MATH 2209: Calculus

Table of Contents
Parametric Functions ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Definition........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Stating Parametric Functions ...............................................................................................................................................4
Eliminating the Parameter ...................................................................................................................................................4
Drawing Parameter Functions .............................................................................................................................................4

Tangents to Parametric Curves ........................................................................................................................ 4

Petal (Lemniscate) ........................................................................................................................................... 5

Vector Functions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Vector Function Definition...................................................................................................................................................5

Limits .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
General Limit Definition ......................................................................................................................................................5
Value of Vector Function Limit ............................................................................................................................................5
Theorem ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Corollary: One Sided Limits ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Process to Find Vector Valued Limit.....................................................................................................................................6

Continuity ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
Continuity Conditions ..........................................................................................................................................................6
Continuous on I ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Properties of Continuous Functions .....................................................................................................................................6

Differentiability............................................................................................................................................... 7
Differentiable at t o (point) ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
One-sided Differentiability ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Checking Differentiability ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7

Smooth Parameterisation ....................................................................................................................................................7

Vector Integration ........................................................................................................................................... 7

Indefinite Integrals: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Arc Length....................................................................................................................................................... 8
General Arc Length ..............................................................................................................................................................8
Polar Arc Length ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

General Formula ..................................................................................................................................................................8

Parameterisation w.r.t Arc Length .......................................................................................................................................9
Parameterisation Process ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Curvature...................................................................................................................................................... 10
Tangential .........................................................................................................................................................................10
Normal ..............................................................................................................................................................................10
Curvature ..........................................................................................................................................................................10

Multivariate Functions ....................................................................................................................................................... 10

Functions of Several Variables ....................................................................................................................... 10
Definition ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Level Set ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Multivariate limits......................................................................................................................................... 11
Finding Limits at Origin ......................................................................................................................................................11

Sets .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Open and Closed Balls .......................................................................................................................................................11
Open Ball ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Closed Ball ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Sphere ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Sets ...................................................................................................................................................................................11
Subsets: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Existence of Maximums .....................................................................................................................................................12

Bounded Sets .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12

Partial Derivatives ......................................................................................................................................... 12

Clairault's Theorem ...........................................................................................................................................................13

Tangent Planes.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Tangent Plane Process................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

Approximation Formula .....................................................................................................................................................13

Approximation Formula Process ................................................................................................................................................................ 14

Continuity ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Single Variable Continuity: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 14

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Differentiability............................................................................................................................................. 14
Differentiability on Multivariate ........................................................................................................................................14
Checking Differentiability ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Chain Rule..................................................................................................................................................... 15
Chain Rule Form 1 .............................................................................................................................................................15
Chain Rule Form 2 .............................................................................................................................................................15
Chain Rule on F(x,y,z) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 15

Gradients ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
Directional Derivative ........................................................................................................................................................16
Tangent Planes with parameterised functions ...................................................................................................................16
Angles ...............................................................................................................................................................................16

Mean Value Theorem .................................................................................................................................... 16

Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Mean Value Theorem ........................................................................................................................................................17

Corollary 1: Constant Function ..........................................................................................................................................17
EVT ....................................................................................................................................................................................17

Second Derivative Test .................................................................................................................................. 17

Extremum..........................................................................................................................................................................17
Second Derivative Test ......................................................................................................................................................17

Lagrange Multiples ........................................................................................................................................ 18

Orthogonal Surfaces ..........................................................................................................................................................18
Lagrange Theorem.............................................................................................................................................................18
Method of Lagrange Multiples...........................................................................................................................................18

Taylors Theorem ........................................................................................................................................... 19

0th Degree Approximation .................................................................................................................................................19
1st Degree Approximation ..................................................................................................................................................19
nd
2 Degree Approximation .................................................................................................................................................19

Finding the Second Polynomial .................................................................................................................................................................. 19

Vector Functions ........................................................................................................................................... 20

Jacobian Matrices ......................................................................................................................................... 20
The Jacobian ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Jacobian Chain Rule ...........................................................................................................................................................20

Inverse Function Theorem .................................................................................................................................................21
Invertible Transform ................................................................................................................................................................................... 21

Multiple Integrals ................................................................................................................................................................ 21

Properties of Multiple Integrals ..................................................................................................................... 21
Double Integral Properties.................................................................................................................................................21

