Chapter 8 Chinese Musical Instruments

Classification of Instruments in the West Within the European classical music tradition, most instruments have historically been classified according to the orchestral families of strings, woodwinds, brass and percussion. Some instrumental classifications are obvious: an oboe is a woodwind because it is made of wood and is blown. Some are historical classifications: a flute is still considered a woodwind because it used to be made of wood and because its performance tradition is certainly that of a woodwind. Some instruments are harder to classify; a piano for example is a percussive stringed instrument. Some instruments are outside the orchestral tradition and must be classified differently; thus various plucked-string folk instruments have been thought of as members of the guitar family or the dulcimer family. When western musicologists began looking at musical instruments of other parts of the world, the situation became even more complicated, and it seemed useful to make the classification of instruments more objective and precise. They devised a classification system for musical instruments of the world based on their structure and how they produce sound. This Sachs-Hornbostel system, named after its founders, has five main categories:

Chordophones: are instruments that have vibrating strings. They are further subdivided according to their construction, playing technique and number of strings into such categories as lutes and guitars (plucked), zithers and dulcimers (plucked or hammered), and fiddles (bowed.) The Chinese pipa, ruan, yueqin, sanxian, zheng, qin, erhu, jinghu and yangqin are all classified as chordophones. Aerophones: are instruments with cylindrical or conical tubes that contain vibrating columns of air. These are subdivided into such categories as trumpets, oboes, flutes, and mouth organs. The Chinese dizi, xiao, xun, paixiao, suona, guan, and sheng are all classified as aeorophones. Membranophones: are instruments with a vibrating membrane- usually drums. The various leather headed Chinese drums are all membranophones. Idiophones: are instruments which vibrate as a whole such as bells, rattles or woodblocks. The various Chinese gongs, cymbals, bells (metal and stone), clappers and woodblocks are all classified as idiophones. Mechanical and Electrical: are instruments such as electric guitars and synthesizers as well as player pianos and mechanical carillons. There are no Chinese instruments in this category.

The Chinese Classification System: Ba Yin The ancient Chinese had their own classification system which had its origins in the early Confucian/Daoist belief in the primacy of nature. Instruments were classified in one of eight categories called Ba Yin (eight sounds) according to the materials of their construction. Each instrument was associated with one category primarily, though it might contain elements of several others. The eight categories were:

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Jin (metal): Shi (stone): Ge (hide): Bao (gourd): Zhu (bamboo): Mu (wood): Si (silk): Tu (clay):

including bells, gongs and metal drums including stone chimes including leather-headed drums and stringed instruments with snakeskin heads such as Erhu and Sanxian including mouth organs such as the Sheng including woodwinds such as the flutes and reed instruments including wood blocks including stringed instruments such as the Qin, Zheng Yangqin and Pipa including clay ocarina flutes such as the Xun and certain clay drums

According to Chinese philosophers, music was first and foremost a solemn and magical manifestation of cosmic order, and the instruments that produced it were considered to be representative of the elements of the universe. Furthermore, each element and its instruments were associated with a direction and a season. Thus metal was associated with west and autumn, stone with northwest and late autumn, hide with north and winter, gourd with northeast and late winter, bamboo with east and spring, wood with southeast and late spring, silk with south and summer, and clay southwest and late summer. There is speculation that the sacred ritual music of each season may have been orchestrated with its corresponding instrumental group and that the ensemble itself may have been aligned to face the direction associated with that season. Playing Technique The Chinese also categorized instruments by their playing technique- whether they are blown, bowed, plucked or struck. This is reflected in the grammar of the Chinese language, in which there is no single verb equivalent to the general English term to play (an instrument or music.) Instead there are four separate verbs specifying how an instrument is played. Thus a Chinese musician will say: I blow (chui) Dizi(bamboo flute) I bow (la) Erhu (two-stringed fiddle) I pluck (tan) Pipa. (four-stringed plucked lute) I beat (da or ji) Gu (drum). Instrumental Ensemble Traditions Chinese music is traditionally subdivided into specific repertoires, each with its own distinct traditions. The names of these traditions are drawn from various of the classification systems previously mentioned. Thus Sizhu music, from the Yangzi delta region around Shanghai draws its name from the Ba Yin system since its name describes the categories of instruments involved- those from the silk (si) and bamboo (zhu) categories. Sizhu is a soft, elegant chamber music tradition commonly performed by amateurs in teahouses

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for their own recreation and often includes some or all of the following instruments: Erhu, Dizi (or Xiao), Sanxian, Pipa, Zheng and Sheng. Guchui music, on the other hand, draws its name from gu (drum) and chui (blow) and is a loud, outdoor music of festivals, weddings, funerals and other celebratory or ritual occasions. Its other common name is Chuida (blow-beat) meaning winds and percussion. It may include instruments such as the Guan, Suona, Sheng and Dizi, and a host of percussion such as the Dagu drum, Bo cymbals, Luo gongs, and Muyu woodblocks. Luogu music is named for its primary instruments, the Luo (gongs) and Gu (drums.) It is primarily a rural tradition associated with village festivals and celebrations. During the 20th century a new and larger instrumental ensemble developed modeled on the western orchestra. In this modern traditional Chinese orchestra, (Minzu Yuetuan traditional music ensemble) the strings collectively are called si (silk) and are further subdivided into tan (plucked) and la (bowed.) The winds are divided into zhu (bamboo flutes) and chui (reeded winds), and the percussion are collectively called da (struck.)

