both examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. In half duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizen -duplex systems. 10. What are the couplings methods used in MIL-STD-1553B and write the difference between them? 1. Transformer Coupling 2. Direct Coupling Differences The primary difference between the two beings that the transformer coupled method uses an isolation transformer for connecting the stub cable to the main bus cable. In the direct-coupled method, the resistors are typically located within the terminal, whereas in the transformer-coupled method, the resistors are typically located with the coupling transformer in boxes called data bus couplers. Another difference between the two coupling methods is the length of the stub. For the direct-coupled method, the stub length is limited to a maximum of one foot. For the transformer-coupled method, the stub can be up to a maximum of twenty feet long. 11.What are the disadvantages of MIL-STD-1533B Data bus? Certification is a biggest problem present in MIL-STD-1533B.Single point failure in 1553B leads to certificability problem in civil aircraft and Addition of remote terminal requires changes in BC software which requires frequent certification standard 12.What is centralized architecture? A system design characterized by signal conditioning and computations are taking place in one computer or several very tightly coupled computers in (usually) one line replaceable unit located in the avionics bay, with signals transmitted over one-way data bus. 13.What is Time division Multiplexing Access? TDM enables information from several signal channels to be transmitted through one communication system by staggering the different channel samples in time to form a composite pulse train. Each signal channel is transmitted as a serial digital pulse train at a given time slot in a clock cycle. Thus given the clock time information and the address of the signal (suitably pulse coded), the receiver can then decode and distribute the individual signals. Hence if there are, say, 30 different signals to be transmitted between two units, only two wires are required in principle when the data is multiplexed compared with 60 wires. 14. Briefly explain the evaluation Avionics Systems Architecture. First Generation Architecture (1940 1950 Disjoint or Independent Architecture ( MiG-21) Centralized Architecture (F-111) Second Generation Architecture (1960 1970 Federated Architecture (F-16 A/B) Distributed Architecture (DAIS) Hierarchical Architecture (F-16 C/D, EAP) Third Generation Architecture (1980 1990 Pave Pillar Architecture ( F-22) Fourth Generation Architecture (Post 2005) Pave Pace Architecture- JSF Open System Architecture 15.. What is protocol? Protocol is a set of formal rules and conventions governing the control of interaction

2. High-level protocol It deals with the data formatting, including the syntax of messages and its format. 16. What is the function of instrumentation bit? The instrumentation bit, in position 10, always shall be set to a logical 0 to allow distinction of a status word from a command word. (In a command word bit 10 is always set to a logical 1 if the instrumentation bit is being used.) 17. Explain Manchester-II-bi-phase encoding? A bi-phase method of encoding binary digits. A binary 1 begins with a positive voltage and swings negative at mid-bit. A binary O begins with a negative voltage and swings positive at mid-bit. 18 Dynamic Bus Control. Dynamic bus control is used in MIL-STD-1553B. The operation of a data bus system in which designated terminals is offered control of the data bus. (The bus controller gives permission to another t erminal for act as a Bus Controller). 19. Why MIL-STD 1553 is not used in civil aircrafts? Getting certification for civil aircraft is very difficult comparing to military aircraft. Single point failure in 1553B leads to certificability problem in civil aircraft. Addition of remote terminal requires changes in BC software which requires frequent certification. 20. What are the disadvantages of Centralized architecture? 1. Vulnerability computer affected all the subsystems sharing its computing facilities. 2. Inflexibility changes in an individual sub system could involve changes in the main co sub systems sharing the computing facility. 3. Cost and weight of redundant central computer configurations was unacceptable. 21. What are the functions of Mode codes in MIL-STD1553B data bus? Mode codes are used only to communicate with the bus hardware and to manage information flow, not to transfer data. 22. Differentiate between MIL and ARINC 429 standard in terms of RT? MIL-STD-1553B All the remote terminals can able to transmit and receive the data Maximum no of remote terminals is 31 ARINC All the remote terminals can only receive the data Maximum no of remote terminals is 20 23. What is the function of status word in MIL-STD-1553B? The status words are used to give information about the status of the subsystems . 24. What is the function of Source destination Identifier (SDI) bit in ARINC429? ARINC429 is a Simplex Data Bus using only one transmitter and up to 20 data receivers. To identify which source in the multisystem is transmitting the data To direct which sink in the multisystem should recognize the data