Cartesian ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Cartesian Double Integral ..................................................................................................................................................21
Type I Planar Region .................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Type II Planar Region ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

Cartesian Triple Integral ....................................................................................................................................................22

Triple Cartesian Integral Method ............................................................................................................................................................... 22
Type I Solid Region ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Type II Solid Region .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Type III Solid Region ................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Polar ............................................................................................................................................................. 24
General Theory ..................................................................................................................................................................24
Type I Polar Region .................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Type II Polar Region ................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

Spherical Polar .............................................................................................................................................. 24

Cartesian Spherical Polar Conversion ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

General Rule ......................................................................................................................................................................25

Cylindrical ..................................................................................................................................................... 25
General Theory ..................................................................................................................................................................25

Applications .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Surface Area ......................................................................................................................................................................25
Volume ..............................................................................................................................................................................26
Determining Volume ................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

2D Mass and Moments ......................................................................................................................................................26

Mass ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Moment of Lamina .................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

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Moment of Inertia...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

3D Mass and Moments ......................................................................................................................................................27

Mass ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
Moments..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Moment of Inertia...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

Charge Density ..................................................................................................................................................................28

2D Charge Density ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
3D Charge Density ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Transformations............................................................................................................................................ 28
Theorem for R2 ..................................................................................................................................................................28

Transforms to find Integrals ....................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Theorem for R3 ..................................................................................................................................................................29

Special Cases ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

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Parametric Functions
Definition
If variables x1, x2,...,xn are defined by the same variable t,{x 1=f1(t), x2=f2(t),...,xn=fn(t)}, then as t
varies the point (x1,x2,...,xn) traces out a curve C in
The vector form of C is () = 1 1 + 2 2 +. . . +
Consider t to be time, then r(t) is the position vector at time t, and as time elapses, the point moves
along the curve C
This means that the point can double back

2 : = , = ; = +
3 : = , = , = ; = + +

Stating Parametric Functions

For functions not in vector notation
1 = 1
2 = 1

= ()

Eliminating the Parameter

A direction relationship between x1, x2,...,xn can be obtained via simultaneous equation manipulation
of the defining functions of x1, x2,...,xn ,{x1=f1(t), x2=f2(t),...,xn=fn(t)}.
However eliminating the parameter is not always possible
The ability to eliminate the parameter depends upon the nature of the defining functions

Drawing Parameter Functions

Eliminate the parameter and plot the resultant function
Create a table of the defining functions and their values at specific points; this can be used to trace out
the curve.
Arrows are drawn along the curve C to indicate increasing t

Tangents to Parametric Curves

Remember by the chain rule

=0

=0

Always must find both

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, if

=0

=0

Horizontal Tangent
Vertical Tangent
Need more information

and before determining the above tangents

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Petal (Lemniscate)
= Acos or sin , = 2,3,4 ,
Note that 1
x axis intercept = A

3
5
7
Since cos < 0 for < < and < < , these angles ranges are not plotted, as we only consider > 0
4
4
4
4
in this unit.

Do not plot: < < and < <

Vector Functions
Vector Function Definition
Let I be an interval in . If for every I, r(t) is a vector in , then a vector function is defined by
: I given by a ()
= 1 , 2 , ,
For I, then functions 1 , 2 , , are called the coordinate functions.
As t varies with , r(t) traces out a curve in .
Any curve C with more than one pt has infinite parameterisations

Limits
General Limit Definition
Let r(t) be a -values vector function, defined on some open interval containing o except possibly
at to itself. The limit as t approaches to is a vector,
lim = exists iff, > 0, > 0, s. t.