Indigenous and Foreign Finally, instruments were also often thought of as either indigenous or imported from non-Chinese cultures. The standard term used to denote the latter, particularly if the instruments came from the northern nomadic cultures (as most did) was hu. Thus certain music was referred to as hu yue (foreign music) and the family of bowed two-stringed fiddles which arrived in China in the Yuan dynasty were called Huqin (foreign stringed instruments.) The term yang also means foreign though it is usually associated with the term wai yang overseas; hence the name of the hammered dulcimer Yangqin also means foreign stringed instrument though it implies an entrance into China via southern maritime trade routes. As we have seen, at various times in Chinese history, intellectuals have alternately embraced and eschewed foreign influence on music. At those times when all things foreign were under attack, great emphasis was placed on discriminating between those instruments with an ancient and pure Chinese pedigree, and those brought in from barbarian cultures. Thus both in the Song dynasty (which followed the very international Tang period) and in the Ming (which followed the Mongol Yuan dynasty) indigenous instruments such as the Qin and Xiao were much in fashion as icons of pure and ancient culture.

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A Brief Description of 25 Prominent Chinese Instruments

Twenty five of the most common Chinese instruments are introduced here, organized by commonly understood families and including information on: 1) 2) 3) 4) Classification Physical Description History and Repertoire Musical Techniques and Characteristics.

Plucked Strings
Gu Qin Classification The Qin is classified as a plucked chordophone of the long zither subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and is an indigenous Chinese instrument.

Physical Description The Qin is a long fretless zither with a hollow sounding box about three and a half feet long, six inches across and two inches deep. The top board is slightly convex from side to side and made of a soft wood called wutong (pawlonia.) The bottom board is of hard wood which has been carved out to form the resonating chamber. Two holes cut in the bottom let the sound emerge. The body of the instrument is covered with numerous layers of hard laquer which create a very smooth and durable surface. The seven strings are either silk, metal or silk-wound metal and stretch the length of the instrument, suspended above the top board by a low bridge at each end. The top board acts as the fingerboard and there are no frets.

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There are however thirteen inlaid studs called hui, made of ivory, jade or mother-of-pearl, which mark important positions along the strings such as fingered notes and harmonics. The Qin is usually played resting on a table with its right end extending a few inches off the right edge of the table. This affords access to the tuning pegs which protrude from the underside of the right end of the instrument. The left end of the instrument sits upon two short legs which raise it slightly off the table surface. History and Repertoire The Qin is celebrated in literature and philosophy like no other in Chinese music. It is the quintessential instrument of the Daoist, the Confucianist and the Buddhist gentleman seeking harmony, and has served for 2500 years as a conscious icon of the scholarly life. Legend ascribes its invention to the god-king Fuxi around 2600 BC and it is mentioned in the Book of Songs, dating from the early to mid Zhou dynasty. The earliest existing instruments are from tomb excavations dated to about 600 BC and have only five strings. This would appear to be the instrument recommended by Confucius as a meditation tool for gentlemen seeking wisdom, harmony and virtue. The Qin as we know it today with seven strings, appears to be a Han dynasty development, and it seems to have changed little if at all since that time. The Qin is mentioned in the Book of Songs and other Zhou dynasty sources as having a place in both private meditation music, and as a member of the ancient ritual orchestras. It appears in images and written records from the Han dynasty as participating both in solemn ritual music and in secular banquet music orchestras, sometimes even accompanying acrobats and other spectacles from the 100 entertainments. It was in the Period of Disunity following the fall of the Han dynasty that the Qin recaptured its pride of place as the most virtuous and mystical of Chinese instruments. Scholars seeking refuge from the chaos of the times turned to Daoism and found in the quiet and personal Qin the perfect emblem of quietude. During the Tang dynasty the Qin returned to a public and secular role at court, performing in various banquet music orchestras, but it retained its more mystical role in private. It served as a musical icon of pure Chinese tradition in the Song and Ming dynasties, each of which sought to recapture from foreign pollution some sort of pure essence of Chinese culture. Because the Qin was the iconic instrument of the literati, it was the first to develop a detailed written notation. The earliest known manuscript dates from the Tang dynasty and consists of detailed written instructions for both hands on how to produce each pitch. During the early Ming dynasty, the first Qinpu Qin manuals were published instructing would be players on every aspect of the tradition- history, tuning, fingering techniques, exercises and repertoire, and above all, Qindao the harmonious way of the Qin. By this period the Qin notation still used today was fully developed, consisting of fragments of characters put together in complexes like a form of shorthand.

