1. INDIVIDUALS , ETHICS AND MORALITY.

1.What is a human being? 1.1. The difference between humans and other species. 1.2. Freedom and responsibility. 1.3. Personal identity formation. 1.3.1. Dimensions of personal identity. 1. 3. 2. Personality. 1.3.3. Moral development. 2. Ethical space. 2.1. Conditions for the development of individuals. 2.2. The big questions. 2.2. Morality, ethics and politics.

1.What is a human being? 1.1. The difference between humans and other species. Now, whereas the other animals live mostly by nature, while some live to some extent by habit, a human being also lives by reason, since he is the only animal who has it. Aristotle: Politics. The human being can be defined from two perspectives:

Biologically, humans are an evolved animal species which has spread over the Earth.

Humans and animals have some characteristics in common, but what differentiates them makes humans a unique species. The human and chimpanzees genomes differ by 1%. However, this is enough to make the human brains structure radically different for two reasons: Human beings are capable of creating and transmitting culture through language. Culture is the set of beliefs, customs, art, law, knowledge, morals, etc. shared by the member of a society. Human beings are conscious of the reality of being alive. They are capable of anticipating what they want to do with their lives, having projects and deciding how to carry them out.

Humans beings are not constrained in the same way animals are, they are not pre-programmed and they can respond to stimuli in different ways, they are free to decide. Human beings are able to think, reflect, evaluate consequences and decide. Culturally, human beings are social beings who live in highly complex organized groups called societies.

Human beings need to be part of a society to fully develop as human beings, to learn the rules, values, beliefs we need to establish relationships with others. We learn all this unconsciously in our families, at school, through the means of communication, friends Social rules and values become our second nature.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KKq_06ffj4 (genome) activity 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LaK6khs8aMw (Rise of the Planet of the Apes) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_KuaiLvUIE (subtitled) activity 2: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel/environment/evolutionrev4.shtml (extra reading on Darwins theory of evolution) activity 3: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/evolution/evolutionhormonenervousrev1.shtml (extra reading on the evolution of man) activity 4: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/evolution/theoryevolutionact.shtml (a game on evolution)

1.2. Freedom and responsibility. The response to environmental stimuli in animals is a consequence of their instincts. Instincts are inborn patterns of behaviour which are characteristic of a species. Instincts make animals react in the same way to similar stimuli, they have an adaptative function. Humans, on the other hand, are not pre-programmed in this way, in the middle of the stimulus-response model, humans have the freedom to choose. Animals do not have this independent will. Animal behaviour---------Stimulus--------- Response Human behaviour-------Stimulus----------- Freedom---------Response Freedom increases at the same time knowledge does, providing us with new elements to judge situations and make choices. In addition to this, the set of rules and values that regulate the good functioning of any society provide us with a code of conduct that we as individuals are free to accept for our behaviour. This code is what we call morality. Morality is the capacity individuals have to judge and choose alternatives that help us integrate in the society we live and reject those which dont. Individuals chose to act in different ways or not to act at all and these choices affect other members of society, individuals are responsible for their acts. Morality and responsibility are the two sides of the same coin. We need to take responsibility for our actions and omissions and not to blame others on what we do or dont do. We need to take responsibility for the consequences of our acts and omissions. Freedom is therefore the natural faculty individuals have to act one way or another or not to act. Freedom is very closely related to responsibility since only a free individual can take responsibility for his/her own actions and their consequences. 1.3. Personal identity formation. 1.3.1. Dimensions of personal identity. Physical dimension: height, weight, facial features, etc. All the characteristics that define oneself and which are genetically determined for the most part. Affective dimension. This has to do with our personality and character, which determines how we act in different situations and our relationship with others. Our personality depends on ourselves and it can be modified. Moral dimension. The set of rules, values, beliefs that guide our behavior. As weve seen it depends on ourselves and our cognitive development. 1. 3. 2. Personality. "Personality" can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviours in various situations. Three main aspects have to be analysed in relation to personality: Feelings Feelings are the set of emotions, sensations that spring up in us when we interact with things and people around us. Feelings influence our mood and can provoke pleasure or pain. They are very useful tools to establish personal relationships (emotional and affective), relationships Intelligence Intelligence is the capacity of directing our behavior to face new situations and relate to the environment. This capacity is determined by our genes and also by experiences. However, intelligence comprises abilities other than abstract thinking or reasoning, thats why we usually distinguish between rational and emotional intelligence. Rational intelligence is the capacity to elaborate, understand and manage concepts, ideas and thoughts. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself and of others. EI is essential for personal relationships. EI includes four types of abilities:

Perceiving emotions the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifactsincluding the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible. Using emotions the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand. Understanding emotions the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time. Managing emotions the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals. In addition to rational and emotional intelligence, individuals, as members of a society, also have social intelligence. Social intelligence is the capacity of a society as a whole to face challenges and to organize itself effectively.

Memory Memory is a very important part of our personal identity since it allows us to have conscience of ourselves through life. We need our memory to develop our personality since it allows us to connect past, present and future experiences. Memory helps us to assess what we do and make changes for the future.