0 < o < and <

Note: L is unique if it exists. The value of this limit is a vector

Value of Vector Function Limit

Theorem
If = 1 , 2 , ,

then
lim r t exists iff

tt o

lim = exists

lim =
o

= 1 , 2 , ,

So to find the value of a vector function limit, simply find the limits of the functions which define its
components at the point to
From this, if the limit for one component doesnt exist, the then limit of r(t) DNE

Corollary: One Sided Limits

One sided limits of a vector function exist if the one sided limits of its component functions exist.
Then the one sided limit is the vector of the one sided limits
r t = f t i +g t j+h t k
lim r t = lim f t

tt o

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tt o

i + lim g t
tt o

MATH 2209: Calculus

j + lim h t
tt o

pg. 5

Process to Find Vector Valued Limit

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Define (, ), and the limit , (0 , 0 )

Set = 0 and determine value function approaches as 0
Set y= 0 and determine value function approaches as 0
If the limit is at the origin, (0,0), then let = , and set (, ) (Not 0) and determine this
Can create lines that travel through this point, and test with these lines

Continuity
Define: A vector function : I , defined on some interval I(a, b), with an interior point pt o I
The continuity of r can be found by taking the vector limits, which is applying the method above of taking the limits
of the component functions

Continuity Conditions
Suppose is defined on some open ball centred a, is continuous if
lim () =

> 0, > 0, s. t.
a < a

<

, , +
For n=1
> 0, > 0, s. t. , + , +
Continuous at to (Continuous at a point)

iff lim = o
o

Continuous at a (Right-Hand Continuous)

lim =

Remember: Right hand is positive, its right

Continuous at b (Left-Hand Continuous)

lim =

Remember: Left hand is negative, its bad

Continuous on I
A vector function is continuous on an interval I if it is continuous at every point along I, (end points must be
right and left hand continuous)

Properties of Continuous Functions

If f and g are continuous on = then the following combinations are continuous

1. Sum and Difference:

2. Dot Product:
3. Constant Multiples:
4. Quotient: /, given that 0
5. Powers: , given that it is defined on an open ball containing , where r and s are integers

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Differentiability
Define: A vector function : I , defined on some interval I(a, b), with an interior point pt o I
Compare in components

Differentiable at to (point)
lim

One-sided Differentiability
= lim

Checking Differentiability
(See Method for Multivariate differentiability)

Smooth Parameterisation
A curve C is smooth if it has a parameterisation : I with;
1.
2.
So to check if a curve is a smooth parameterisation,
1. Find if continuous
2. Check if = 0 I

Vector Integration
Consider component functions
= + +

Indefinite Integrals:
Indefinite integrals of vector functions will include + C, where C is a vector

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Arc Length
General Arc Length

ds

dy

2
2

+ 2
2
2
+

dx

Polar Arc Length

Find , and treat as parameter
=
= cos

= cos sin

= sin + cos

2
2
2

+
=
cos sin +
sin + cos

2 +

General Formula
2

Use first formula primarily

1+

Polar

General

2 +

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Parameterisation w.r.t Arc Length

A vector function can be parameterised in terms of the arc length of the curve it plots out.
Let : , 3 be continuously differentiable, with C being the curve parameterised by (t). C is
traversed only as t runs from a to b. Note integral ranges from a to t

S =

S() = 0, S() = =Arc length of C

Suppose > 0, S =
have an inverse function S-1

> 0. This means that S is strictly increasing, and hence must

S: [, ] [0, ]
= : 0, ,

For S 0, L , () is the unique s.t

S=
0

So the parameterisation of C w.r.t arc length is

C: S = S

S 0,

Where:
1
1
=

S = S S
S
=
S

S = 1 S[0, ]
S =

This means that speed is one unit

This applies to

Parameterisation Process
1. State C: = 1 , 2 , , , 0
2. Define
3. Define

4. Determine S =
0

5. Determine inverse function of S(t) above, this only requires switching the variables and solving,
this defines t in terms of s
6. Then sub in the defined inverse function, for t, in the r(t) function
i.e. replacing t with a function in terms of S

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Curvature
T Tangential Vector
N Normal Vector

Tangential
C is a smooth curve in 2 or 3 parameterised by (), () continously, and

T =

T = |

> 0 I

Normal
C is a smooth curve in 2 or 3 parameterised by (), () continously, and
N =
N =

T
T

=
2

> 0 I

1 dT

Curvature
=

(t) =

If 2D vectors assign component = 0, note that cross product will only result in component, this
product will be
=

Multivariate Functions
Functions of Several Variables
Definition
Before: , , ,

Now: , , ,

Let D be a subset of , then : D is a rate that assigns for each = 1 , 2 , , D, a real

number = 1 , 2 , ,
Range of : { : D}, written as : D
Graph of : { , : D} +1

Level Set
Level sets are the sets at which a function takes on a specific value.
Given , the level set of corresponding to is
{: = }

