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Forcedisplacement model for analysis of pulsed-GMAW

This article has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text article. 2009 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 035504 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3727/42/3/035504) View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

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IOP PUBLISHING J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 (2009) 035504 (7pp)

JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS doi:10.1088/0022-3727/42/3/035504

Forcedisplacement model for analysis of pulsed-GMAW

Nabeel Arif, Jae Hak Lee1 and Choong Don Yoo
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, Korea E-mail: jaehak76@gmail.com

Received 17 September 2008, in nal form 28 November 2008 Published 9 January 2009 Online at stacks.iop.org/JPhysD/42/035504 Abstract A forcedisplacement model (FDM) is introduced in this work to analyse pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The drop detaching criterion is established based on the displacement of the pendant drop instead of the previous force balance criterion. The displacement of the drop is calculated by integrating the acceleration of the drop, and the force exerted on the drop is predicted using the modied force balance model coupled with wire melting. When the peak current, base current and time of pulsed-GMAW are given, the peak time for the one-drop one-pulse condition is determined using the FDM. While the peak current has the most signicant effect on drop detachment, the initial drop mass prior to the peak time also inuences the drop transfer. The FDM is applied to the dc as well as pulsed-GMAW, and the calculated results show good agreement with the experimental data. (Some gures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction
Pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW) utilizes the pulse current, and a drop is detached per each pulse from the wire tip, which is called the one-drop one-pulse (ODOP) condition as illustrated in gure 1 [1]. While the arc is maintained during the base time, the drop is detached from the wire by the peak current above the transition current. When the drop is detached, it has a spherical shape with a diameter approximately equal to the wire diameter, which is similar to metal transfer in the projected mode. Therefore, metal transfer is controlled by synchronizing the drop detachment with the pulse current, and the weld quality is enhanced with the reduced thermal distortion and residual stress because the average current of pulsed-GMAW is lower than the transition current. Although pulsed-GMAW has advantages of controlled metal transfer and low heat input, it is difcult to determine the proper values of pulse parameters for the ODOP. When the pulse current is a rectangular waveform, it can be described using the four parameters of the peak current and time (Ip , tp ) and the base current and time (Ib , tb ). Among the parameters, the peak current and time are most important because the drop is detached during the peak time. When the
1

Figure 1. Sequential conguration of pendant drop.

Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

peak time is excessive, the multiple-drops one-pulse (MDOP) occurs, in which small droplets are detached in the streaming mode after detachment of the main drop due to the high peak current. In contrast, if the peak time is insufcient, the onedrop multiple-pulses (ODMP) takes place in an irregular way, which is undesirable transfer mode of pulsed-GMAW. Various empirical and analytic models have been employed to determine the ODOP condition [25]. Since the drop detaches during the peak time, the typical empirical equation is expressed as a function of the peak current and
1
2009 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

0022-3727/09/035504+07$30.00

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N Arif et al

time as [2]
n Ip tp = C,

(1)

where n and C are the constants determined experimentally, and the constant n was found to exist between 1.5 and 2.5. Although a more complex empirical equation including the base current and time was proposed [3], the number of constants to be determined experimentally increased, which limited the application of the empirical equation. As for the analytic modelling, Allum [4] calculated the peak time based on pinch instability theory (PIT) and wire melting and derived the constant n of equation (1) to be 1.556. Kim [1] utilized the static force balance model (SFBM) to determine the pulse frequency range of the ODOP condition. Nemchinsky [5] predicted drop detachment based on thermal analysis because the peak time necessary for drop detachment was very short due to the high peak current. A dynamic model was presented to simulate metal transfer of dc and pulsed-GMAW, which included elongation and necking of the pendant drop and experimental results using the laser backlighting and highspeed video system [6, 7]. It appears that the SFBM is more suitable than the PIT for the pulsed-GMAW analysis because the detached drop has a spherical shape with the diameter equal to the wire diameter. However, the accuracy of the SFBM decreases signicantly in the high current range. Recently, the accuracy of the force balance model at high current was improved with the modied force balance model (MFBM), which added the momentum ux to the forces of the SFBM [8]. In addition to analytic and empirical approaches, the numerical method was employed to analyse metal transfer of pulsed-GMAW, and the fast ow within the molten drop during the peak time was found to inuence drop detachment signicantly [9, 10]. Instead of determining the ODOP condition, attempts were made to control drop detachment in real time by imposing mechanical vibrations on the wire electrode [11], monitoring the arc light variation [12] and oscillating and detaching the droplet using the modied pulse current [13]. Various current waveforms in addition to the rectangular wave were also utilized to ensure drop detachment during the peak time [1315]. The forcedisplacement model (FDM) is proposed in this work to analyse the metal transfer phenomena of pulsedGMAW. The drop detaching criterion is established based on the displacement of the pendant drop, and the drop detaching force is predicted using the MFBM coupled with wire melting. Effects of the pulse parameters on drop detachment are analysed and the performance of the FDM is evaluated by comparing with the experimental data of the ODOP condition [4, 16]. The FDM is also applied to metal transfer of dcGMAW.

