The book titled An introduction to sociolinguistics is a book written by Ronald Wardhaugh.

It is aimed to facilitate the student a basic knowledge and understanding about sociology of language. This paper would be a summary of this book. Hopefully, it give positive benefits for all the readers and students in their studying. INTRODUCTION The book is started by explaining the two major approaches of linguistics. There are from Noam Chomsky-language is seen as an autonomous system of knowledge---and the sociolinguists' view---which sees language as intertwined with society to the extent that any explanation of the former would be virtually incomplete without some reference to the latter. Here, also introduced the scope and the methodology of sociolinguistics in brief. LANGUAGE, DIALECTS, AND VARIETIES Variety of language is mentioned as terms of specific set of linguistic items or human speech pattern such as presumably, sounds, words, and grammatical features which can be correlated with some external factor (presumably, a geographical area or social group). 1. Language and Dialects Seemingly, language and dialect have an identical definition. The more language people speak, the more dialect exists there. It is not surprising when in our country speak differently between one region to another region. Generally stating, dialect deals with geographical factor, by which people stay. Dialect inclined to be more prestigious. Because of the differences in where people stay will influence the dialect of people speaking, that is why their language also looks different. 2. Regional Dialect In observing variety of language, the most noticeable way of the language is a regional variation in the way language is spoken. During travelling all over a wide geographical area in which a language is spoken , and particularly if that language has been spoken in that area for many hundreds for many hundreds of years, can be detected the differences in pronouncition, in the choices and forms of words, an in syntax 3. Social Dialects

In here, differences are described in speech associated with many kinds of social groups or classes. Originally, Social dialects is derived from social group and relied on a variety of factors ethnicity, and religion. 4. Styles and Registers There is an independency in dialect, style, and register differences It is common enough to meet some people are known to speak a language or one of its varieties better or worse than others. The fact that speakers can adopt different styles and speaking make thie study of dialect becomes more complicated. We can speak very formally or vey informally, our choice is governed by circumstance. Register is another complicating factor in many study of language varieties. Registers are sets of vocabulary items associated with discrete occupational of social groups. PIDGIN AND CREOLE LANGUAGES Originally, old tribes in Africa owned Pidgin and Creoles, languages which is very old and spoken by them. These languages have historical background of knowledge. Previously used by people but recently it is not anymore interesting. As a result, some linguists also consider that this language is uninteresting one. 1. Lingua Franca UNESCO defined a lingua franca as a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them. In other word, wadhaugh defined it as people who speak different languages who are forced into contact with eachother must find some way of communicating, 2. Pidgins and Creoles definition A pidgin of a language with no native speaker: it is no ones language but it is a contact. The process of pignization probably requires a situation that involves at least three languages, one of which is dominant over the others. 3. Geographical Distribution and Linguistic Characteristics Pidgin and Creole languages are distributed m, though not exclusively in the equatorial belt around the world, usually in places with direct or easy access to the oceans. Consequently, they are found mainly and around the north and east coasts of South America, around the coasts of Africa, particularly the west coast, and across the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 4. Theories of Origin

The idea that pidgins arise because the people among whom they are found lack the ability to learn the standard languages with which the pidgins are associated is esaisly dismissed. Pidgins are not imperfectly learned standard languages, the imperfection in learning arising from lack of either the ability or the opportunity to learn the standard variety thoroughly; nor are they the consequence of very simple processes of simplification. An alternative theory, the theory of polygenesis, is that pidgins and creoles have a variety of origins, any similarities among them arise from the shared circumstances of their origins. CHOSING A CODE In this chapter, will be founded things related to code choice, codeswitching, and code mixing, phenomenas happened commonly in our life. 1. Diglossia It is defined that the situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. Diglossia is a widespread phenomenon in the world well attested in both space and time. 2. Bilingualism and Multilingualism This terms has definiton by the ability to use more than single language codes.in many parts of the world an ability to speak more than one language is not at all remarkable. In fact, a monolingual individual would be regarded as a misfit, lacking an important skill in society. 3. Code Choice, Code-Switching, and Code-Mixing The particular dialect or language one chooses to use on any occasion is a code, a system for communication between two or more parties. Using one particular variety of a language than another or sometime even that having switched languages, i.e., have code-switched or having mixed language, code-mixed. SPEECH COMMUNITIES Speech Community is all people who use a given language (or dialect). It is also a group of people who interact by means of speech. 1. Intersecting Communities The fact that people do use expressions such as New York speech, London speech, and South African speech indicates that they have some idea of how a typical person from each place speak, that is, what it is like to be a member of a particular speech community somewhat loosely defined.