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Multivariate limits
Let r(t) be a -values vector function, defined on some open interval containing o except possibly
at to itself. The limit as t approaches to is a vector,
lim exists iff, satisfying

> 0, > 0, s. t. 0 < < <

i.e. > 0, > 0, s. t. ; and ( , + )

Finding Limits at Origin

Find the one sided limits of different variables, moving along the axis. This allows for the other
variables to be set to zero.
As lim+ = = lim

, 0 = (0, )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Define (, ), and the limit , (0 , 0 )

State that function must have same value from different approaches
Set = 0 and determine value function approaches as 0
Set = 0 and determine value function approaches as 0
Let = , and set (, ) (Not 0) and determine this

Sets
Open and Closed Balls
If and > 0, then a
Open Ball :
Closed ball at centred at and radius > 0 is described by the set

, = : <
For n=1: ; = : < = , +
For n=2: ; = , : 2 + 2 < 2 Open Disc
For n=3: ; = , , : 2 + 2 + 2 < 2

Closed Ball :
Open ball centred at and radius > 0 is described by the set (Difference is )

, = :
For n=1: ; = , +
For n=2: ; = , : 2 + 2 2 Closed Disc
For n=3: ; = , , : 2 + 2 + 2 2

Sphere : Sphere centred at and radius > 0 is described by the set

, = : =
For n=1: ; = , +
For n=2: ; = , :

For n=3: ; =

, , :

= 2}

= 2

Sets
Let D , a point is then a
i. Interior point of D if it is centred at some open ball contained in D
i.e. < 0 . . (, ) will be a ball with a radius s.t. it is contained
ii. Boundary point of D if every open ball centred at contains a point of D and a point not of D
Note: An element of D is either an interior or boundary point, it CANNOT be both
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Notation:

Do= The set of all interior points of D

D= The set of all boundary points of D

Subsets:
Open: A subset D is called open if every point of D is an interior point of D, Do=D
Closed: A subset K is called closed if it contains its boundary points, i.e. KK
, = , = ,
, =
, =

A subset is Neither open nor closed if it contains boundary points only for portions.
A set cannot be both open and closed, with the exception of ,
1. Every open ball , in is an open set
2. For , with < the subsets
, , , , , , (, ) are all open sets
, , , , , , (, ) are all closed sets
3. Open Annulus,
In 2 , 0 < < ,

, ; 2 < 2 + 2 , 2

Existence of Maximums
Let D be a closed and bounded subset of .
Let : D be continuous on D.
Then : is a bounded subset of and an absolute maximum and minimum of exists on D
, D . .
, D

Bounded Sets
A subset of is called bounded if it is contained in some closed ball

1 , 2 , ,

Partial Derivatives
Let be a defined on some open ball centre .

The partial derivative () of f w.r.t. of is the derivative of taking all other variables to be

constant.
This derivative doesnt exist if the defining limit doesnt this limit is the same as for normal derivative

Higher Order Derivatives

Note: The order that the derivatives occur in affects the derivative scripts
2

=
=

2

2 = =

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Clairault's Theorem
Let : D where D is an open subset of
2
If
is continous on D then

2
2
=
on D

This could possibly be used to imply continuity

Tangent Planes
Given a surface = (, ) (graph of ), with , continuous, the normal to the surface at the point
, , , is
= , , , , 1
Therefore the eqn of the plane has the formula
, , , , = 0
, + , =

Tangent Plane Process

1. Determine the partial derivatives, in terms of , , , then determine at the given point
2. Find normal vector, via two methods
a. If given = (, ) then use the formula
= , , , , 1
b. If given as (, , ), then use the formula
=

3. State that
4. Solve , , , ,

,
,

=0

Approximation Formula
The tangent plane approximates the surface near , ,
= , , surface
= , + , tangent plane
, , + , + , near ,
Letting = , =
+ , + , + , + ,
Example
Find the approximation to 9 1.85
let , = 9 2 + 2
2,8 = 10
18
18 9
=
=
=
2
2
10 5
2 9 +
2
8
4
=
=
=
2
2
10
5
2 9 +
9

+ 8.1

So 1.85,8.1 10 + 5 0.15 + 5 0.1 = 9.81

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Approximation Formula Process