Figure 2. Drop detaching criterion with displacement of mass centre.

Although the ideal drop detaching condition is that the drop is detached at the very end of the peak time, it is difcult to achieve and undesirable ODMP may occur if the drop is not detached. In practice, after the drop is detached by the peak current, the peak current persists to some extent. Therefore, the peak time consists of the drop detaching time and an additional peak time as tp = tpd + tpa , (2) where tpd and tpa represent the drop detaching time and additional peak time, respectively. As soon as the peak current is imposed, the drop grows rapidly by wire melting and is elongated until its detachment at tpd . When the elongated drop is detached, some portion of the molten drop remains at the wire tip. If tpa is excessive, the small droplets are detached during tpa in the streaming mode due to the high peak current, which corresponds to the MDOP condition. The FDM is introduced to simulate the metal transfer behaviour of the pulsed-GMAW, and the feature of the model is the drop detaching criterion using the displacement of the pendant drop instead of the previous drop detaching criterion using the force balance. Figure 2 shows the congurations of the pendant drop at tp = 0 and tp tpd , and the drop is elongated and necking is formed at the end of the drop detaching time. Based on the previous results of the numerical simulation [9], the velocity and displacement of the drop increase rapidly during the peak time, and the drop is detached if the velocity and displacement exceed some critical values. Since the critical displacement for drop detachment can be determined from the remaining volume at the wire tip, the displacement of the pendant drop is more adequate for the drop detaching criterion than the velocity. Therefore, the drop detaching criterion is established such that the drop is detached when the displacement of the pendant drop exceeds the critical displacement as z 2 zcr for drop detachment. (3)

2. Formulation of the FDM

Metal transfer of pulsed-GMAW is more complex than for dc-GMAW because the pulse current should be designed to synchronize with drop detachment. When the rectangular pulse current is applied, sequential variation of the pendant drop with time in the ODOP condition is illustrated in gure 1.

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After drop detachment, some portion of the drop remains at the wire tip and the wire continues to melt during the additional peak time and base time. The mass of the pendant drop during the drop detaching time is thus expressed as m(t) = (mr + mp tpa + mb tb ) + mp t = mi + mp t for 0 < t < tpd , (4) where mr denotes the remaining mass at the wire tip after drop detachment, mp and mb the mass melting rates of the wire by the peak and base current, respectively, and mi the initial drop mass at the onset of the peak time. The wire melting rate due to arc and Joule heating depends on the current and wire extension as m = Aw vm and vm = aI + bLe I 2 , (5)

The acceleration of the pendant drop during the peak time is given as Fa (t) Fa (t) a= = . (7) m(t) mp t + m i As acceleration is a function of the time-varying force and mass, the velocity and displacement of the drop are calculated by integrating the acceleration numerically. Drop detachment is judged at each time step of numerical integration using the drop detaching criterion in equation (3), and the critical displacement is estimated from the remaining volume having a conical shape in gure 2, which is 25% of the total drop volume [4]. The initial conditions of the velocity and displacement at the onset of the peak time are zero and z0 , respectively, and the initial displacement is determined from the mass centre of the initial drop in gure 2. Assuming that the acceleration force is constant (Fa = Fc ), the velocity and displacement of the drop can be derived by integrating the acceleration as v= z = z0 + Fc mp mp t Fc ln +1 , mp mi mi mp ln mp t +1 mi . (8)

