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Aboriginal Peoples

Change over time changing government policies towards Aboriginal peoples over time Background The Australian Aborigines: first people to live on the continent of Australia, for at least 50 000 years or longer. Have a close relationship with the land (to ancestral spirits) sacred. Since 1901, decline in number of Aborigines, tribal groups broken up and cultural traditions fast disappearing. Fell victim to exploitation, violence and disease Thousands survived on handouts Belief that Aboriginal people were a dying race, going to become extinct. Paternalism, 1788-1908 Looking after someone and taking care of their interests as they cannot do it themselves. Instead of hunting down and murdering Aborigines, they were treated like children who had to be protected for the best. Their primitive culture desperately needed help protectorates: to protect and civilize, educated and taught ways of civilised British society and religion Changed because: First attempt failed, largely due to white settler resentment at the cost, reserves became overcrowded and expensive. Some whites thought that it did not lead to an improved way of life for Aborigines, children were to become servants. Really meant discrimination and loss of control over their lives. Protectionism, 1838-1943 Followed by state governments and the federal government towards Aboriginal people which involved policies to manage and protect them. Aborigines were to be separated from white Australians and protected for their own good. Were safe from the attacks from the white settlers, but they lost their independence (and their children), segregating them from white society, more discrimination and loss of control, restrictions on their private life. Also belief that something had to be done to provide for the increasing number of Aboriginal children who were mixed blood. Thought that the government was doing the right thing, not all mixed blood children were accepted by their tribal group. Changed because: Reserves became overcrowded and difficult to maintain Aboriginal Protection Board believed that a new policy was needed to make Aboriginal children more and more European over generations. Assimilation, (1930s) 1950-1964 Trying to make people change their culture or way of life so they will fit in and become part of a different culture or way of life. When the govt. realised that mixed blood children were not dying out, but increasing, new policy introduced, assimilation. Many people scared of new cultures coming into Australia and diluting Australian culture. Stolen Generation Impact on the Aboriginal people Based on the belief that the Aboriginal culture was inferior and took little notice of the long heritage and traditional lifestyle of Aboriginal people. Even when Aboriginal people were expected to assimilate, white Australians were less accepting, serious discrimination, loss of identity. Forced to live on the fringes of towns where facilities were poor. Changed because: Level of discrimination, and lack of right to citizenship Aboriginal people did not want to become white or British and lose their traditional way of life.

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Integration, 1965-1980s The idea of bringing two or more things together to make a unified whole. Aboriginal people expected to adapt and adopt white Australian culture, but were given more leeway to practice traditional aspects of their own culture. Stepping stone to the new policy of multiculturalism. Changed because: Criticism that Aboriginal people were denied the right to live in their own way. Discrimination and racism still present in some towns. Self-determination, 1980s-late 1990s The right of a group of people to determine what is best for them and to control their own lives. Aboriginal Australians receive the same rights and freedoms under the law as non-Aboriginal Australians They should be allowed to choose how to live their lives They should be allowed a say in the policies that affect them Changed because: Effects have been disastrous and have caused many problems which are not present in white society. Intervention, 1990s-present Recognition and reconciliation: as Indigenous people as the original inhabitants of Australia, the disadvantages associated with taking their land from them and the need for white Australians and Indigenous Australians to live in harmony with each other. Why introduced? Necessary to prevent all the problems in the future which were caused by white Australians in the past statistics show that Aboriginal Australians face many health problems, e.g. life expectancy The Various Experiences of the Stolen Generation How are why were Aboriginal children removed from their families? Stolen Generation: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were taken from their parents and brought up in orphanages, institutions or white families, continued until 1969. Why? Authorities said Aboriginal children were being neglected or were uncontrollable. As their parents did not care for them, white authorities would take them and ensure they were given adequate food, education and religious instruction. Therefore would grow up in a proper environment away from the harmful influences of their parents. In the best interests of society. Aim to get all Aboriginal children to act white and think white, so that they were socialized into white culture and society. Aboriginal culture considered primitive and worthless removing children would lead to the disappearance of Aboriginal culture and do good. Removal of half castes would lead the children to eventually no longer identify themselves as Aboriginal Unplanned removal by a reserve manager or policeman, parents not told, only told to sign a form they could not read. E.g. boys sent to Kinchela and girls sent to Cootamundra, church homes, foster homes or corrective institutions. Brothers and sisters were frequently separated and many children told their parents had died when they were still alive. Children were not allowed to speak their traditional language or follow any traditional customs or religious beliefs. Physical punishment, psychological mistreatment and also suffered sexual abuse, sometimes from religious leaders.