LANGUAGE VARIATION As we know, languages vary in many ways. One way of characterizing certain variations is to say that speakers of a particular language sometimes speak different dialects of that language. In this way it would be possible to talk about both regional dialects and social dialects of a language. Just as a regional dialect marks off the residents of one region from those of other regions, a social dialect would be a variety associated with a specific social class or group, marking that class or group off from other classes or groups 1. Regional Variation In this model of language change and dialect differentiation, it should always be possible to relate any variation found within a language to the two factors of time and distance alone. 2. The linguistic variable Variation has long been of interest to linguists, but the use of the linguistic variable has added a new dimension to linguistic investigations FINDING AND ISSUES Knowing that there is already a language phenomenon happened, this chapter wants to review those phenomena as the issue of linguistic studies. The concept of the linguistic variable use, which is problematic, in examining linguistics variation is also the factor. 1. An Early Study One of the earliest studies of variation was Fischers study (1958) of the (ng) variable, i.e., pronunciations like singing [] versus singin [n]. We should observe that there is a long history of both the [] and [n] variants in the language, that stigmatization of the [n] variant is a phenomenon of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and that even today in some circles in the United Kingdom, necessarily privileged ones, people still go huntin, shootin, and fishin, not hunting, shooting, and fishing. As part of a study of child-rearing practices in a New England community, Fischer conducted interviews with young children, twelve boys and twelve girls, aged 310. He noted their use of [] and [n] in a very formal situation during the administration of the Thematic Apperception Test, in a less formal interview, and in an informal situation in which the children discussed recent activities a. New York City

Labovs work in New York City is usually regarded as setting the pattern forquantitative studies of linguistic variation. Labov raised many of the issues that are still addressed and devised many methods for tackling these issues. b. Norwich and Reading Trudgill (1974) investigated sixteen different phonological variables in his work in Norwich, England. He demonstrates, in much the same way as Labov does in New York City, how use of the variants is related to social class and level of formality. LANGUAGE CHANGE Nowadays, in modern linguistics believe changing in observation while it is actually occurring has usually been a resounding negative. 1. Traditional view The only changes that are important in a language are those that can be demonstrated to have structural consequences. if we believe that languages are changing all the time and all linguists do hold that belief we should also be able to see change in progress if we can recognize it. If we can interpret the variation we see, or some of it at least, as a wave of change going through a language, and if we can see changes apparently diffusing through sets of similar linguistic items. In brief, we will have to be sure that what we are observing is change and not just random fluctuation 2.Change in Progress and the Mechanism Before discussing changes in language, need to distinguish between variation and change for not all variation is a sign of, or leads to, change. Various linguists have observed and reported on what they consider to be changes in progress. For example, Chambers and Trudgill (1998, pp. 1705) describe the spread of uvular r in western and northern Europe. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Language and culture have a very close relationship. This statement can be accepted because some elements of language, such as words, sounds, and syntax cannot be released to the human life experience, especially in language. What should be discussed is to decide the relationship and finding the appropriate way to reveal it. In this part, would be shown the various way those relationship. Some of claim results could be proven and others could not be. The term culture here is aimed for human, in order to know its functions in society. Therefore, culture defined as what people must possess to get through the