DISPLAYS AND INTERFACES 1. What is a function of combiner in HUD? The optical element of the HUD through which the pilot views the outside world and which combines the collimated display image with the outside world scene is called combiner 2. What is instantaneous field of View? The angular coverage of the imagery which can be seen by the observer at any specific instant is called instantaneous field of View. 3. What is Total field of view? The total angular coverage of the display imagery which can be seen by moving the observer 4. What are the limitations of single element beam combiner HUDs? Transmission of the outside scene is higher in a single-element combiner than in a three element combiner. 5. What are the advantages of three element beam combiner HUDs? A three element combiner design is used on some high performance aircraft to achieve better producibility, simpler overall HUD design, freedom from secondary reflections and large field of view 6. What are the advantages of HUDs? A HUD basically projects a collimated display in the pilots head up forward line of sight so that he can view both the display information and the outside world scene at the same time. There is no parallax errors and aiming symbols for either a flight path director, or for weapon the pilot 1. Increased safety in landing the aircraft in conditions of severe wind shear 2. To display automatic landing guidance to enable the pilot to land the aircraft safely in conditions of very low visibility due to fog, as a back up and monitor for the automatic landing system.

1. Compare the different avionics system architectures and bring out their merits and demerits. Centralized Architecture Simple design Software can be written easily Computers are located in readily accessible bay Disadvantages Requirement of long data buses Low flexibility in software Increased vulnerability to change Different conversion techniques are needed at the central computer Federated Architecture 2.With neat-sketch Explain about the Pave-Pillar Architecture Increased Information Fusion Higher levels and complexity of software Standardization for maintenance simplification Lower costs Backward and growth capability while making use of emerging technology VHSIC, Voice

 Provides capability for rapid flow of data in, through and from the system as well as between and within the system Higher levels of avionics integration and resource sharing of sensor and computational capabilities Pilot plays the role of a WEAPON SYSTEM MANAGER as opposed to subsystem operator/information integrator Able to sustain operations with minimal support, fly successful mission day and night in any type of weather Face a numerically and technologically advanced enemy aircraft and defensive systems Advantages Component reliability gains Use of redundancy and resource sharing Application of fault tolerance Reduction of maintenance test and repair time Increasing crew station automation Enhancing stealth operation Wide use of common modules (HW & SW)) Ability to perform in-aircraft test and maintenance of avionics Use of VHSIC technology and Capability to operate over extended periods of time at austere, deployed locations and be maintainable without the Avionics Intermediate Shop 3. a) Compare and Contrast the characteristics of MIL-STD1553B, ARINC429 and ARINC629. S.No 1. Characteristics MIL-STD1553B ARINC 429

ARINC 629

Data Rate

1Mbps

2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 7. 8. 9.

Word length

20 bits Message length Transmission Half duplex mode Operation Asynchronous Encoding Manchester Bi Phase Protocol Transmission Media Coupling Command/Resp onse Twisted Pair cable Transformer and Direct coupling

Low speed (12.5 2 Mbps kbps) High Speed (100 kbps) 32 bits 20 bits 32 data words Simplex Half duplex Asynchronous Bi polar return to zero Point-to-point Twisted Pair cable Direct coupling Asynchronous Manchester Bi Phase CSMA/CA Twisted Pair cable Current mode coupling ( Similar to transformer coupling) 120

10

Maximum no terminals connected on the bus

31

20

Advantages Contrast to analog avionics DDP provide precise solutions over long range of flight , weapon and sensor conditions Sharing of Resources Use of TDMA saves hundreds of pounds of wiring Standardization of protocol makes the interchangeability of equipments easier Allows Independent system design and optimization of major systems Changes in system software and hardware are easy to make Fault containment Failure is not propagated 3. Explain the word formats of ARINC 629 Label Word System Status Word Function Status . Parameter Validity Word

. . Explain the function of various timers in ARINC 629

. CSMA/CA is achieved by use of three timers Transmit Interval (TI) Terminal gap (TG) Synchronization gap (SG) Transmit Interval (TI) This timer is same for all terminals The timer starts every time the terminal starts transmitting a terminal has transmitted, it must wait the length of time specified by the TI before it can transmit again Terminal Gap (TG) Unique Timer assigned to each terminal on the Bus. It is used to differentiate between terminals since timer is unique. Thus timer starts only after the SG has elapsed and only if no carrier is present (for collision avoidance). This timer is reset by the presence of carrier. Synchronization Gap (SG) This timer is same for all terminals. It starts the moment the bus is quiet. It is reset if a carrier appears on the bus before it has elapsed (CARRIER SENSING). Once the timer has elapsed, it cannot be reset by the presence of a carrier. It can only be reset, when that terminal begins transmitting. Terminal Access Flow Chart Disadvantages Wastage of resources It is based on the TREE Topology Advantages Critical functions are placed in a separate bus and Non-Critical functions are placed in another bus Failure in non critical parts of networks do not generate hazards to the critical parts of network The communication between the subsystems of a particular group are confined to their particular group The overload of data in the main bus is reduced 1. With neat sketch explain the operation of single element combiner and double element combiner HUD also give its advantages and disadvantages? Tree element combiner HUD It is used in high performance aircrafts Simpler overall HUD design Freedom from secondary reflections Large field of view.