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What have been the consequences of these policies? Children not allowed to become part of either black or white community, no mans land. Loss of identity do not know parents and siblings, no contact with Aboriginal culture and heritage. Do not fit into society and feel isolated from society, led to major social ills at far higher rates than white Australians: self-abuse alc and drugs, suicide, family dysfunction, health problems, mental illness, higher rates of domestic violence and imprisonment. Inability to function as a normal adult. Distrust between welfare officers, police and Aboriginal people, led to life marginalised, no proper education. Divisions in current white society: e.g. Paul Keating supports and recognises Aboriginal people, John Howard believed that assimilation was well-intended. The struggle of Aboriginal peoples for rights and freedoms 1967 Referendum Important step in the road towards equality for the Aboriginal people. Did NOT give Aboriginals the vote (1962), did NOT make Aboriginals citizens (1960-1961) Did decide whether Aboriginal people were to be counted in the census, and whether the Federal govt had the power to make laws for Aboriginal people. Prior to 1967, Aboriginals who moved from state to state had different rights depending where they were. Supported by both major political parties and the media to end inequality. Both parts of the referendum were passed by 90 per cent of voters. Aboriginals were then counted in the census and Federal govt had the power to make laws for Aboriginal people. Despite the result, changes did not occur immediately (for almost a decade). Land rights From the start of British occupation, the land was declared empty terra nullius land of no one, by Capt. Cook in 1770 who believed there were only few Aborigines. Throughout the 19th Century, white settlers gradually moved the Aboriginal people off their land and into reserves. Legally they did not exist. Whitlam govt. 1972 set up an Aboriginal Affairs department and a Royal Commission on Aboriginal Land Rights 1976 Fraser govt passed the Aboriginal Land Rights Act which allowed Aboriginals to claim crown land (land owned by the govt. that was not being used by other people), an Aboriginal Lands Council was set up to control their possession and in 1985, given ownership of Ayers Rock, now Uluru. Several State govts set up their own Land Rights Acts which recognized Aboriginal claims to land and guaranteed them payments from companies in the area. 1980, National Federation of Land Councils set up which helped bring the issue of land rights to the attention of white Australia. During the 1980s, issue began to lose importance. Scare tactics by opposition Aboriginals would soon claim peoples backyards as sacred sites, govt. responded same way Native Title and the Mabo Case 1992 Mabo case in the High Court changed the whole issue of Aboriginal land rights: Eddie Mabo of Murray (Mer) Island and others took govt. to court, but lost, appealed to High Court, June 1992, High Court found in favour of Eddie, but he had died. Recognised Native Title, overturned terra nullius Mabo case led to the 1993 Native Title Act which accepted the notion of native title and also recognized the land rights of owners of freehold property. Question left Could Native Title exist on land that the govt leased to farmers and pastoralists? dealt with at the 1996 Wik case Native Title continued on land that had been leased to pastoralists by the govt. Native Title rights and Leaseholder rights existed simultaneously. Wik decision upset mining companies and pastoralists. Howard introduced the Ten Point Plan and the 1997 Native Title (Amendment) Bill, which acknowledged the native title and pastoral leases can exist at the same time but if there is a disagreement between the two the rights of the pastoralist come first. 2001 Croker Island recognized non-exclusive rights in the sea, Sept 2006 Nyoongar people could conserve and use the natural resources of the area for tradition. Over time, much has been done to write out Aboriginal people from the history of Australia.