task of daily living, and only a few which are needed knowledge of some music, literature, and arts. This chapter covers some theories related to the relationship between language and culture. 1. The Whorfian Hypothesis This hypothesis generally perceived that the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. It stated by the linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf. According to this hypothesis, there is a lexiprochal relationship between language and mind. Beside Whorfian hypothesis, Wardhaugh reported that there were another theory about the link between language and culture. One of them is read that culture in society is reflected in the language they used. In this case, cultural devices do not determine language structure, but influence how the language used. Back to the Sapir-Whorf view, there are no two language which has similarity could represent the same social reality. There are two clear hypotheses fro Sapir-Whorf about language and mind. First, linguistic relativity which is mentioned that generally differences in the language structure are parallel with differences in non-linguistic cognitive. The second is linguistic determinism which stated the language structure influenced human way to perceive the world. 2. Kinship System Kinship terms are universal feature of human language. Some systems are much richer than others, but all make use of such factors as gender, age generation, blood, and marriage in their social organization. Therefore, there are actual words which use to represent a particular kin relationship. This approach sometimes is faced into some difficulties. It is often

impossible to devise an exhaustive account of a particular system. In some areas, the kin relationship becomes more complex. For instance, in the term to call uncle is equivalent in Vietnamese. Wardhaugh gave an example in his book through Njamal language. The development of this system is really expected in order to have the reflection of new conditions. It is now no longer necessary to refer constantly to such relatives or to be so precise as to a particular relationship. Changing family relationship structures have removed them from daily contact. In keeping with a

general linguistic principle, Wardhaugh said that truly important objects and relationships tend to be expressed through single words rather than through phrases. 3. Taxonomies Previous discussion shows how basic are systems of classification in language and society. Language has its own classification, such as vowel and consonants, nouns and verbs, and so on. For people, language is used to classify also and categorize various aspects in life. This term is called by Folk Taxonomies. Its system does not use scientific classification as what scientists do. In short, A folk taxonomy is a way of classifying a certain part of reality so that it makes some kind of sense to those who have to deal with it. Typically, such taxonomies involve matters like naturally occurring flora and fauna in the environment, but they may also involve other matters too (see Berlin, 1992). Analyses taxonomies and components are very helpful to organize data in ways that appear to indicate on how speakers use their language to organize the world around them. From the examples shown by Wardhaugh in this chapter cab concluded that language and culture are related very close ly, and much of the relationship remains hidden from view to most of people in society. 4. Color terminology Our world is a world of color but the amount of color different and varies from place to place and time to time. Color is all around but it is not everywhere treated in the same way. The terms people use to describe color give us another means of exploring the relationships between different languages and cultures. The color spectrum is a physical continuum showing no breaks at all. Basically, all areas with their own languages have basic color terms. A basic color term must be a single word, e.g., blue or yellow, not some combination of words, e.g., light blue or pale yellow. Nor must it be the obvious sub-division of some higher-order term, as both crimson and scarlet are of red. It must have quite general use; it must not be applied only to a very narrow range of objects, as, for example, blond is applied in English almost exclusively to the color of hair and wood. Due to that term, we can function this idea that people can and do classify in such a way to propose still another approach to relating language and culture through the color terms. 5. Prototype Theory

According to Rosch(1976), Wardhaugh has already proposed an alternative to the view that concepts are composed from sets of features which necessarily and sufficiently define instances of a concept. This is based on prototypes. Hudson (1996) believes that prototype theory has much to offer sociolinguists. He believes it leads to an easier account of how people learn to use language, particularly linguistic concepts, from the kinds of instances they come across. This theory offers people a chance to consider not only at how concepts may be formed at thecognitive dimensions of linguistic behavior, but also at how we achieve our social competence in the use of language. We judge circumstances as being typically this or typically that, and we place people in the same way. One person appears to be a typical teacher, jock, burnout, teenager, or American, etc., while another does not. We then attempt to use language appropriate to the other as we perceive him or her and to the situation we are in. 6. Taboo and Euphemism