12. What are the advantages of Inertial Navigation Systems? It is completely self-contained navigation system. . High accuracy . It doesn 13What is electronic warfare? Electronic Warfare encompasses all actions involving the use of electromagnetic energy to DETERMINE, EXPLOIT, REDUCE Or PREVENT HOSTILE USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM and actions which RETAIN FRIENDLY USE of the electromagnetic Spectrum . 14. What is data fusion? It is the name given to the process of combining data from number of different sources to provide information which is not present in the individual sources . 15. What are the different types of communication systems in Aircraft? High-frequency (HF) communications; 2. Very high-frequency (VHF) communications; 3. Ultrahighfrequency (UHF) communications; 4. Satellite communications (SATCOM); 5. Data links . 16. What are the various classification of Navigation system?. 1. Navigation by Pilotage 2. Celestial Navigation 3. Navigation by Dead-Reckoning 4. Radio Navigation 5. Satellite Navigation 17. Justify the need for certification. Certification is a critical element in the safety-conscious culture on which civil aviation is based. The legal purpose of avionics certification is to document a regulatory judgment that a device meets all applicable regulatory requirements and can be manufactured properly 18. Describe Fly-by-Wire flight control systems? A flight control system where all the command and control signals are transmitted electrically and the aerodynamic control surfaces are operated through computers which are supplied with the pilots command signals and the aircraft state from appropriate motion sensors 19. Explain Electromagnetic Interference. 1. Any electromagnetic energy which interrupts, obstructs, or otherwise degrades or otherwise degrades or limits the effective performance of telecommunicating (communication-electronic) equipment. 2. 9. What is navigation? 3. Navigation is an art of finding the position of the vehicle with respect to some reference frame. 10. What is Celestial Navigation? Celestial Navigation is accomplished by measuring the angular position of celestial bodies. Almanacs giving the position of celestial bodies at various times are readily available. The navigator measures the elevation of the celestial body with a sextant and notes the precise time at which the measurement is made with a chronometer. These two measurements are enough to fix the position of the vehicle on a circle on the face of the globe. 11. What is dead-reckoning Navigation? In this method of navigation, the position of

electromagnetic waves to find the position of the craft. All the systems depend upon the transmitters and receivers at known locations on the earth receivers working in co junction with them in a vehicle. This type of navigation depends on the external aids and it is not self contained The positional information may be related to 4. Measurement of direction 5. Measurement of distance 6. Difference of distance between two transmitters

Part B Unit-I 1. i) Explain the need for avionics in civil and military aircrafts. development and introduction of avionics systems navigator and Flight engineer. achievement of safe expenses and training costs. (Navigator/Observer/Radar-Operator) 1. ii) Explain integrated avionics systems and weapon systems (i)Explanation (ii)Diagram 2. i) What are the major design drivers for avionics system? designing a digital avionics system development methods in civil and military avionics. The customer prepares the statement of need and top-level description of possible missions The requirement describes the gross characteristic of a hypothetical aircraft that could fly the mission The Customer may also describe the mission environment and define strategic and tactical philosophies and principles and rules of engagement. Top level requirements for the successor to the A-10 Aircraft Minimum Goal 2.ii) Describe the various illities in avionics systems Survivability Capability of systems MIL-STD-2069 Maintainability MIL-STD-721C Vulnerability MIL-STD-2069 Accessibility

3. With a neat block diagram explain the integration of different avionics system. Major avionic systems System Integration . 4. i) Explain clearly the top down design procedure that is adopted in Avionics system design

The overall plan must contain the following 1) A detailed milestone chart 2) A synthesis and analysis plan 3) A verification plan 4) Flight safety, Reliability, Vulnerability and Maintainability analyses plans 5) A functional mock up test plan 6) A ground test plan including test procedures 7) A flight test plan including test procedures 6. Explain the Various Typical Avionics Sub systems.

Displays
pilot crew Airframe data Warning information Weapon aiming Threat warnings 1. Explain the operation of digital computers
INPUT/OUTPUT

. .

3.Explain the different types of Interrupts and its functions in 8085 Vectored Interrupts Maskable and Nonmaskable interrupts 1) Hardware Interrupts 2) Software Interrupts

 Non-maskable interrupt It has highest priority Non Vectored interrupt b) INTR Maskable Interrupt Vectored Interrupt It has second Highest priority c) RST 7.5 Maskable Interrupt Vectored Interrupt It has second highest priority d) RST6.5 & 5.5 Maskable interrupt Vectored interrupt RST 6.5 has the third priority RST 5.5 has the fourth priority 4.Explain the method of Memory Interfacing, and various steps involved in interfacing memory devices with 8085 microprocessor.