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The surviving repertoire of the Qin tradition contains over three thousand pieces, demonstrating the vitality of this scholarly tradition in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Some pieces are provided with texts, which may invite the player to sing while playing, or may simply inform the player of appropriate images to contemplate while playing. Many other pieces have no texts but are amply annotated with images, lines of classical poetry or allusions to scholarly life. One chamber music tradition which gained popularity was the combination of the Qin and the Xiao (vertical bamboo flute), the latter chosen for its quiet tone and its status as an ancient and pure indigenous instrument. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Qin has a fabulously complex performance tradition. It was intended as an elite instrument for only the most serious scholarly gentlemen, and players cultivated its esoteric and formidable reputation. Over two hundred symbols are used to denote distinct playing techniques including numerous right-hand plucking styles, left-hand fretting and sliding techniques, harmonics, arpeggios and vibratos. Since the Qin was venerated by the Daoist school of mysticism, players were as interested in the truth behind the sound as they were in the sound itself; hence techniques evolved which forced the player to listen to the pureness of silence after the string had ceased vibrating. This is evidenced today in techniques such as continuing the vibrato motion of the left hand long after the sound is inaudible, leaving only the quiet squeaking sound of the moving finger. (Legends tell of scholars so refined that they never strung their Qins at all- preferring the sound of silence!) However, this more simple, sober and meditative tradition is balanced by a large number of much more flamboyant and virtuosic pieces utilizing to the fullest the complex performance techniques developed over 2000 years. For more on the Qin, its traditions and its notation, see Chapter 5 The Music of the Scholar and Chapter 10 Selected Pieces from the Repertoire.

Gu Zheng Classification The Zheng or Gu Zheng (gu means ancient,venerable) is classified as a cordophone of the long zither subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and is an indigenous Chinese instrument.

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Physical Description The Zheng consists of a rectangular wooden sounding box about four and a half feet long, ten inches wide and three inches deep. The 16 to 24 strings are made of silk, metal, nylon or silk-wrapped metal and stretch from one end of the instrument to the other, passing over a row of movable wooden bridges. These raise each string an inch and a half above the soundboard, and determine its vibrating length and thus its pitch. Further tuning is possible with a set of tuning pegs hidden inside a covered storage box at the right end of the instrument. The strings are tuned in a pentatonic scale, the lowest octaves being at the far side of the instrument. The Zheng may be placed upon a table, or on a pair of elegant stand legs and is played either with natural or artificial fingernails. Traditionally, the right hand plucks the strings to the right of the line of bridges and the left hand presses down on the string to the left of the bridges to bend the pitch into vibrato, ornaments and glissandos. History and Repertoire The Zheng probably came from the ancient kingdom of Qin in present day Shaanxi province. It appears that the earliest Zheng may have been a folk instrument consisting of a hollow tube of bamboo with bridges and strings running along the top surface. ( The top part of the written character for zheng is the character for bamboo.) By the second century B.C. however, the tube had been replaced by the rectangular wooden box we know today and the strings ranged from 10 to 16 in number. This makes it a close cousin of another zither, the 25-50 stringed Se, famous as part of the Confucian ritual ensembles of the Zhou dynasty. In fact, one story has it that the first Zheng was created out of the two halves of a se which was divided to resolve a family quarrel and thus the instrument received its name: zheng, meaning quarrel. More likely though is another explanation that the instrument is named for its sound: zheng being a reasonable approximation of its sound. From the Tang dynasty through the middle of the Qing, the Zheng was a prominent member of the banquet music ensembles at court and associated with the courtesans of the pleasure districts. Indeed, many poems use it as a symbol of the beautiful woman. Its popularity waned in the late Qing, but the Zheng resurfaced in the 20th century as a solo instrument borrowing literature and techniques from both the Qin and Pipa repertoire, as well as from the western harp. Modern Zhengs often have 21 to 24 strings and perform as members of the plucked string group of the modern traditional orchestra. The instruments ability to emulate both the elegant intimacy of the Qin and the vigorous drama of the Pipa gives it a wide expressive range and makes it a very popular concert instrument. Along with the Pipa, Yangqin, Dizi and Erhu, it is also a favorite of Chinese children beginning music lessons. Musical Techniques and Characteristics Throughout most of its history, the Zheng was considered an elegant and sentimental instrument, primarily associated with lighter music. It was and remains one of the easier instruments to begin to play.

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Traditional technique required only the right hand to pluck the strings, often in simple octaves. The left hand pressed down on the strings to the left of the bridges to bend the pitch and create turns, glissandos and vibrato. Modern pieces require a much wider and more virtuosic technique. As Chinese music absorbed harmonic elements from western music in the 20th century, the Zheng began to emulate piano and harp technique, with both hands employed in complex plucking to the right of the bridges- the right hand often playing melodies and the left hand plucking harmonic accompaniment. Strings may be retuned to place the Zheng in a different key or even in colorful synthetic scales. Dramatic sound effects borrowed from the Pipa repertoire are re-created on the Zheng, and much use is made of harmonics, reminiscent of Qin literature. For more on the Zheng and its repertoire, see Chapter 10 Selected Pieces from the Repertoire.

Ruan Classification The Ruan is classified as a chordophone of the flat-backed lute subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and developed in China from an earlier instrument which entered China from the west.