This chapter discussed about how cultural meaning are expressed in language. Specifically, in phenomena that language is used to avoid saying certain things as well as to express them. Particular things could not be said due to others which do not talk about it or they talked about in hidden or implicit ways. These language phenomena called as Taboo. Meanwhile, euphemism is to avoid mentioning certain matters directly. Taboo is the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behavior believed to be harmful to its members in that it would cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame. It is an extremely strong politeness constraint. Consequently, so far as language is concerned, certain things are not to be said for certain objects can be referred to only in certain circumstances, for example, only by certain people, or through deliberate circumlocutions, euphemistically. Tabooed subjects can vary largely: sex; death; excretion; bodily functions; religious matters; and politics. Tabooed objects that must be avoided or used carefully can include your mother-inlaw, certain game animals, and use of your left hand (the origin of sinister). Anyway, believe it or not, Taboo and euphemism affect us all. We may not be as deeply conscious of the effects, but affect us they do. But, each social group is different from every other in how it constrains linguistic behavior in this way, but constrains it in some such way it certainly does.

ETHNOGRAPHY Mostly known that speeches are used by people or group of people are different among others. It is represented through the norms and behavior of language. Thus, when a member of particular group does a communication activity with another, over than his group, there will happen in a different situation which is influenced by the way and the behavior of the language. Therefore, Wardhaugh would look at people way to talk about the various ways in which people communicate with one another, in an attempt to see what factors are involved. Another aim, this chapter would cover the ways in which individuals cooperate with one another to sustain the reality of everyday life and at how they use language as one of the means to do so. 1. Varieties of Talk Looking at some of the ways in which various people in the world use talk, or sometimes the absence of talk, including also the form of silence are really required. In this case, Wardhaugh took an example from !Kung and he got some points. Speech among the !Kung assists to keep peaceful social relationships by allowing people to keep in touch with one another about how they are thinking and feeling. It aids !Kung to ease their tensions, and it prevents pressures from building up and finding their free in aggression. Talking about silence defined as a kind of sympathizing gadget after someone dies: you are silent in the presence of people, who are sad, and you should not further disturb those who are already disturbed by depression. Silence also is often communicative and its correct uses must be learned. Among other things it can communicate respect, comfort, support, disagreement, or vagueness. In many societies people do not talk unless they have something important to say. In contrast, other people talk for the sheer pleasure of talking. So, what we need is some kind of general scheme, or framework, to help us make systematic observations about the different ways people use talk. 2. The Ethnography of Speaking Proposals of Hymes that an ethnographic framework which takes into account the various factors that are involved in speaking There are some elements related to ethnography which are important:

Setting and Scene (S) of speech. Setting refers to the time and place. Scene refers to the abstract psychological setting, or the cultural definition of the occasion.

The Participants (P) include various combinations of speakerlistener, addressoraddressee, or senderreceiver. They generally fill certain socially specified roles.

Ends (E) refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as to the personal goals that participants seek to accomplish on particular occasions.

Act sequence (A) refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at hand.

Key (K), the fifth term, refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on. The key may also be marked nonverbally by certain kinds of behavior, gesture, posture, or even deportment.

Instrumentalities (I) refers to the choice of channel, e.g., oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or register that is chosen.

Norms of interaction and interpretation (N) refers to the specific behaviors and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, e.g., loudness, silence, gaze return, and soon.

Genre (G), the final term, refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance; such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lecture, and editorials. These are all marked in specific ways in contrast to casual speech. In learning to articulate, we are also being trained to talk, in the wisdom of

communicating in those ways suitable to the group in which we are doing that learning. Consequently, communicative skill is a type component of social skill. SOLIDARITY AND POLITENESS The relationship among people in social life is reflected the solidarity and politeness. They use a certain linguistic term to indicate a social relationship

between a speaker and a hearer. This linguistic choice, consciously or not, already