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Migrants
Change over time 1945-2000 How have the rights and freedoms of migrants changed during the post-war period? Since 1788: acceptable migrant was white, White Australia, dictation test used to exclude undesirables. 1920s increase in migration, but the Depression reduced migration Opposition: Why bring in more people when many Australians couldnt get jobs? Supported by the Labor Party and the trade unions Chifley govt changed attitude towards immigration after WWII: populate or perish promoted by Arthur Calwell minister for immigration Economics: Australia needed to develop its manufacturing industries, make a larger consumer market and develop its vast open spaces Defence: to defend Australia in the future in case there was a direct enemy attack Humanitarian: international duty to take in some freed inmates from concentration camps and people fleeing from Eastern Europe. Australia needed to justify their occupation of this vast continent to the millions living in the north. Post-war Immigration 1945 Department of Immigration established, by 1949 staff of 5000 Britain first choice for immigrants: ex-servicemen, assisted passage, sponsorship, Bring out a Briton campaign Non-British immigrants refugees or displaced persons from Europe under the International Refugee Organisation, by early 1960s Australia had taken 250 000 refugees Gradually widened to include many other European countries under various agreements, Malta, Italy, West Germany, Austria and Greece By late 1960s, White Australia policy abandoned: Colombo Plan for Asian students to come to Australia, 1958 Migration Act removed the dictation test, 1966 all political parties declared that the basis of deciding migrant entry should not be skin colour but the migrants suitability as a settler and ability to integrate into society What contribution did migrants make to Australias social, cultural and economic development? Between 1945 and 1963 Australia received over two million migrants, net gain of 1.4 million. 1945 7.4 million, 1975 13.7 million Development of the Australian economy: migrants signed two year contracts and had to work wherever they were sent, e.g. infrastructure projects such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Also secondary industry, 50% of workforce were migrants, did not only provide labour, also consumers. New migrants brought their language, their culture, their tastes in food, music and fashion. Gradually the policy of assimilation was ended and the policy of integration became accepted. 1948 Nationality and Citizenship Act began the idea of Australian citizenship Asian Immigration Most significant change has been the opening up of the country to people of Asian heritage. Many Asians tried to migrate from their Vietnam War affected communist countries to Australia if they had a fear of persecution due to links to previous noncommunist govts, fear of religious persecution and the desire to seek a better and freer life. Recent years, steady flow of Asian migrants from countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia and even the Peoples Republic of China Enemy Aliens in WWI Many Australians were suspicious of people of German origin and thought that they were spies These enemy aliens had to tolerate a series of restrictions on their freedom: report weekly to a police station, many were put into internment camps Almost 7000 German-Australians ended up in internment camps, which was humiliating for them Inconvenience: many people with German sounding names lost their jobs, headlines by the press

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Multiculturalism Why was the policy of multiculturalism introduced? Multicultural is the term used to denote a society that contains a variety of different ethnic cultures. Since the 1970s govt officially accepted policy of multiculturalism Accepted because previous policies of integration and assimilation had failed o Only small number of British immigrants after 1945 o Efforts to make Greeks and Italians British failed and these new migrant groups ended up settling into ethnic ghettos. o End of the White Australia Policy meant that more and more non-Europeans were entering Australia. Basically, policy forced onto the Australian govt by the reality of modern Australia Some people in govt saw the great benefits a country could have by using the talents of many different ethnic groups Recent years, most migrants have come from east Asian countries Some have arrived under the business migrants plan, some come to further their education and some left their country apprehensive of communist takeovers. How has multiculturalism influenced Australian society? Benefits: substantial Negative: not all Australians have embraced it o Australia is losing its true national identity o Parts of Australia, e.g. Cabramatta have been transformed into foreign areas o Opposition towards Asian and Middle Eastern gang cultures for crimes, e.g. Lebanese o World terrorism events such as 9/11 have made many suspicious of Islamic culture o Multiculturalism allows people to give their first loyalty to their own ethnic group and not to Australia Reasons behind opposition Fear of the new, the different and the strange Ignorance making one incident create a stereotype Media like to sensationalise stories involving Asians or Islamic Lebanese Economics difficulties of unemployment