The memory interfacing requires 1. Select the chip 2. Identify the register 3. Enable the appropriate buffer 1) Connect the required address lines of the address bus to the address lines of the memory chip. 2) Decode the remaining address lines of the address bus to generate the chip select signal and connect the signal to select the chip. 3) Create control signals MEMR and MEMW by combining RD and WR signals with, IO/M, and use them to enable appropriate buffers. 5. Explain the method of I/O Interfacing, and various steps involved in interfacing I/O devices with 8085 microprocessor. Combine the device address pulse with the control signal to generate a device select (I/O select) pulse that is generated only when both signals are asserted.

 Use the I/O select pulse to activate the interfacing device (I/O port) Decode the address bus to generate the device address pulse. AND the control signal with the device address pulse to generate the device select pulse Use the device select pulse to enable the I/O port.

1.Explain dead-reckoning navigation with one example Inertial Navigation Measurement of direction (RDF) Measurement of Distance (DME) . Difference of distance between two transmitters (LORAN, TACAN, etc) Space segment Almanac - Coarse time information Ephemeris orbital Information Clock information C/A code ( available to public) P-code ( reserved for US military purpose) Control Segment 2.. Explain the various functions involved in Electronic Warfare. Electronic Warfare encompasses all actions involving the use of electromagnetic energy to DETERMINE, EXPLOIT, REDUCE Or PREVENT HOSTILE USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM and actions which RETAIN FRIENDLY USE of the electromagnetic Spectrum. Divisions of Electronic warfare Signals Intelligence Intelligence is collected from a number of different sources to form a strategic picture. These sources include: Electronic Intelligence Communication Intelligence Electronic Intelligence 2. Image Intelligence 3. Photographic intelligence The locations of groups of transmitters and the numbers in the groups The frequency of the transmitter carrier The style of the operator The relative intensity of messages. Electronic Support measures (ESM) ESM is that division of EW involving actions taken to search for, I ntercept, locate and immediately identify radiated electro-magnetic energy for the purposes of immediate thread recognition and the tactical employment of forces. It has the following divisions Threat warning

Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) Electronic counter measures encompass all actions taken to introduce signals into an electronic system which degrades the performance of that system so that it is unable to perform its intended mission. It has the following divisions Noise Jamming Deception Jamming
1. Noise Jamming Injects an interference signal into the enemy actual signal is completely submerged by the interference. Optimum jamming signal should have the characteristics of victim receiver noise. Minimum details of victim radar is required. Deception Jamming The objective is to mask the real signal by injecting a suitably modified replica of the real signal in to the victim radar system. Deception jamming attempts to jam victim radar both in range and in angle. Some deception jamming also attempts to jam velocity tracking circuits to prevent cross checking between Doppler measurements and differentiated range measurement. Electronic Counter-Counter Measures Electronic Counter-Counter measures all actions taken to introduce signals into an electronic system which prevents the performance of friendly ECM & ESM system so that it is able to perform its intended mission. It has the following divisions Anti-ESM

Anti-ECM

Transmitting more average power Increasing antenna gain Homing longer on the target Reducing data rate Adaptive scan rate . 3. Explain Maintenance and Reliability analysis of avionics systems and the various steps followed for reducing the difficulties involved in avionics system maintenance? Maintenance t .Who will be doing the work? Skill level of maintenance personnel is a major consideration This necessitates a straight forward design which can be easily understood with BITE, procedures and associated displays Experience level of military personnel wi be substantially less than those of their civil counterparts ll When will it be done? Amount of time required for maintenance is one of the factor to be considered Reducing this time will yield an equal reduction in sortie turnaround time Architeture should be designed to allow the aircraft to be dispatched with an inoperative unit and c repaired during a scheduled maintenance Where will it be done? Maintenance tasks may be performed in Flight line and Maintenance depot. Distribution of maintenance tasks between the flight line and the maintenance depot must be established easy in the design. The distribution will have a major influence on the design of built-in-test equipment and accessibility to the LRU 4.Designing for Easy Maintenance Use of standard units for design Accessibility of LRUs in both flight line and shop Each function should be implemented on asingle replaceable unit ESD sensitive devices should have protection facilities built in to the LRUs

1. BITE is a powerful maintenance tool that takes advantage of the intrinsic capabilities of digital avionics. BITE has become used in more LRU avionics architectures, there has been a trend toward the development of CFDS that display and store fault data for all BITE equipped LRU indispensable maintenance needs. BITE should be able to recognize and correctly identify at least 95% of possible faults. Failure of BITE should also be clearly indicated. Reliability The duration or probability of failurefree performance under stated conditions -