attach to those people to perceive that they are exist. In addition, it is also possible to avoid making misunderstanding which commonly happen though actual package of intended message. 1. Tu and Vous Many languages have a distinction corresponding to the tuvous (T/V) distinction in French, where grammatically there is a singular you tu (T) and a plural you vous (V) but usage requires that you use vous with individuals on certain occasions. The T form is sometimes described as the familiar form and the V form as the polite one. Other languages with a similar T/V distinction are Latin (tu/vos), Russian (ty/vy), Italian (tu/Lei), German (du/Sie), Swedish (du/ni), and Greek (esi/esis). English, itself, once had such a distinction, the thou/you distinction. 2. Adrress Terms and Politeness How do you name or address another? By title (T), by first name (FN), by last name (LN), by a nickname, by some combination of these, or by nothing at all, so deliberately avoiding the problem? What factors govern the choice you make? Is the address process asymmetrical; that is, if I call you Mr Jones, do you call me John? Or is it symmetrical, so that Mr Jones leads to Mr Smith and John to Fred? All kinds of combinations are possible in English: Dr Smith, John Smith, Smith, John, Johnnie, Doc, Sir, Mack, and so on. ACTING AND CONVERSING Politeness of someones speaking can attract other listener. Therefore, Austin introduced the Speech Act theory to at least cover the analysis criteria in language use. People basically doesnt merely utter but there is an intended message they are going to convey. There are three kinds of speech act, locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutrionary. According to Austin, it needs the felicity condition to count that utterance. First, the existence of conventional procedure, second, participant must properly execute, the last the necessary of thought or feeling must be presented in all occasion (p.284). Furthermore, he explained that performative, verb that carries the meaning, can be divided into four kinds, verdictives, exerticives, commisives, and behabitives. In accordance with Austin, Searle said that illocutionary act must be performed intentionally, correctly uttered, and satisfy the truth meaning. Searle see that there are several types of performative, assertive, directive, commisive,

expressive, and declarative. Searle more concern on how speaker perform the certain kind of act instead of how particular types of utterance perform act. In addition, hearer can perceive a particular utterance to have the force. Concerning the promising making, there are four rules governing it. The first is propositional content, meaning that the word must be a future action not the past. The second is preparatory, the speaker and the hearer must act as what is said. The promiser believes that it can be done. The third is sincerity, requiring the promiser to intentionally do and fit the promise. And the last is essential, the uttering of words counts as an obligation to perform the action. LANGUAGE AND GENDER There are words that denote to describe men or woman characteristics. This separation is consequently called sexism language. The linguists believe that there is a sexism in language. A particular word is merely attaches to men, and another may be solely deal with women. This chapter explains this relation and exemplifies the word and sexism language. What to understand is then sexism language doesnt mean language of sex. It simply deals with sexual orientation. Wardaugh said that sex is much determined by biological aspect, but gender is built by social structure or social construct. So, the notion of gender can not be easily distinguished from society assumption. Some words that denote to women are lovely, sweet, charming etc. Since they are biologically different, the language/word that is used to employ their position is also different. For example we have the word actor for men and actress for woman. In addition, there is also a neutral word which can indicate both, example chair person. This word seems to be more effective to avoid a social judge toward sexual orientation through language use. LANGUAGE AND DISADVANTAGES Basically even in within community, the language use is not totally the same. There is quite differences somehow. However, linguist already agree that there is no language that better than another language. Every language has its own unique and it is different. This chapter leads to have an understanding toward those differences which commonly appear. A certain social class has different use of language. Sapir Whorfian hypothesis about language and culture relation is altered herein. Brestein, (p.333) said that language is both influences culture and is in turn influenced by culture. The

language the is spoken affect the culture of the speaker and vice versa. The example that a language never perfectly the same but has similarity is the language of African American who live in united state. They are separated in many cities. Even though biologically they are similar even the same, the language use is alike paternally. Those who live in northern cities and those live in southern for example are phonologically and morphologically the same. They pronounce ting instead of thing. LANGUAGE PLANNING This chapter is aimed to suggest that languages maintenance is prominent. It is supposed to have a language planning, the effort to sustain language efficiency and solve problem that may happen among the society. Weistein, (p.354) define language as an authority of government to alter and sustain languages function for the sake of problem solving. There are a great foster of language considered as national language. It increased from thirty to fifty three by 1937. This development has to be kept through promoting the language itself. Therefore, language planning attempts to human intervention intentionally with language varieties.