1. State = (, ), rearranging might be needed
2. For a known point (, , ) the tangent plane is
= , + ,

3. State that therefore for points near (, ) (Variables other than that being approximated)
, , + , + ,

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

+ , + , + , + ,
Determine (, )
Determine () and ()
Determine and , consider that = , = , where and are the values
being approximated, and and are the known points
Dont forget to use
Determine
+ , + , + , + ,

Continuity
Perform normal checks for continuity, apply the formula
Example:
, , =

2 + 2
is continuous on
+1

, , : 1

Single Variable Continuity:

A function defined on some open interval containing is differentiable

lim
exist

This can be rewritten that f will be differentiable at if s.t.

lim
=0

Then =

Differentiability
If is a real valued function defined on some open ball centre in , we say is differentiable at if
a linear transformation of : s.t.

lim
=0

Differentiability on Multivariate
Let : D where D is an open subset of
1. If is differentiable at then the partial derivatives exists and


=
,
,
1
2

3. If all partial derivatives are continuous on D then is differentiable at all points of D

Notes:
is continuously differentiable on D diff on D
continuous on cont at

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Checking Differentiability
1. Find all partial derivatives
2. Check all partial derivatives for continuity

Chain Rule
Chain Rule Form 1
Let : D be differentiable on open subset D
Let : I be differentiable on open interval I
Suppose = 1 , 2 , , and D I
Then the function = is differentiable on
=

1
2

+
++
1
2

= (1 , 2 , ) 2

Chain Rule Form 2

When multiple independent variables, that is, variables which the intermediable variables vary with
Intermediate variables : 1 , 2 , ,
Independent variables: 1 , 2 , ,
This means that = (1 , 2 , , )
Note from the equation , this gives the way to choose what variable to differentiation to

1
2

++

1
2

Example:
= , = 2 + 3 + 1
, = 3 + 2
, =

=
+

Chain Rule on F(x,y,z)

To find
Full Method
1. Treat as ()
2. Treat y as a constant
3. Implicitly differentiate
4. i.e.
Alternate Quick Method:

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pg. 15

Gradients
Let be a real-valued function defined on some open ball B centre
If all partial derivatives exists at
=

,
,,

1
2

Notes:
is always given in component forms

Directional Derivative
The directional derivative of in the direction of vector is

=

||
Must remember to make into a unit vector

Tangent Planes with parameterised functions

Let : D be differentiable on D,
Considering the level set = D: = , 0,
Let be any curve on with parameterisation , () where is differentiable on open interval and
= , ,
So therefore =

Differentiating with chain rule

= 0
= 0

=

,
,

Angles
Fastest Increase at
Direction=() Rate =
Fastest Decrease at
Direction=() Rate=

Mean Value Theorem

Definitions
Closed Line Segment: For , the closed line segment joining and
, = + : 0 1

Open Line Segment: For , the open line segment joining and (difference is < instead of )
(, ) = + : 0 < < 1
Connected:
Open subset D of is connected if every pair of points in D can be joined by polygonal path lying entirely in D
i.e. a continuous curve consisting of a finite no. of closed line segments
Maxima and Minima:
: defined in a subset has a level max/min at for x in some open ball in D, centre a

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Mean Value Theorem

Same as old MVT, except uses gradients
1. Let : D be differentiable on the open subset D
2. Let , D with and , D
3. Then there exists , s.t
=

Corollary 1: Constant Function

Let : D be differentiable in the open connected set
Let = 0
Then is constant on D, =
Proof
Determine that is differentiable and continuous hence connected on
Determine that = 0 for all
Hence = 0 = ()

EVT
If : is cont on the closed bounded subset D of then attains an absolute max at some point in
D and an absolute min at some point in D
1. Check interior points for local max and minima
2. Check end points

Second Derivative Test

Extremum
An extreme point is one in which all partial derivatives = 0, or at least one partial derivative is
undefined
Proof
Local extremum at and all partial derivatives exist, then they all equal zero
Let = , 2 , 3 , , , where = (1 , 2 , , 3 )
has a local extreme at then g has a local extreme at 1