where vm represents the wire melting rate, the mass density of the wire, Aw the cross-sectional area of the wire, Le the wire extension and a and b the constants to be determined experimentally. It is noted that the critical displacement of the drop detaching criterion is determined from the remaining drop volume, which has a conical shape as illustrated in gure 2. Since the pendant drop is elongated by force during the peak time, it is necessary to calculate the force exerted on the drop. Since the accuracy of the SFBM decreases in the high current range, the MFBM is employed to calculate the force imposed on the drop [8]. In the MFBM, the momentum ux is added to the force components of the SFBM, which compensates the error in the high current range. Among the force components of the MFBM, the surface tension force, electromagnetic force and momentum ux are considered in the pulsed-GMAW analysis because other forces of the gravitational and drag forces have negligible effects due to the small detached drop size. Assuming that the pendant drop has a spherical shape, the force exerted on the drop during the peak period is expressed as
2 Fa = (Fem + Fmf ) F = (kem + kmf )Ip Dw 2 = kIp Dw ,

t + t +

(9)

The constant force, Fc , is selected to be the force exerted on the pendant drop, whose volume (Va ) is equal to the sum of the spherical drop volume having the wire diameter 1 3 and a remaining volume of 4 Va (i.e. Va = 2 Dw ). Using 9 this drop volume, the pendant drop diameter is larger than the wire diameter (Da /Dw 1.16). It is noted that the forcedisplacement model is also applied to the metal transfer analysis of dc-GMAW as well as pulsed-GMAW.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Effects of pulse parameters on drop detachment Effects of the pendant drop size on the surface tension force, electromagnetic force and momentum ux are illustrated in gure 3 where the peak current and the arc-covered angle are 350 A and 90 , respectively, and the material properties and constants used for calculation are summarized in table 1 [4, 1619]. While the surface tension force is constant, the electromagnetic force increases linearly with the drop diameter. The momentum ux initially increases rapidly to reach the maximum value at (Da /Dw 1.15) and then decreases gradually with the drop diameter. When the drop diameter ratio of (Da /Dw ) becomes larger than 1.1, the acceleration force becomes positive and increases continuously. In the case of negative acceleration force due to small drop size or low base current, the pendant drop becomes spherical in shape without elongation so that the acceleration force is selected to be zero. The arc-covered angle is xed at 90 for further calculation because the momentum ux becomes almost constant with the arc-covered angle between 60 and 120 [8]. In order to analyse the effects of pulse parameters on the drop detachment qualitatively, the drop velocity in equation (8) 3

(6)

kem =

o 1 Da sin 1 ln 4 Dw 4 1 cos 2 2 + , ln (1 cos )2 1 + cos o 4 Dw Da

2

kmf =

Ie Ip

where Fem , Fmf and F represent the electromagnetic force, momentum ux and surface tension force, respectively, Dw the wire diameter, Da the pendant drop diameter, the surface tension coefcient, o the permeability of free space and the arc-covered angle. Ie is the exit current owing through the cross-sectional plane at the bottom of the drop having the same diameter as the wire diameter [8]. As the drop grows during the peak time, the electromagnetic force and momentum ux vary continuously because these forces are functions of the pendant drop diameter.

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Figure 3. Effect of pendant drop size on forces. Table 1. Material properties and constants used for calculation. Mass density, Steel Al Surface tension coefcient, Steel Al Constants for arc heating, a Steel wire 1.2 mm Steel wire 1.6 mm Al wire 1.2 mm Constants for Joule heating, b Steel wire 1.2 mm Steel wire 1.6 mm Permeability in space, o Drag coefcient, CD Density of argon gas, g 7.86 103 kg m3 2.68 103 kg m3 1.2 N m1 0.6 N m1 0.264 mm A1 s1 0.194 mm A1 s1 0.75 mm A1 s1 5.86 105 A2 s1 1.5 105 A2 s1 4 107 H m1 0.44 1.784 kg m3