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Physical Description The Ruan has a large round wooden body and a long wooden neck with 17 to 19 frets. The four strings are tied off at the lower edge of the body and then pass upwards over a low wooden bridge (which is glued to the soundboard) and up the neck to the four tuning pegs at the top. The body of the Ruan is large, making it more resonant than other Chinese lutes such as the Pipa. The four strings are generally tuned GDAE (with the lower strings on the top like a western guitar) and are plucked either with artificial nails or a plectrum. Today the Ruan is found in four sizes from high to low, the latter serving as the bass member of the plucked string group in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. History The Ruan, which may have originated in India or Central Asia, seems to have entered China from the west during the Qin and Han dynasties when it was called a Qin Pipa. (Pipa was a generic name for all instruments which were strummed down pi and up pa.) By the Tang dynasty the instrument was called Ruanxian after a celebrated player from the Period of Disunity named Ruan Xian (one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove along with Qin player Xi Kang.) Grouped with its close cousin the Pipa, it performed in a number of the various "ethnic" court orchestras of the Tang. It is found depicted in chamber music during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and is an occasional member of the Beijing opera orchestra. Today it also has a solo repertoire often emphasizing associations with northwestern Chinese folksongs and it functions as an important plucked string member of the modern Chinese traditional orchestra. Musical Techniques and Characteristics Overshadowed in history and music by its celebrated cousin the Pipa, the Ruan has recently developed a modern solo tradition. Playing techniques are colored by the music played; northwestern folk music calls for a vigorous strummed technique with the lower strings often used as drones, whereas other musical traditions call for a more subtle technique of nuanced melody. Perhaps the Ruan's most salient feature is its rich and full resonance, which allows it to sound clearly through an ensemble of winds and strings in a chamber ensemble or orchestra.

Pipa Classification The Pipa is classified as a chordophone of the round-backed lute subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and originated probably in Central Asia, coming to China during the Period of Disunity.

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Physical Description The modern Pipa has a shallow, pear-shaped body which tapers smoothly into the neck. At the top of the neck, the tuning peg box angles back slightly and culminates in a carved scroll. Four strings pass down from the pegs, over six large wooden frets along the neck and an additional 18 to 23 smaller bamboo frets which are glued to the soundboard of the body. The strings are tied off on a small piece of wood glued to the soundboard near the bottom of the instrument. Through the Tang dynasty, the Pipa was played with a large plectrum, but since then it has been played with real or artificial fingernails. History and Repertoire The term Pipa is found as early as the late Zhou dynasty and the early Han, and seems to refer both to a playing technique of vigorous strumming (pi means a downward strum, pa means an upward strum) and to a group of instruments which use this technique. It seems likely that the first instruments to be called Pipa were of the type we now call Ruan, with round bodies and a long neck. The ancestor of the modern pearshaped Pipa was a later arrival, probably during the Northern Wei dynasty of the Period of Disunity. Images from Dunhuang and court paintings of the Tang and Song dynasties depict a large instrument held to the side and played with a large plectrum. Some Pipas had four strings and a bent neck, others had five strings and a straight neck. There are no small bamboo frets on any of these instruments for playing higher notes, thus making the Tang-Song Pipas fairly deep-sounding instruments. Associated almost entirely with pleasure and entertainment, the Pipa was a prominent instrument in court and household banquet music, with the courtesans and with the urban and rural storytellers. (As early as the late Tang dynasty, its music was being recorded in a simple notational system which gave pitches and some indication of playing technique but was imprecise as to rhythms. Some of the manuscripts found in the Dunhuang Caves are song lyrics with Pipa notation.) Sometime in the Ming dynasty, the Pipa acquired its higher bamboo frets allowing a wider range of pitch, and the plectrum was discarded in favor of a more complex finger picking technique which allowed more subtle and complex effects. The first published collections of Pipa music are from the late Qing dynasty (early 19th century), and display a sophisticated repertoire of complex, extended compositions. At the same time, the Pipa continued to be a popular instrument of entertainers, particularly story tellers. Along with the Sanxian, it was the primary instruments of the Shanghai Tanci (teahouse story-song) tradition, and was an important member of the Jiangnan Sizhu (silk and bamboo amateur tea house music) ensembles. The modern Pipa is a popular solo instrument with a large and varied repertoire, a central instrument in various chamber music ensembles and a prominent member of the plucked strings in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. It is a favorite with Chinese children beginning music lessons. Musical Techniques and Characteristics No other Chinese instrument is as celebrated as the Pipa for its ability to arouse the passions, evoke scenes or describe events. Common techniques include a steady five-finger tremolo, heavy percussive strums,

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and the use of the lower two strings as drones accompanying melodies played on the upper two strings. The repertoire is divided (as is so much in Chinese performing arts) into two categories: wen (civilian) and wu (martial.) The former includes pieces describing love, sorrow or natural scenes which rely on a more lyric style of playing. The latter include the famous battle pieces which rely heavily on vigorous strumming and a plethora of special effects such as pitch bending, jangling of strings against each other, and tapping with the finger picks on the soundboard.

Yueqin Classification The Yueqin is classified as a chordophone of the flat-backed lute subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and developed in China from the Ruan.

Physical Description A descendant of the Ruan, the Yueqin is similar in construction, though its neck is noticeably shorter (with 10-12 frets) and its body thinner and thus less resonant. The white round wooden sound board gives the instrument its name Yueqin- "moon stringed instrument." It has pegs for four strings though in some traditions such as Beijing opera only one or two are strung on the instrument. Either artificial nails or a plectrum may be used to pluck the strings, depending on the musical tradition. History and Repertoire The Yueqin really became prominent with the rise of Beijing opera. It frequently doubles the Jinghu in accompanying the singers and providing intervening passages, and is often played as a second instrument by accomplished Jinghu players.