The probability that an item can perform its intended functions for a specified interval under stated conditions Well known method is to use failure prediction methods Rate gyroscopes : Rate of rotation about roll, pitch and yaw axes. Linear accelerometers : Normal and Lateral acceleration. Air data sensors : Height and Airspeed. Airstream sensors : Inidence angles in longitudinal and lateral planes. c Features Electrical Signal Transmission . 4.Explain the requirements for Civil Avionics certification? a) The equipment, systems and installations whose function is required by this subchapter must be designed to ensure that they perform their intended functions under any foreseeable operating conditions. b) The airplane systems and associated components, considered separately and in relation to other systems, must be designed so that 1) The occurrence of any single failure condition which would prevent the continued safe flight and landing of the airplane is extremely improbable, and 2) The occurrence of any data failure condition which would reduce the capability of the airplane or the ability of the crew to cope with adverse operating conditions is improbable. c) Warning information must be provided to alert the crew to unsafe system operating conditions and to enable them to take appropriate corrective action. Systems, controls and associated monitoring and warning means must be designated to minimize crew errors which would create additional hazards. d) Compliance with the requirements of paragraph (b) of this section must be shown by analysis and where necessary, by appropriate ground, flight, or simulator tests. The analysis must consider 1) Possible mode of failure, including malfunctions and damage from external sources. 2) The probability of multiple failures and undetected failures. 3) The resulting effects on the airplane and occupants, considering the stage of flight and operating conditions, and 4) The crew warning cues, corrective action required, and the capability of detecting fault Unit-IV . 1. Compare the different avionics system architectures and bring out their merits and demerits. Centralized Architecture Simple design

 Requirement of long data buses Low flexibility in software Increased vulnerability to change Different conversion techniques are needed at the central computer Federated Architecture 2.With neat-sketch Explain about the Pave-Pillar Architecture Increased Information Fusion Higher levels and complexity of software Standardization for maintenance simplification Lower costs Backward and growth capability while making use of emerging technology VHSIC, Voice Recognition /synthesis and Artificial Intelligence Provides capability for rapid flow of data in, through and from the system as well as between and within the system Higher levels of avionics integration and resource sharing of sensor and computational capabilities Pilot plays the role of a WEAPON SYSTEM MANAGER as opposed to subsystem operator/information integrator Able to sustain operations with minimal support, fly successful mission day and night in any type of weather Face a numerically and technologically advanced enemy aircraft and defensive systems Advantages Component reliability gains Use of redundancy and resource sharing Application of fault tolerance Reduction of maintenance test and repair time Increasing crew station automation Enhancing stealth operation Wide use of common modules (HW & SW)) Ability to perform in-aircraft test and maintenance of avionics Use of VHSIC technology and Capability to operate over extended periods of time at austere, deployed locations and be maintainable without the Avionics Intermediate Shop 3. a) Compare and Contrast the characteristics of MIL-STD1553B, ARINC429 and ARINC629. S.No 1. Characteristics MIL-STD1553B ARINC 429

ARINC 629

Data Rate

1Mbps

2. 3. 4. 5. 5.

Word length

20 bits Message length Transmission Half duplex mode Operation Asynchronous Encoding Manchester Bi Phase

Low speed (12.5 2 Mbps kbps) High Speed (100 kbps) 32 bits 20 bits 32 data words Simplex Half duplex Asynchronous Bi polar return to zero Asynchronous Manchester Bi Phase

8. 9.

Transmission Media Coupling

Twisted Pair cable Transformer and Direct coupling

Twisted Pair cable Direct coupling

10

Maximum no terminals connected on the bus

31

20

Twisted Pair cable Current mode coupling ( Similar to transformer coupling) 120

Advantages Contrast to analog avionics DDP provide precise solutions over long range of flight , weapon and sensor conditions Sharing of Resources Use of TDMA saves hundreds of pounds of wiring Standardization of protocol makes the interchangeability of equipments easier Allows Independent system design and optimization of major systems Changes in system software and hardware are easy to make Fault containment Failure is not propagated 3.Explain the word formats of ARINC 629 Label Word System Status Word Function Status . Parameter Validity Word