Since 1 = () if they exist, by fermats theorem we get 1 = 0

Then

=0

Second Derivative Test

Let : 2
, = , = 0
=

1. , > 0, > 0 local min

2. , > 0, < 0 local max
3. , < 0 saddle point

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Lagrange Multiples
Orthogonal Surfaces
Let : D be continuously differentiable on the open subset 3 which contain sthe smooth curve with
smooth parameterisation
= , ,
If PO is a point in C where a local max/min relative to its values has on C, then is orthogonal to C at Po
Proof
The composite function = , ,
Hence = () so at ( )
Since ( ) is tangential to C, to C

is differentiable w/ derivative 0 (Fermats theorem)

Lagrange Theorem
Let , be continuously differentiable on open set 3 containing the level surface : , , = 0
If has a local maximum at on relative its values on and if 0 then
= ( )
Proof
has a relative local extremum at relative to its value son any smooth curve on passing thru
So is at
Since is a non-zero vector at there must exist a scalar so that = ( )

Method of Lagrange Multiples

Principle remains the same regardless of number of variables , ,
1. Define and = 0 =
2. Define and
3. Prove that = 0 is bounded
a. Show that each , , is bounded between two values
4. Show that is continuous on = 0, hence by EVT has a global maximum and minimum on = 0
5. Prove 0, using = 0
6. State: Using Lagrange Multiples:
=
=0
2 Variables:

1. Use = , via substitution of to define = () or = ()

2. Substitute this function into = 0 and solve for or
3. Use function = () or = () to define the remaining variable
3 Variables:

1. Define each , , in terms of ()

2. Substitute these definitions into = 0 and solve for
3. Then solve for , ,

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Taylors Theorem
Let B be an open ball in containing
Left : B and let B with
Then the tailor polynomial of of degree n is denoted by ,

0th Degree Approximation

has continuous and bounded first order partial derivatives on B
0, = + ,
Where
, = . for some ,
, const.

1st Degree Approximation

has continuous and bounded first and second order partial derivatives on B
1, = + . + 1 ,
Where

1
1 , =
,
2!
=1 =1

1 ,

< const.

2nd Degree Approximation

has continuous and bounded first, second and third order partial derivatives on B
NOTE: R is negative

1,
Where
2 ,

1
= + . + 1 , +
2!
< const.

( ) 2 ,
=1 =1

Finding the Second Polynomial

1.
2.
3.
4.

Determine ,
(, )
(, ) (, ) (, ) (, )
(, ) (, ) (, ) (, )
, = , + , +

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,
2

MATH 2209: Calculus

+ 2 , + ,

pg. 19

Vector Functions
: curves
: e. g. Temperature
: e. g. m n matrix
Let
Vector function : is a rule which assigns to each D a unique vector = 1 , 2 , ,
Then functions : D = 1,2, are called the coordinate functions of
0
Polar coordinates map , = cos , sin in = , , 02
an mxn matrix gives a map
1
C11 1 + C12 1 + + C1n
2
C21 2 + C22 2 + + C2n
= C = C =

Cm1 1 + Cm2 2 + + Cmn

lim = lim 1 , lim 2 , , lim

Jacobian Matrices
Given : D with D open, and D, the mxn matrix of at is called the Jacobian matrix
1

1
2
= 1

2
2

2
= ()

The Jacobian
The determinant of a Jacobian matrix of at is called the Jacobian of at

= Jacobian Matrix

1 , 2 , ,
(1 , 2 , , )

Jacobian Chain Rule

Let U be an open subset of and let V be an open subset of
Let : U and : U with V
If is diffable on U and is diffable on V then is diffable on U (and is diffable on v)

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Inverse Function Theorem

The inverse function theorem uses Jacobian matrices to determine the derivative of x and y, in terms
of u and v. And avoids having to solve complex simultaneous equations, to obtain the inverse
functions
=
1

For (, ), where = (, ), = (, )
1

Invertible Transform
A transform is invertible over the domain of , s.t. the det > 0
When this occurs there is said to be a open disc on which T is invertible and continuous

Multiple Integrals
Order of integration is such that variables created in earlier integrals are eliminated by subsequent ones
The point to integrate from must correlate to what you are integrating with respect to

Properties of Multiple Integrals

Double Integral Properties
a) If , are integrable over 2 and k, l then
( k + lg
) = k

+ L

b) If , , , , then

c) If , , ,
Area

Area

where:

= Area

d) If = 1 2 with 1 2 having no int. point, then if all integrals exist

=

+
1

Cartesian
Cartesian Double Integral
Let : , where 2 , be a bounded function
Suppose is bounded, i.e. for some rectangle R
Define :
, , if ,
, =
0,
if ,
is integrable over if is integrable over
, =

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MATH 2209: Calculus

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Type I Planar Region

1000

2 is a region of the form:

= , : and 1 2
1 , 2 are continuous on [, ]
1 2 , [, ]
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D

800

600

400

200

2 ()

, =

10

11

1 ()

This applies when the area is two functions, bounded between 2 values, or poles.