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Musical Techniques and Characteristics In Beijing opera, the Yueqin displays the same characteristics as the Jinghu in that its limited range (often one hand position on only one string) require that the tune be compressed into about one octave. This registral compression (characteristic of both the Yueqin and Jinghu) give Beijing opera much of its musical intensity. Equally interesting is the fact that the frets on the traditional Yueqin are almost equidistant from each other, producing a non-standard scale. Played in "unison" with the unfretted Jinghu, this produces a rich, pungent "out-of-tuneness" which is also very characteristic and very prized in the Beijing opera tradition. Opera music for the Yueqin is identical to that of the Jinghu, notes being sustained by strumming.

Sanxian Classification The Sanxian is classified as a chordophone of the lute subcategory. It is classified as silk and hide in the Ba Yin system and probably originated in Central Asia.

Physical Description The Sanxian has a small oval wooden body frame covered on top and bottom with snake skin. A long fretless neck extends out the side of the frame culminating in three long tuning pegs. Three strings (Sanxian means"three strings") pass over a low wooden bridge set upon the top snake skin surface and are tied off at the bottom of the frame. The strings are usually tuned to intervals of a fourth and a fifth (such as ADA- though this varies with different repertoires) and are plucked with fingernails or a plectrum. History and Repertoire The Sanxian seems to have entered China from Central Asia during the Mongol Yuan dynasty. It was quickly adopted as an accompaniment to solo song and became a primary instrument of Kunqu opera during the Ming dynasty. In the rural areas, the Sanxian was one of the most common and loved

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instruments of the wandering storyteller, who coaxed out of it endless descriptive effects. Around the Yangzi delta region the Sanxian was used along with the Pipa as accompaniment to Tanci, the urban storytelling tradition of neighborhood teahouses. It became one of the main instruments of Jiangnan Sizhu"south of the Yangzi silk and bamboo music"- the amateur chamber music tradition practiced in those same tea houses. In the modern traditional Chinese orchestra, the Sanxian is a frequent member of the plucked string group, often functioning as a bass instrument, along with the Ruan. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Sanxian has no frets, so glissandos and microtonal inflections are possible and commonly used. The snake skin resonator produces a sharp, incisive timbre, allowing the Sanxian to cut through ensemble and orchestral textures quite well. Its long neck and strings make it a fairly low instrument and it is often used as the bass member of a chamber or orchestral group. Players make use of tremolo to sustain pitches and create effects, but the Sanxian is also loved for the poignant sound of its single tones.

Bowed Strings
Erhu Classification The Erhu is classified as a chordophone of the fiddle subcategory. It is classified as silk and hide in the Ba Yin system and is one of a family of foreign (hu) instruments collectively called Huqin (barbarian stringed instruments) which came into China from northern nomadic cultures.

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Physical Description The Erhu (two-stringed barbarian stringed instrument) has a round or octagonal hollow wooden body, open on the back and covered with a snakeskin resonator on the front, and a long wooden neck that rises vertically out of the wooden body. Two strings are strung over a small wooden bridge sitting on the snakeskin head, rise up through a movable hook tied to the neck, and then up to two large tuning pegs near the top of the neck. The horsehair of the bow is permanently held between the two strings. The strings are tuned a fifth apart, the string closest to the player being the lower one. By pressing the bow in or out, the player moves easily between the two strings. There is no fingerboard, and notes are produced simply by touching the strings. History and Repertoire The first bowed strings entered China from the Silk Road during the Tang dynasty when they were called Xiqin western stringed instruments. These were bowed not with horsehair, but with strips of bamboo. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty the horsehair bow was introduced, again from the north and west and legend has always held that the nomadic tribes invented the permanently held bow as a way to avoid losing it while on horseback! The Erhu and other Huqin family members remained popular as folk instruments in north China over the next seven hundred years and finally emerged as the principal melody instrument of Beijing opera when it developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In southern China, the Erhu developed into a more sophisticated instrument sometimes called Nanhu (southern Erhu) which had a longer neck, lower tessatura and more advanced playing technique. It became a staple of the Yangzi delta region Jiangnan Sizhu tradition of amateur teahouse music. This southern Erhu also absorbed a great deal of technique from the western violin when it appeared in China in the 19th century and a new school of playing and a new repertoire developed. Two primary figures in this recent development were Liu Tianhua, a violinist, Erhu player and composer in the early years of the 20th century, and Ah Bing, a blind street performer from the same period who became nationally famous as an Erhu player and a composer. Today the Erhu is found in families, like the western violin family, and performs in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra in sections like western orchestral strings. The Erhu is the treble voice, the Zhonghu (middle fiddle) is the alto, the Dahu (large fiddle) has the cello-like position of tenor and the Dihu (bass fiddle) is the bass member. The latter two are mostly found in Hong Kong and Taiwan; mainland Chinese traditional orchestras tend to prefer the western cello and bass. Besides orchestral performance in sections, the Erhu is a frequent and popular soloist with the Chinese orchestra, it has a sizable repertoire as a solo instrument and is prominent in chamber music. In particular, the Erhu and Yangqin have formed a pair similar to the violin and piano in 18th and 19th century Europe, and frequently perform both arranged traditional pieces and modern Chinese compositions. Because of its traditional role in folk music, chamber music and opera, the Erhu is a favorite instrument for school children in China.