.5. Explain the function of various timers in ARINC 629

. CSMA/CA is achieved by use of three timers Transmit Interval (TI) Terminal gap (TG) Synchronization gap (SG) Transmit Interval (TI) This timer is same for all terminals The timer starts every time the terminal starts transmitting a terminal has transmitted, it must wait the length of time specified by the TI before it can transmit again Terminal Gap (TG) Unique Timer assigned to each terminal on the Bus. It is used to differentiate between terminals since timer is unique. Thus timer starts only after the SG has elapsed and only if no carrier is present (for collision avoidance). This timer is reset by the presence of carrier. Synchronization Gap (SG) This timer is same for all terminals. It starts the moment the bus is quiet. It is reset if a carrier appears on the bus before it has elapsed (CARRIER SENSING). Once the timer has elapsed, it cannot be reset by the presence of a carrier. It can only be reset, when that terminal begins transmitting. Terminal Access Flow Chart Disadvantages Wastage of resources It is based on the TREE Topology Advantages Critical functions are placed in a separate bus and Non-Critical functions are placed in another bus Failure in non critical parts of networks do not generate hazards to the critical parts of network The communication between the subsystems of a particular group are confined to their particular group The overload of data in the main bus is reduced 1. With neat sketch explain the operation of single element combiner and double element combiner HUD also give its advantages and disadvantages? Tree element combiner HUD It is used in high performance aircrafts Simpler overall HUD design Freedom from secondary reflections Large field of view. 1. Compare the different avionics system architectures and bring out their merits and demerits. Centralized Architecture

6. . Explain the function of various timers in ARINC 629

. CSMA/CA is achieved by use of three timers Transmit Interval (TI) Terminal gap (TG) Synchronization gap (SG) Transmit Interval (TI) This timer is same for all terminals The timer starts every time the terminal starts transmitting a terminal has transmitted, it must wait the length of time specified by the TI before it can transmit again Terminal Gap (TG) Unique Timer assigned to each terminal on the Bus. It is used to differentiate between terminals since timer is unique. Thus timer starts only after the SG has elapsed and only if no carrier is present (for collision avoidance). This timer is reset by the presence of carrier. Synchronization Gap (SG) This timer is same for all terminals. It starts the moment the bus is quiet. It is reset if a carrier appears on the bus before it has elapsed (CARRIER SENSING). Once the timer has elapsed, it cannot be reset by the presence of a carrier. It can only be reset, when that terminal begins transmitting. Terminal Access Flow Chart Disadvantages Wastage of resources It is based on the TREE Topology Advantages Critical functions are placed in a separate bus and Non-Critical functions are placed in another bus Failure in non critical parts of networks do not generate hazards to the critical parts of network The communication between the subsystems of a particular group are confined to their particular group The overload of data in the main bus is reduced Unit-V 1. With neat sketch explain the operation of single element combiner and double element combiner HUD also give its advantages and disadvantages? Tree element combiner HUD It is used in high performance aircrafts Simpler overall HUD design Freedom from secondary reflections Large field of view. 2. Explain dead-reckoning navigation with one example Inertial Navigation Measurement of direction (RDF) Measurement of Distance (DME) Difference of distance between two transmitters (LORAN, TACAN, etc) . Space segment Ephemeris orbital Information Clock information C/A code ( available to public) P-code ( reserved for US military purpose) Control Segment 1. The spherical range of the user from the individual transmitting satellite can be determined by measuring the time delay for the satellite transmission to reach the user. Multiplying the time delay by the velocity of light then gives the spherical range of the user from the transmitting satellite. The measurement of the time delay

is thus made up of two components. The first component is the transit time of the ranging signal and the second component is the offset between the transmitter clock and receiver clock due to the nonsynchronization of the 2. clock. Measuring the spherical ranges from four satellites as shown in fig enables the user determined and yields four equations containing the four unknowns, viz the three position co-ordinates of the user and the time bias in the user d waveforms and illustrates the user time bias T, and the time delays
3. 4. The position of user can be find out by solving the below three simultaneous spherical equations. A Cartesian coordinate is constructed for the mathematical analysis of GPS operation by using earth centre of gravity as centre of axis system. The orbital position of the satellites satellite1, satellite2 and satellite3 are represented as (X1, Y1, Z1), (X2, Y2, Z2) and (X3, Y3, Z3). The user position on the earth can be represented as (Xu,Yu,Zu). , , and to the four satellites satellite1, satellite2, satellite3 and satellite4 can be determined = C* t1 = C* 5. Let the range equivalent to the user clock offset, The four spherical ranges,,and can be determined from the below spherical equations These four equations with four unknowns can thus be solved and yield the users position coordinates (Xu, Yu, Zu) and the users time offset T. The satellite clocks are therefore mathematically synchronized to d defined GPS master time which is maintained at the master control station. n 3. Explain the various functions involved in Electronic Warfare. 1. Electronic Warfare encompasses all actions involving the use of electromagnetic energy to DETERMINE, EXPLOIT, REDUCE Or PREVENT HOSTILE USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM and actions which RETAIN FRIENDLY USE of the electromagnetic Spectrum. 2. Divisions of Electronic warfare Signals Intelligence Intelligence is collected from a number of different sources to form a strategic picture. These sources include: Electronic Intelligence