Type II Planar Region

2 is a region of the form:
= , : and 1 2
1 , 2 are continuous on [, ]
2 1 , [, ]
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D

2 ()

, =

1 ()

This applies to an area that is two vertical functions inverse functions in a sense , that is bounded by two y values

Generally: You can often think of an area as a type I or II, but you must decide

Cartesian Triple Integral

If : is continuous on the rectangular box = , , , then is integrable over

(, , ) =

, ,

3 is a bounded subset, i.e. for some rectangular box :

Define : by
, , , if , ,
, =
0,
if , ,
is integrable over if is integrable over

Triple Cartesian Integral Method

2. Will always be integrating for a variable between two functions, and then after, will
integrate for D
3. To integrate between D, consider what you are integrating with respect to, and your
boundary regions
1. Boundary regions are always given as numerical values (unless complicated?)
4. The parameters of each integral and the parameters of the variable that is being integrated
with respect to
5. This means that the two integrations for D, are between the boundary regions indicated
i.e. if the region is bounded for x=3, x=1, then when integrating for dx, integrate between 1 and 3

All regions are pretty much the same

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12

Type I Solid Region

Moving area in x,y along z, hence start with defining functions and dz

= , , and 1 , 2 ,
1 , 2 are continuous on
1 , 2 , , (, )
Bounded region in , plane, moved about
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D
2 (,)

1 (,)

Where subsequent integration occurs for boundaries

Type II Solid Region

Moving area in y,z along x

= , , and 1 , 2 ,
1 , 2 are continuous on
1 , 2 , , (, )
Bounded region in , plane, moved about
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D
2 (,)

1 (,)

Where subsequent integration occurs for boundaries

Type III Solid Region

Moving area in x,z along y

= , , and 1 , 2 ,
1 , 2 are continuous on
1 , 2 , , (, )
Bounded region in , plane, moved about
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D
2 (,)

1 (,)

Where subsequent integration occurs for boundaries

For product of functions

() =

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pg. 23

Polar
Some integrals are simplified if they are performed with polar coordinates, rather than Cartesian
Polar forms involve rectangles in a range of angle and radius r. These polar rectangles could be
likened to rainbows.
Polar only occurs with double integrals
= , : , Rectangle

General Theory
If is continuous on the polar rectangle D, given by and , then
, =

( cos , sin )

[,] ,

Once again, the order of integration must be such that, any variable introduced by the first integral, will be
eliminated by the second.
In this particular case, r is part of the first integral

Type I Polar Region

2 is a region of the form:
= , : , 1 () 2 ()
1 , 2 are continuous on [, ]
2 1 , [, ]
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D

2 ()

, =

1 ()

The area is for steady radius, and defined angles (looks like a rainbow)

Type II Polar Region

2 is a region of the form:
= , : and 1 2
1 , 2 are continuous on [, ]
1 2 , [, ]
Then, if : is continuous and integrable over D

2 ()

, =

1 ()

This applies to an area that is two vertical functions inverse functions in a sense , that is bounded by two y values

Spherical Polar
Spherical coordinates are a 3 dimensional coordinates in which points are denoted by (, , )
p = Distance p from the origin
= Angle between and axis of Q, the projection of point P onto the , plane
= Angle between OP and axis, it should be noted that 0

Cartesian Spherical Polar Conversion

= sin cos
= sin sin
= cos
This conversion is needed to make integration simpler
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General Rule
A solid region , inner spherical polar coordinates
= , , : , , 1 , 2 ,
+ 2
0
1 , 2 continuous and 0 1 2