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Musical Techniques and Characteristics The somewhat thin tone of the Erhu is thoroughly overcome by a skilled player who makes it sing like an expressive voice in beautiful melodies, or imitate horses, dancing villagers or birds in virtuosic technical passages. Because there is no finger board, the player may produce vibrato by pressing in on the strings while fingering a note. Since there are no frets, the player can make great use of portamento slides and pitch bends in imitation of traditional Chinese song. The modern concert Erhu (Nanhu) has a longer neck than its Beijing opera cousin (Jing Erhu Beijing opera Erhu) and this is exploited to the fullest with very high notes reached in successively higher positions like those on a violin. The modern Erhu bow has a screw for tightening the horsehair, like a violin; this allows faster, tighter bow work than the older traditional bows in which the fingers of the bow hand pressed on the hair to tighten the bow.

Jinghu Classification The Jinghu is classified as a chordophone of the fiddle subcategory. It is classified as silk and hide in the Ba Yin system and is a member of the Huqin (barbarian string instrument) family which came into China from northern nomadic tribes.

Physical Description The Jinghu is constructed like its cousin the Erhu except that the body is made of bamboo instead of wood. Its two strings sound an octave higher than the Erhu and its tone is sharper.

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History and Repertoire Though the Huqin (barbarian stringed instrument) family has been present in China since the Yuan dynasty, the Jinghu seems to be a more recent member, achieving prominence only in the last two hundred years as the leading melody instrument in Beijing opera. Unlike its cousin the Erhu, the Jinghu has remained a folk instrument and has undergone no significant development in the modern era. Its repertoire remains north China folk song and, above all, Beijing opera from whence it derives its name: Beijing Opera Huqin. Its role is, along with the plucked Yueqin, to accompany the voice in heterophonic fashion, filling in figuration and ornamentation amongst the longer notes of the vocal melody and playing introductory and intermediary passages called Guomen. In larger opera ensembles, the Jinghu accompanies the lower voices and the larger, lower instrument called Jing Erhu (see Erhu) accompanies the higher voice parts. In smaller opera ensembles, the Jinghu is the primary, sometimes the only accompanying melodic instrument. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Jinghu has not developed the sophisticated performance techniques of the modern concert Erhu. Since its repertoire is primarily Beijing opera, its performance technique remains closely allied to the melodic style of that tradition. Jinghu players rarely move their left hands up the neck to higher positions. In fact, most of them keep their left thumb firmly clamped around the neck keeping the hand solidly in first position. Notes which fall higher than the reachable range are simply played an octave lower, producing a characteristic leaping quality in the melody. In the absence of great range, players substitute fast, agile passage work and a great deal of ornamentation including trills, turns and slides. The following example shows the agile, heterophonous line of the Jinghu compared to the more sedate lyrical style of the vocal melody it accompanies and ornaments. For more on the Jinghu, its tuning and use in Chinese Opera, see Chapter 10.

Hammered Strings
Yangqin Classification The Yangqin is classified as a chordophone of the dulcimer subcategory. It is classified as silk and wood in the Ba Yin system and came to China from Persia probably via southern maritime trade routes.

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Physical Description The Yangqin has a flat trapezoidal sounding box with multiple courses of strings running across the instrument from left to right. Two to four rows of bridges suspend the strings off the sounding board and divide them into different vibrating sections. The strings on both sides of each bridge produce a pitch of the scale (though the right side of the right bridge is seldom used.) The strings are struck with light, flexible bamboo mallets. The modern concert version of the instrument has been fitted with tuning sliders on the left end of the strings to facilitate quick changes of scale. Some have also been fitted with a foot pedal mechanism borrowed from the piano to allow damping of strings. History and Repertoire A relatively recent addition to Chinese musical instruments, the Yangqin probably entered China in the Ming dynasty via southern trade routes from the Indian Ocean. Its ancestor is the Persian Santur which also made its way west to Europe and became the Cymbalon and hammered dulcimer. The Portuguese Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci brought one or more stringed instruments to the Chinese emperor in the early 17th century, one of which may have been a harpsichord or clavichord and the other of which was probably a Santur. This may have been the first introduction of the Yangqin to China, though it may have begun infiltrating southern Chinese music earlier through contact with traders. The Yangqin was a regular feature of southern Chinese folk music, and also became an important member of the Jiangnan Sizhu (south of the Yangzi silk and bamboo) ensemble of amateur teahouse music clubs. Today it is a popular solo instrument with a large repertoire of traditional and newly composed pieces, and a regular member of both small ensembles and the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. It has a special place in chamber music where it is used to accompany Dizi or Erhu solos, and it is in this capacity that it is often referred to as the Chinese piano. For its beauty of tone, ease of initial technique and versatility it is a favorite of Chinese children beginning music lessons.