Figure 4. Comparison of peak time predicted with numerical integration and constant force.

is used to derive the drop detaching time in the closed-form equation. Ignoring the Joule heating term in the wire melting equation (bLe I 2 0) and utilizing the drop detaching criterion of velocity (v vcr ), the drop detaching time is derived as mp vcr mi tpd = exp 1 f0 mp Aw avcr mi exp 1 . (10) = Aw aIp kIp Dw /Ip It is obvious from the above equation that the peak current is the most dominant parameter such that the drop detaching time decreases rapidly with the peak current. Another parameter affecting the drop detaching time is the initial drop mass, mi . The drop detaching time increases linearly with the initial drop mass because it takes a longer time for a larger drop to reach critical velocity. Therefore, if the initial drop size becomes larger due to the long additional peak time or base time, a longer drop detaching time is needed. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the peak current and time for 1.2 mm steel wire where the peak times are 4

calculated through numerical integration of the acceleration in equation (7) and by solving the analytic equation (9) with constant force. The base current and time are 100 A and 5 ms, respectively, and the additional peak time is 1 ms. The drop detaching criterion of displacement in equation (3) is applied, and the remaining volume at drop detachment is assumed to be 25% of the total drop volume. As expected, the peak time decays exponentially with the peak current, and the peak time becomes shorter than 3 ms and almost constant at the peak current above 300 A. The calculated results of numerical integration show good agreement with those of the analytic equation, especially in the high current range above 350 A. There is a minor discrepancy in the current range below 350 A such that the peak time of the analytic equation is shorter than that of numerical integration because the constant force of Fc in the analytic equation (9) is larger than Fa in equation (7) during the initial portion of the peak time. While both numerical integration and analytic equation can be utilized to predict the peak time, the peak time calculated by the numerical integration should be more accurate because the time-varying force is calculated at a small time increment instead of using a constant force. Therefore, further calculation is conducted by numerical integration. The effects of process variables such as the peak current and initial drop mass on the drop detachment for 1.2 mm steel wire are illustrated in gure 5 where the additional peak time is 1 ms and the base current and time are 100 A and 5 ms, respectively. The velocity and displacement of the pendant drop increase with the peak current due to a higher acceleration force, which results in a shorter drop detaching time in gure 5(a). The critical velocity and displacement at drop detachment vary depending on the peak current because the acceleration force and the amount of wire melting are different. As for the effect of the initial drop mass determined by wire melting during the additional peak time and base time, the peak time increases almost linearly with the initial drop mass in gure 5(b), which agrees with equation (10).

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(a)

Figure 6. Comparison of the predicted range of peak time and experimental data for 1.2 mm Al wire ( = Dd /Dw ).

(b)

Figure 5. Effects of process variables on drop detachment for 1.2 mm steel wire. (a) Effect of peak current on drop velocity and displacement during peak time. (b) Effect of initial drop mass on peak time.

Therefore, the effect of wire melting during the base time and additional peak time cannot be ignored though the peak current is the most inuential parameter. This predicted result along with equation (10) is opposite to the simulation results of Allum [4], who reported that the calculated peak time decreased with a longer base time and this prediction contradicted the experimental results. The main reason for the contradiction is speculated that the peak time was predicted based on the critical wavelength of the PIT and wire melting without consideration of the dynamic characteristics of drop detachment. 3.2. Comparison with experimental data The predicted results of the FDM are compared with the experimental data of ODOP conditions using aluminium and steel wires [4, 16]. Figure 6 illustrates the relationship of the peak time and current of the ODOP condition for 1.2 mm aluminium wire where in the plot represents the ratio of the detached drop diameter ( = Dd /Dw ). The peak times are calculated using the FDM and Allums model [4]. The base 5