2 ,

[ sin cos , sin sin , cos . 2 sin dp d d

, , =

1 ,

In which = 2 sin
Dont forget

Cylindrical
The cylindrical co-ords of Q at a point p in 3 are (, , ) where , the polar co-ords is polar
coordinates of the projection onto the , plane, and is the cartesian co-ord of P
Note that = cos , = sin

General Theory
Suppose is a Type I Solid region, = , , and 1 , 2 ,
Suppose is a Type II Polar region, = , : 1 2
Then the integral simply becomes the first step of a type I solid, and the second and third step, are for
a type II polar. This is really just finding the D
Then if is bounded
2

2 (,)

cos , sin ,
1 () 1 (,)

It does help the integration if any , can be converted into values, i.e.
2 + 2 = 2
Dont forget

Applications
Surface Area
Finding the surface area of a 2D object does not mean it has to lie flat on the , plane, all that it requires is that
the surface can be modelled by a function (, )

Let be a bounded region in 2

Let : be continuously diffable with , 0, ,
The area of the surface is
= , , ,
2 , + 2 , + 1

Area =

State that , 0, ,

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Volume
Through the use of triple integrals
Volume =

Determining Volume
1. Determine , the set of conditions for the volume
2. To create this, it is ideal to consider the restrictions placed on , ,
a. Consider the restrictions on each variable , ,
b. The restrictions for each variable can in the form of function of the remaining two variables,
e.g. for 1 , 2 (, )
3. Once has been created, must integrate in terms of
a. When integrating with respect to each variable, the parameters of this integration are the
restrictions on the variable determine above
4. If only 2 conditions were given, it is much easier to use cylindrical method, so all that is required
is converting , to ,

2D Mass and Moments

Have a laminar occupying a region D in the , plane
Suppose laminar at point , is given by (, ), (: )
Then p=mass/area

Mass
=

Moment of Lamina
About the X-Axis
Distance from x axis is y, therefore

About the Y-Axis

Distance from x axis is y, therefore

Centre of Mass
The centre of mass occurs at ( , ), where;

, =

Moment of Inertia
About the X-Axis

2 is the difference to moment

2 ,

About the Y-Axis

2 is the difference to moment

2 ,

Moment of Inertia about the Origin

o = +
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3D Mass and Moments

For a bounded solid by 3 , with a density function (, , )

Mass
m=

, ,

Moments
Moments are about planes, not axis. Integral process is the same as for mass, but the initial integration
involves the variable not in plane of the moment.
Moment of Body about , plane
=

, ,

Moment of Body about , plane

=

, ,

Moment of Body about , plane

=

, ,

Centre of Mass
The centre of mass occurs at ( , ), where;

, , =

, , ,
,
,

Moment of Inertia
About the X-Axis

2 is the difference to moment

( 2 + 2 ) , ,

About the Y-Axis

2 is the difference to moment

( 2 + 2 ) , ,

About the Z-Axis

2 is the difference to moment

( 2 + 2 ) , ,

Moment of Inertia about the Origin

o = + +

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Charge Density
2D Charge Density
: is distributed over a bounded region 2 , the total charge is given by
=

3D Charge Density
=

Transformations
If S in the , domain exists such that
= ,
,
= ,
Then transformation T from S in the -, plane to = () in the - plane
, = , = , , ,

Theorem for R2
Let : be continuously diffable
transforms in 2 one-to-one onto region in 2
Let the Jacobian of is non-zero on S
If , = , , , and : is cont on , then for suitable regions and
,
, =
, , ,

,
, =
,

, =

, , ,

. (, )

Notes:
1. Must determine , as functions of ,
2. Integration is du then dv
3. Notice area of integration changes from R to S
4. Need additional conditions on and
The above theorem holds if and are Type I or II planar regions
5. Theorem basically substitute , in terms of , and change to (, )
6. S is called the pulltrack/pre-image of by = 1

Transforms to find Integrals

(, ) = , = (, )

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Write down transforms = (, ) = (, )

Write down the restrictions on R in terms of and , i.e. the inequalities
Substitute (, ), (, ), and solve. This determines
Drawing out the region found can help
Determine the Jacobian of the transformation, and its absolute value
Replace , with (, ) and (, )
Integrate over

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pg. 28

Theorem for R3
, , = , ,

Special Cases
If , = 1, ,
Area =

|(, |

If = , is constant then
Area = Area()
This is what will occur if is a linear transformation

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pg. 29