Communication Intelligence Electronic Intelligence Confirmation of electronic warfare intelligence is usually performed by comparison with local information collection and photographic evidence, including 1. Human Intelligence 2. Image Intelligence 3. Photographic intelligence The human intelligence and image intelligence are often gathered by high-flying EW aircraft on long duration patrols, usually flying a patrol on the friendly side of a border and beyond missile engagement range. The photographic intelligence is used to obtain the existence and precise location and types of target. Communication intelligence 1. Communication intelligence is gathered by scanning the normal communication frequency bands and looking on to detected transmissions. In peace time it may be possible to receive in clear speech, but this is extremely unlikely in times of tension or during conflict. Howeve great deal of intelligence can be obtained from the following characteristics of communications activity. The locations of individual transmitters The locations of groups of transmitters and the numbers in the groups The frequency of the transmitter carrier The style of the operator The relative intensity of messages. Electronic Support measures (ESM) ESM is that division of EW involving actions taken to search for, intercept, locate and immediately identify radiated electro-magnetic energy for the purposes of immediate thread recognition and the tactical employment of forces. It has the following divisions Threat warning Homing

 Target Acquisition Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) Electronic counter measures encompass all actions taken to introduce signals into an electronic system which degrades the performance of that system so that it is unable to perform its intended mission. It has the following divisions Noise Jamming Deception Jamming
2. Noise Jamming Injects an interference signal into the enemy signal is completely submerged by the interference. Optimum jamming signal should have the characteristics of victim receiver noise. Minimum details of victim radar is required. Deception Jamming The objective is to mask the real signal by injecting a suitably modified replica of the real signal in to the victim radar system. Deception jamming attempts to jam victim radar both in range and in angle. Some deception jamming also attempts to jam velocity tracking circuits to prevent cross checking between Doppler measurements and differentiated range measurement. Electronic Counter-Counter Measures Electronic Counter-Counter measures all actions taken to introduce signals into an electronic system which prevents the performance of friendly ECM & ESM system so that it is able to perform its intended mission. It has the following divisions Anti-ESM

Anti-ECM We know that the performance of the ESM and ECM can be degraded by noise jamming and deceptive jamming Increasing antenna gain Homing longer on the target Reducing data rate Adaptive scan rate Increase the transmitter frequency to narrow the antenna blanked by the main lobe noise jamming and also provides a strobe in the direction of the jammer. The effect of deception jamming is minimized by using the below techniques. The false target return must follow the return from the jammer carrying target and in any event must lie in the same direction within a radar pulse repetition interval. To encounter this radar employ leading edge tracker which tracks the target pulse which is ahead of false target pulse. If the deception jammer uses a delay which is greater than Pulse repetition interval to generate an anticipatory false target return, then pulse to pulse frequency agility eliminates the false targets and pulse to pulse PRI jitter identifies the false target returns . 4. Explain Maintenance and Reliability analysis of avionics systems and the various steps followed for reducing the difficulties involved in avionics system maintenance? Maintenance Measure of ability of an item to be retained in or restored to specified condition when maintenance This necessitates a straight forward design which can be easily understood with BITE, procedures and associated displays Experience level of military personnel will be substa tially less than those of their civil counterparts n When will it be done? Amount of time required for maintenance is one of the factor to be considered Reducing this time will yield an equal reduction in sortie turnaround time Architecture shoul be designed to allow the aircraft to be dispatched with an inoperative unit and repaired during d a scheduled maintenance Where will it be done? Maintenance tasks may be performed in Flight line and Maintenance depot. Distribution of maintenance tasks between the flight line and the maintenance depot must be established easy in the design. The distribution will have a major influence on the design of built-in-test equipment and accessibility to the LRU Designing for Easy Maintenance Avionics designed for easy maintenance are major contributors for increasing the mission effectiveness while reducing operating costs