current and time for the calculation and experiment are given as Ib tb = 0.2 A s, and the additional peak time of the FDM is 1 ms. The Joule heating term in the wire melting equation is ignored because of the high thermal conductivity of aluminium wire. The ODOP range in the plot is predicted using the FDM by varying the additional peak time while the condition (Ib tb = 0.2 A s) is maintained. As the peak current increases, the calculated and experimental peak times decrease and the ODOP range is also reduced. In the case of low peak current below 200 A, there are discrepancies between the experimental data and the predicted results using the forcedisplacement and Allums models. While the predicted peak time of Allums model is shorter than the experimental data, that of the FDM is longer, which ensures drop detachment and can avoid the undesirable ODMP condition. Although the accuracy of both models decreases for low peak current, the predicted results and experimental data are in good agreement in the high peak current range above 200 A. Similar to the trends of the low current range, the peak time of the FDM is slightly longer than that of Allums model and the experimental data, which is benecial for ensuring the ODOP condition. Figure 7 shows a comparison between the calculated results and the experimental data of the ODOP condition for steel wire of 1.2 mm and 1.6 mm diameters [4, 16]. As for Matsudas experimental data in gure 7(a), the ODOP range is obtained with the base current of 50 A, the pulse frequency varying between 70 and 285 Hz and the duty cycle of 50%, which is dened as ( = tp /(tp + tb ) 100). The ODOP range of the FDM is calculated using the pulse frequency between 85 and 215 Hz, and the base time of 3.6 ms, which is the average base time of the experimental data. Although the peak times calculated using the FDM cannot satisfy the 50% duty cycle of the experiment, the predicted ODOP range shows good agreement with that of Matsudas experimental data. The ODOP range of the FDM also includes Allums calculated results and experimental data. The ODOP range of Matsuda is much larger than that of Allum because different pulse parameters and power supplies were used for the experiments.

J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 (2009) 035504

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3.3. Application to dc-GMAW When the drop is detached in the globular mode of dc-GMAW, the drop is elongated and necking occurs before its detachment, similar to pulsed-GMAW [1, 7, 20]. Compared with the drop detaching criterion of displacement in the FDM, the SFBM and MFBM utilize the force balance as the drop detaching criterion such that the drop is detached if the detaching force becomes larger than the attaching force. Since the drop size of dc-GMAW is larger than that of pulsed-GMAW, the effects of the gravitational and drag forces cannot be ignored. Therefore, to predict metal transfer in dc-GMAW using the forcedisplacement model, these forces are added to the force components in equation (4) as Fa = (Fem + Fmf + Fg + Fd ) F
(a)
1 = (kI 2 + gVa + 2 CD AP g u2 ) Dw , p

(11)

(b)

Figure 7. Comparison of the predicted range of peak time and experimental data for steel wire. Wire diameter 1.2 mm (a) and 1.6 mm (b).

In the case of 1.6 mm steel wire in gure 7(b), the information about the base current and time is not available [4] so that the base current and time of 150 A and 10 ms are selected to calculate the peak time. The ODOP range of the FDM includes Allums calculated result and the experimental data, and the experimental data are located near the lower boundary of the predicted ODOP range (0.9 1.0). Although there is some uncertainty due to lack of information about the experimental data, it appears that the FDM can predict the ODOP range with reasonable accuracy. Further verication of the forcedisplacement model can be conducted by comparing with the successive images of drop detachment using the laser backlighting method. While the ideal rectangular waveform is used for the pulse current, the actual waveform of the pulse current depends on the power supply and various modied waveforms have been employed to detach the drop efciently. It appears that the FDM can be applied to current waveforms other than the rectangular waveform because the displacement of the pendant drop can be calculated by integrating the time-varying acceleration with a small time increment. 6

where Fg and Fd represent the gravitational and drag forces, respectively, Va the pendant drop volume, CD the drag coefcient, Ap the projection area, g the mass density of the shielding gas and up the plasma velocity. Figure 8 illustrates the comparison of the predicted result of the FDM with those of the MFBM and SFBM as well as the experimental data for steel wire [8]. The drop detaching criterion and wire melting of dc-GMAW are the same as those of pulsed-GMAW, and the remaining drop volume after drop detachment is 25% of the total drop volume. While the predicted results of the FDM and the MFBM show good agreement at high current, the detached drop diameters of the FDM are smaller than those of the MFBM in the low current range, which implies that the remaining drop volume of 25% is excessive for the large drop detached at low current. The calculated results of the FDM and the MFBM are in good agreement with the experimental data. While the drop volume of the FDM increases during drop detachment by continuous wire melting, this increment in the drop volume is compensated by the remaining drop volume after drop detachment. Although the results of the FDM and the MFBM are similar, the FDM is more physically acceptable because the actual phenomenon of drop detachment is simulated more closely by employing the drop detaching criterion and including the effect of wire melting.