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Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Yangqin is capable of a wide variety of musical styles which has made it a central and popular instrument of the Chinese tradition. It frequently evokes the exuberance of regional folk dance traditions, playing both tune and rhythmic accompaniment. It is also capable of playing rapid figuration and in the heterophonous textures of Chinese traditional music ensembles the Yangqin often plays the most ornamented and elaborate version of the tune. Its timbre is clear and incisive, and the quick succession of tones builds up a sonorous haze of vibrating strings. Equipped with a damping pedal, the player may create a dry sound, and even without a pedal, such an effect is often created by damping the struck string with the other bamboo mallet. Sometimes strings are plucked with the handle end of the mallet to emulate other plucked string instruments.

Winds
Dizi Classification The Di or Dizi is classified as an aerophone of the side-blown flute subcategory. It is classified as bamboo in the Ba Yin system and is probably an indigenous Chinese instrument, though influenced by northern nomadic cultures.

Physical Description Made of bamboo, the Dizi is a cross-blown (heng chui) flute with a blow hole and six finger holes. An additional hole, between the blow hole and the first finger hole, is covered with a thin membrane stripped

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from the inside of a bamboo or other river reed. This membrane vibrates when the flute is blown, giving the Dizi its characteristic buzzing timbre. Two final holes near the end of the flute are provided for tuning and for a cord with which to decorate or hang the instrument. Many modern Dizi are provided with a joint between the blow hole and the membrane hole to facilitate tuning. Since each instrument is diatonic and can play only in one scale, Dizi come in families, one flute for each key. The upper two or three are referred to as Bandi half flute. History and Repertoire Transverse flutes have been present in China since the Zhou dynasty and were then called Chi. During the Han period, a flute called Hengchui (cross blown) entered China from the west which had six finger holes and a blow hole. During the Tang dynasty a seven-holed transverse flute called Hengdi (transverse flute) was a member of several of Emperor Minghuangs ten ethnic court orchestras. In the Song dynasty the Dizi acquired its most salient feature- the additional hole with its vibrating membrane. In the Ming dynasty, the Dizi became the principal melody instrument of Kunqu opera and was thus often referred to as Kundi or Qudi (song flute.) As regional folk opera forms developed in north China in the Ming and Qing, a smaller version of Dizi called Bangdi (Bangzi opera flute) evolved with a more piercing sound. Today the Dizi is an important member of the modern traditional Chinese orchestra in which it functions as part of the wind section and as a frequent soloist. It has developed a sizable solo and chamber music repertoire and is a popular instrument for school children beginning music lessons. Musical Techniques and Characteristics In Kunqu opera, the Di is prided for its highly expressive tones and its subtle and beautiful ornaments which include trills, turns and pitch bending. Modern technique has expanded to include very virtuosic passages of double tonguing and rapid figuration.

Xiao Classification The Xiao is classified as an aerophone of the end-blown flute subcategory. It is classified as bamboo in the Ba Yin system and is an indigenous Chinese instrument.

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Physical Description The instrument today called by this name is a slender, long vertical bamboo flute with a notch in the top end for a blow hole. Five finger holes on the top surface and one for the thumb on the underside may be played by the fingers of either hand. The Dongxiao is another vertical bamboo flute in use today, which is shorter and thicker than the Xiao. It is the cousin of the Japanese Shakuhachi and closely resembles it. History and Repertoire There have been vertical bamboo flutes in China at least as far back as the Shang dynasty where they are recorded on oracle bones as members of ritual orchestras. Three such instruments are mentioned in Zhou dynasty texts, the Di, the Guan and the Yue. During the Tang dynasty the most prominent end-blown flute was the Chiba Guan, guan meaning pipe and chiba being a measure of length. This is the instrument that was exported to Japan during this period and became the Shakuhachi. A descendant of the Chiba Guan is found today in south central Chinese traditional music and called the Dongxiao. All of these instruments and the modern Xiao have a soft sound making them appropriate for small, intimate music making. For this reason as well as for their ancient and indigenous pedigree, they have often been associated with scholars and used to accompany the Qin. The Xiao is also frequently a member of the Jiangnan Sizhu (south of the Yangzi silk and bamboo music) tradition of amateur teahouse music where it may replace the louder Dizi in smaller, more intimate orchestrations. Because of its small volume, the Xiao is rarely used in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Xiao is valued for its subtle timbres in which the sound of the breath is mixed in varying degrees with pure tone. Much use is made of pitch bending, turns and variations in vibrato as ornaments to the melody.

Paixiao Classification The Paixiao is classified as an aerophone of the panpipe subcategory. It is classified as bamboo in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China.