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Women

Change over time the achievements of the womens movement in the post-WWII period How have the rights and freedoms of women changed in the post-war period? Women played a significant role during WWII: transport, industry, farming , communications, auxiliary branches of the armed forces After the men returned, the women were required to return to the home and start making babies 1950s, deeply traditional views about the role of women in Australian life: male dominated, women were to be dutiful wives and a good mother. Law and society beliefs placed many restrictions on women and limited their freedom Majority of women could not borrow money from a bank In legal and financial affairs the woman was under the control of her husband Teenage women who had become pregnant had their children taken away from them, like what happened to the Stolen Generations Women earned less than men for doing the same work Few women made it to the top Very few female politicians Limited educational opportunities for girls and not boys Men had far more freedom and far more opportunities to achieve their potential than women. Attitudes began to change 1960s period of great change: more female sporting heroes, e.g. Dawn Fraser, some women began to enter politics, education improved (girls just as capable as boys) Most important: development of the increasing independence of women was the invention of the oral contraceptive pill: women could decide whether they would have children, idea of getting pregnant meant marriage removed, women had power By late 1960s, Womens Liberation Movement What legislation was later introduced by federal and state governments to counter gender discrimination? After 1960s, 1970s Womens Liberation campaigns, govt sought to provide women with equality in society Laws to end gender discrimination (e.g. equal pay, Sex Discrimination Act) What impacts did the feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s have on attitudes and practices within society and the workplace? Depends on an individuals perspective (any of the following) Women now recognised as equals with equal opportunities Women have gained the equality that they deserve Little has changed, women still expected to do the housework and look after the kids Some many rules and regulations, too many as you are immediately accused of being discriminatory or harassing. A positive slant on attitudes and practices within society and the workplace The position of women at the start of the 21st century is far different from what it was half a century ago Women are viewed differently, treated differently and have greater opportunities, with treatment the equal of a man A negative slant on attitudes and practices within society and the workplace Although some laws have been passed for the benefit of women, societys attitudes have not really altered May be worse, women still expected to carry out their traditional domestic roles in addition to a career

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Womens Liberationists in the Post-WWII period The aims of the womens liberationists Before the 1960s, large-scale protests in Australia, Britain and the US in favour of giving women the vote, banning alcohol and against participation in WWI Protests came together in the Womens Liberation Movement (of feminism) Aim of Womens Liberation to free women from the restraints that society placed upon them by gradually breaking down sexism. Also aimed to remove the sexual double-standards that existed in Australian society (workplace sexual harassment, unwanted sexual attention) Wanted to pass laws which guaranteed women equality with men and to re-educate society The methods of the womens liberationists Ranged from large-scale dramatic demonstrations to important writings produced by female intellectuals E.g. bra-burnings women only wore bras to conform to what men decided was attractive, Germaine Greer 1970 The Female Eunuch raised the main concerns of feminism: women just as capable as men 1970s when Greer visited Australia she attacked the media and the nations conservative institutions as being sexist. 1970 first Womens Liberation National Conference sought to encourage women to take direct action and take control of their lives Womens Electoral Lobby (WEL) led by feminist Beatrice Faust, sought out politicians views on womens issues. First national conference 1973, trying to pass laws for women in areas such as child care and womens health. The successes of the womens liberationists In the 1970s women still had a way to go to achieve absolute equality Equal pay for women Key demands since WWII Even in 2006 women still havent gained full equality for equal pay, but the position of women is far more superior to what it was in 1945. Before the war, women earned only 4% of a mans wage 1949 basic wage 75% 1951 International Labour Organisation declared a case for equal pay, no action 1969 no action, nurses went on strike eventually gaining increases of 75% and matrons 100% Finally accepted by the Industrial Relations Commission in 1972 equal pay for equal value 1974 Conciliation and Arbitration Commission announced that the minimum wage for adults would be the same for men and women 2007 average womens wage compared to male is about 85% Indigenous women remain at the bottom (without education, experience and because they suffer higher levels of domestic violence) Women from disadvantaged groups suffer exploitation.

By early 21st century, women had made significant gains in the area of equal pay, still work to be done