4. Conclusions
Metal transfer of the pulsed-GMAW is investigated using the FDM to determine the ODOP condition, and the results of this work are summarized as follows. (1) In order to simulate the drop detaching phenomenon of the pulsed-GMAW, the forcedisplacement model is formulated, and the peak time is divided into the drop detaching time and the additional peak time (tp = tpd +tpa ). The drop detaching criterion is established based on the displacement of the pendant drop such that the drop is detached if it is elongated longer than the critical displacement (z zcr ).

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(a)

(4) The peak current has a most signicant effect on the peak time, and the peak time and ODOP range decrease with the peak current. The initial drop mass also inuences drop detachment such that the peak time increases linearly with the initial drop mass. It is thus necessary to consider the effects of the initial drop mass by wire melting during the additional peak time and base time for determination of the ODOP condition. (5) The results of the FDM are in good agreement with the experimental data, which implies that the FDM can be utilized to determine the ODOP condition. (6) When the FDM is applied to metal transfer of dc-GMAW, the calculated results show good agreement with the experimental data, and its accuracy is similar to the MFBM. However, the drop detaching criterion of the FDM is more physically acceptable than that of the previous force balance models.

Acknowledgment
The authors appreciate the support from the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH).

References
[1] Kim Y-S and Eagar T W 1993 Weld. J. 72 27987s [2] Trindade E M and Allum C J 1984 Weld. Met. Fabr. 52 26470 [3] Subramaniam S, White D R, Jones J E and Lyons D W 1999 Weld. J. 78 16672s [4] Allum C J 1985 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 18 144768 [5] Nemchinsky V A 1998 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 2797802 [6] Jones L A, Eagar T W and Lang J H 1998 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 93106 [7] Jones L A, Eagar T W and Lang J H 1998 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 10723 [8] Arif N, Lee J H and Yoo C D 2008 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 41 195503 [9] Choi S K, Yoo C D and Kim Y-S 1998 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 20715 [10] Wang G, Huang P G and Zhang Y M 2004 Metall. Mater. Trans. B 35 85766 [11] Wu Y and Kovacevic R 2002 Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B 216 55564 [12] Wang Q L, Li P J and Naka M 1997 Q. J. JWS 15 41524 [13] Zhang Y M and Li P J 2001 Weld. J. 80 5461s [14] Wu C S, Chen M A and Lu Y F 2005 Meas. Sci. Technol. 16 245965 [15] Amin M 1981 Met. Constr. 13 34953 [16] Matsuda F, Ushio M and Tanaka Y 1983 Trans. JWRI 12 917 [17] Subramaniam S, White D R, Scholl D J and Weber W H 1998 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 196367 [18] Fujimura H, Ide E and Inoue H 1987 Q. J. JWS 5 31116 [19] Bruno L A et al 1993 ASM Handbook: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering vol 6, ed R Faith et al (USA: ASM International) [20] Wang F, Hou W K, Hu S J, Kannatey-Asibu E, Schlutz W W and Wang P C 2003 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 36 114352

(b)

Figure 8. Comparison of the predicted results of the FDM, the SFBM and the MFBM with the experimental data of dc-GMAW for steel wire. Wire diameter 1.2 mm (a) and 1.6 mm (b).

(2) The displacement of the pendant drop is calculated by integrating the acceleration of the drop, which depends on the time-varying force and drop mass. The MFBM coupled with wire melting is employed to calculate the force imposed on the drop, which includes the surface tension force, electromagnetic force and momentum ux for pulsed-GMAW. The effect of wire melting is considered in the FDM, and the remaining volume at drop detachment is assumed to be 25% of the total drop volume. (3) When the peak current, base current and time are given, the peak time for the ODOP condition is calculated using the FDM. The ODOP range is also predicted when the detached drop diameter varies between 0.9Dw and 1.3Dw .