 Make maintenance man als, procedures, and equipments easy to use and understand u Use of standard units for design Accessibility of LRUs in both flight line and shop Each function should be implemented on a single replaceable unit ESD sensitive devices should have potection facilities built in to the LRUs r No connectors should be on the front of the LRUs according to DOD -STD-1788 and ARINC 600 standard Testing a good unit is as expensive as testing a bad unit BITE (Built In Test Equipment) 2. BITE is a powerful maintenance tool that takes advantage of the intrinsic capabilities of digital avionics. BITE has become used in more LRU there has been a trend toward the development of CFDS that display and store fault data for all BITE equipped LRU be able to recognize and correctly identify at least 95% of possible faults. Failure of BITE should also be clearly indicated. Reliability The duration or probability of failurefree performance under stated conditions The probability that an item can perform its intended functions for a specified interval under stated conditions Well known methodis to use failure prediction methods
1. n Equip = i Gi i-1 Where Equip = total equipment failure rate Gi = generic failure rate for the generic part type = quality factor for ith generic part type Ni = quantity of ith generic part type n = number of different generic part types 5. Explain the features and benefits of Fly-by-wire flight control system FBW control has come into use in production aircraft since the late 1970s and can enable a major increase in flight control capability to be achieved. One of the unique benefits of a FBW control system is the ability to fly aircraft configurations which have minimal stability margins, or which may be aerodynamically unstable over part or even the whole of the flight envelope. Higher agility can be achieved with an aerodynamically unstable compared with a conventional stable configuration, agility being defined as the ability to change the direction of the aircraft surfaces on the wings and tail. The controls and flight surfaces are directly connected. Mechanical links are also used for the engine control. The below fig shows the conventional flight control system configuration. Air data sensors : Height and Airspeed.

Airstream sensor : Incidence angles in longitudinal and lateral planes. s Features Electrical Signal Transmission Pilot commanded control surface angles are transmitted electrically. Motion Sensor Feedback
1. Failure survival, . Linear accelerometers : Normal a d Lateral acceleration. n Air data sensors : Height and Airspeed. Airstream sensors : Incidence angles in longitudinal and lateral planes.

Features Electrical Signal Transmission Pilot ntrol surface actuator position signals and commanded control surface angles are transmitted electrically. Motion Sensor Feedback Failure survival, redundant configuration of motion sensors Advantages Good consistent handling Automatic stablisat ion 5. Ease of autopilot integration
1. 2. 3. 4.

6. High Bandwidth manoeuvre command inner loop ensures response to outerloop autopilot commands is fast. 7. Carefree manoeuvring 8. Automatically limit pilot r control limits. 9. Ability to integrate additional controls automatically 10. Leading edge slats/flaps and trailing edge flaps are controlled automatically to generate lift 11. Variable wing sweep 12. Thrust vector control nozzles and engine thrust 13. Elimi nation of mechanical control runs 14. Bulk, weight and mechanical complexity of control rods are eliminated 15. Problems of friction, backlash and flexure of the airframe structure can also be overcome 16. Pilot workload reduction 17. The fly-by-wire system provides a more usable interface and takes over some computations that previously would have to be carried out by the pilots. 18. 19. Airframe safety 20. By mediating the control commands, the system can ensure that the pilot cannot put the aircraft into a state that stresses the airframe or stalls the aircraft. 21. 22. Weight reduction 23. By reducing the mechanical linkages, a significant amount of weight (and hence fuel) is saved. 24. Small control stick 25. Location can be a side arm or central mounting 26. Abilityto exploit aerodynamically unstable aircraft configuration. 27. Aerodynamics Vs Stealth 28. Reducing the radar cross section 29. Engine intake design 30. Extensive use of radar energy absorbing materials 31. Redundancy and Failure Survival 32. 33. FBW control system must be no less safe than the simple mechanical control systems which it replaces. The safety levels required are specified in terms of probability of a catastrophic failure occuring in the system from any cause which could result in loss of control of the aircraft. Probability of catastrophic failure Military < 107/hr Civil <10 /hr -9 MTBF of a single channel FBW system is in the region of 3000 hours. 1. 6. Explain the requirements for Civil Avionics certification? 2. Certification is the most difficult part for civil avionics designers. a) The equipment, systems and installations whose function is required by this subchapter must be designed to ensure that they perform their intended functions under any foreseeable operating conditions. b) The airplane systems and associated components, considered separately and in relation to other systems, must be designed so that 1) The occurrence of any single failure condition which would prevent the continued safe flight and landing of the airplane is extremely improbable, and 2) The occurrence of any data failure condition which would reduce the capability of the airplane or the ability of the crew to cope with adverse operating conditions is improbable. c) Warning information must be provided to alert the crew to unsafe system operating conditions and to enable them to take appropriate corrective action. Systems, controls and associated monitoring and warning means must be designated to minimize crew errors which would create additional hazards.

d) Compliance with the requirements of paragraph (b) of this section must be shown by analysis and where necessary, by appropriate ground, flight, or simulator tests. The analysis must consider 1) Possible mode of failure, including malfunctions and damage from external sources. 2) The probability of multiple failures and undetected failures. 3) The resulting effects on the airplane and occupants, considering the stage of flight and operating conditions, and 4) The crew warning cues, corrective action required, and the capability of detecting faults. 1.