Memory is the next part of our model of the user as an information processing system. There are generally three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory The sensory memories act as buffers for stimuli received through the senses. A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel: iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for aural stimuli and haptic memory for touch. Information is passed from sensory memory into short-term memory by attention, thereby filtering the stimuli to only those which are of interest at a given time. Short-term memory Short-term memory acts as a scratch-pad for temporary recall of the information under process. For instance, in order to understand this sentence you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence you read the rest. Short term memory decays rapidly (200 ms.) and also has a limited capacity. Chunking of information can lead to an increase in the short term memory capacity. Thst is the reason why a hyphenated phone number is easier to rememeber than a single long number. The successful formation of a chunk is known as closure. Interference often causes disturbance in short-term memory retention. This accounts for the desire to complete the tasks held in short term memory as soon as possible. Long-term memory Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long time. Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.

1.3.3. Moral development. Identity formation is the development of the distinct personality of an individual,this process defines individuals to others and themselves. Moral development plays a very important role in the identity formation process. Two stages of moral development are proposed by psychologists, heteronomous morality and autonomous morality.

Heteronomous morality is the stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable. Autonomous morality is the stage at which a person understands that people make rules ant that punishments are not automatic. According to Piaget's original formulation, children between the ages of 5 and 10 years see the world through the lens of a "heteronomous" (other-directed) morality. In this moral understanding, rules handed down by authority figures (such as parents, teachers and government leaders) are seen as absolute and unbreakable. Basically, children accept that authority figures have godlike powers, and are able to make rules that last forever, do not change, and must be followed. Children's reasoning regarding why these rules should be followed is generally based squarely upon their appreciation of consequences associated with breaking the rules. As breaking the rules tends to lead to negative personal consequences, most children follow the rules as a way to avoid being punished. o o o o Based on relations of constraints Rules are seen as inflexible requirements (moral realism) Badness is judged in terms of the consequences of actions Punishment is seen as the automatic consequence of the violation of rules

Children's appreciation of morality changes towards the end of middle childhood as a result of their recently developed ability to view situations from other people's perspectives. As children develop the ability to put themselves into someone else's shoes, their appreciation of morality becomes more autonomous (self- directed) and less black and white and absolutist in nature. Piaget called this expanded appreciation a "morality of cooperation". Starting at about age 10 or 11 and continuing through adolescence, children will have generally begun to view moral rules as socially-agreed upon guidelines designed to benefit the group. Children using this frame of reference still feel that it is important to follow rules, but these rules are viewed as complex, somewhat negotiable guidelines that are meant to improve everyone's lives. Children realize that making choices about following the rules should be based on something more than fear of negative personal consequences or desire for individual gain. Decisions affect everyone; and can benefit and/or hurt everyone. o o o o Based on relations of cooperation among equals Rules are viewed as products of mutual agreement (rational moral attitudes) Badness is determined the persons intentions Punishment should be affected by human intention

2. Ethical space. 2.1. Conditions for the development of individuals. The conditions necessary for the development of individuals is what we call ethical space, these are: dignity, equality and freedom. Dignity, the innate right to respect and ethical treatment of every human being. Social equality , the social state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in a certain respect. At the very least, social equality includes equal rights under the law, such as security, voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, and the extent of property rights. However, it also includes concepts of economic equity, i.e. access to education, health care and other social securities. It also includes equal opportunities and obligations, and so involves the whole of society. Freedom, the ability to make choices without constraints. But are we completely free? Very often our actions are conditioned by circumstances (place, background, historical period, etc.) So, when exercising their freedom, individuals face the limitations imposed by morality and the fact that we live in society and we shouldnt interfere with the freedom of others. 2.2. The big questions. Personality develops throughout life and it involves physical, intellectual and affective changes. In addition, individuals are open to transcendence and search for answers to questions about their existence: Questions about the human condition (questions about the experiences of being human in a social, cultural and personal context). Questions about morality (questions about what is the right thing to do, how to establish relationships with others, etc.). Questions about cultural and technical matters (questions about how to solve the problems of everyday life, challenges, etc.). 2.2. Morality, ethics and politics. Morality, ethics and politics are the three dimensions of human action. What is morality? Morality (from the Latin moralitas "manner, character, proper behaviour") is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good (or right) and bad (or wrong). A moral code is a system of morality (for example, according to a particular philosophy, religion, culture, etc.) and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code. The adjective moral is synonymous with "good" or "right." Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards or principles. Ethics or moral philosophy (derived from "ethos," the Greek word for "character.") is that branch of philosophy which addresses questions about morality. The word 'ethics' is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' to mean the subject matter of this study; and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual." Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics, sometimes distinguish between 'ethics' and 'morals': "Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations."

Encouraging ethical reflection means helping students develop the cognitive side of character: (1) being morally aware; (2) having an understanding of virtues and how to apply them in concrete situations; (3) being able to take the perspective of others; (4) being able to reason morally (why are some things right and others wrong?); being able to make thoughtful moral decisions; and having self-knowledge, including the capacity for self-criticism.

Politics (from Greek , "of, for, or relating to citizens"), is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behaviour within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the corporate, academic, and religious segments of society. It consists of "social relations involving authority or power" and refers to the regulation of public affairs within a political unit, and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.