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Physical Description The Paixiao is the Chinese panpipe. Its name is self-descriptive- pai means raft or rank and xiao is a generic ancient name for pipe. Like panpipes around the world, the pipes are bound together partway down their length and the upper end of each is used as the blow hole. Originally the pipes were all the same length and the pitches were tuned either by wax plugs or holes cut in the sides of the pipes. In the Tang period, pipes of differing lengths were introduced and beginning in the Yuan dynasty, the group of pipes were placed inside highly decorated wooden frames. Over the dynasties the number of pipes varied from 16 to 23. History and Repertoire The Paixiao are among the most ancient of Chinese musical instruments. They were important members of the Shang and Zhou ritual orchestras (where they probably doubled the melody of the stone chimes) and their invention was reverently attributed to the mythical Emperor Shun. They are also associated with the invention of the basic scale itself which, according to legend, was derived through the cutting of reeds (endblown flutes) in mathematical ratios to produce a series of fifths and fourths: CG-DA-EB etc. (see The Instrumental Derivation of the Scale in chapter 9) These reeds were then bundled together to produce the Paixiao, which may have been considered a manifestation of cosmic music theory as much as a musical instrument. For, until the Tang dynasty, the reeds were set in their holder not in scalar fashion, but in theoretical order: the lower or generating member of each perfect fifth pair (i.e. C D E F# G# A#) were grouped together as were the respective generated members (GABC#D#F). The former group were thought of as yang and the latter as yin. In the Tang period, the pipes were re-ordered in scalar fashion, probably to facilitate musical performance in entertainment ensembles, and they can be seen depicted in images from the caves at Dunhuang, and in other images of secular music making. Despite their great age and pedigree however, the Paixiao did not endure as a popular performance instrument much past the Song dynasty. It remained a part of the Confucian ritual orchestra into the 20th century, but except for its role in that musically moribund tradition, the Paixiao was basically obsolete for most of a thousand years. In the 1980s it enjoyed a bit of a comeback as Chinese regional music and dance ensembles, responding to public interest in recent archeological finds, began to offer shows purporting to re-create ancient musicparticularly the ritual music of the Zhou and the entertainment spectacles of the Tang. Regardless of the authenticity of such shows, the Paixiao appears to be back, at least as an icon of ancient musical culture. Musical Techniques and Characteristics In general, the Paixiao, like most panpipes, is a quiet instrument. Like its elegant ritual-music companion the Qin, one wonders how it could have competed in ritual music ensembles with the bronze bells, stone chimes and drums we see read about in Zhou dynasty poems and see depicted in Han dynasty images. It is possible that there were quiet and loud sections which would allow the softer instruments to be heard, or it is possible that it was not considered necessary for humans to hear all the instruments, so long as they were

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played correctly for the spirits and the ancestors. But it is also possible that some Paixiao were considerably louder, for they were also used in different dynasties in military music ensembles, apparently for accompanying singing soldiers! In modern usage, in stage shows and in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra, the Paixiao is thought of as a quiet instrument and is used specifically for recalling ancient music. Like the Xiao and the Xun, the Paixiao is prized for its expressive breathy sound and the emotive possibilities of its vibrato.

Xun Classification The Xun is classified as an aerophone of the vessel flute subcategory. It is classified as clay in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China..

Physical Description Found in many sizes and shapes, the Xun is the ancient Chinese ocarina. It came in many sizes and shapes from a small thin mound to a large egg-shaped vessel. It was usually made of clay or porcelain with a blow hole on the top edge. Three or four finger holes on the top surface are covered by the first and second fingers of both hands, and two holes on the bottom surface are covered by the two thumbs. History and Repertoire The Xun is one of the oldest Chinese instruments dating back 7000 years. Instruments have been unearthed in the Yellow River basin from pre-historic settlements which display a sophisticated sense of pitch and interval. Chinese mythology attributes the invention of the Xun to the god-king Fuxi, who also gets credit for inventing the venerable Qin. It was an early member of the ritual orchestras of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and probably played in unison with the Paixiao. It remained purely a ritual music instrument until the Tang and Song dynasties when it enjoyed some favor in popular music. Like the Paixiao, it seems to have faded from popular view and remained primarily a musical fossil in the Confucian ritual orchestra

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until the present. But like the Paixiao, it has enjoyed a musical renaissance with the recent interest in China of reviving ancient music of the Zhou and Tang periods. It has been revived as a solo instrument and is a occasional guest in modern traditional Chinese orchestra compositions, usually in order to evoke antiquity. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Xun is usually a quiet, intimate instrument prized for its immediacy of feeling. Its pitch is heavily reliant on breath support making it possible to bend pitches up and down as much as a step. This is often used in conjunction with a breathy tone and wide, variable vibrato to express grief or even emulate sobbing.

Suona Classification The Suona is an aerophone of the shawm subcategory. It is classified as bamboo in the Ba Yin system and entered China from the Silk Road.

Physical Description The Suona is a double reed instrument with a conical bore. The reed is quite small and made of river reed, flattened and cut off at one end and held in a round shape with wire at the other. This end fits on a small

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metal tube or staple which is inserted through a small disk and into the top end of the wooden body of the instrument. The player inserts the reed and staple into his mouth up to the disk and blows with great force to set the reed in free and uncontrolled vibration. The body of the suona is carved into a series of flared lengths, each of which increases the bore of the tube until the bottom where a flaring metal bell is attached. Seven fingerholes are drilled in the top surface of the tube, and one additional hole near the top of the underside is covered by the left thumb. History and Repertoire The Suona entered China during the Yuan dynasty from Central Asia where it is known in Arabic as the Zurna. Its close cousins are still used throughout the Moslem world from Morocco to India. Given its powerfully strident tone, it is not surprising to find it first adopted in China for military music, and later adopted for other outdoor musical traditions such as religious processions, festivals and weddings. During the Qing dynasty, the Suona became a staple of the Beijing opera ensemble, playing during military scenes and moments of drama or splendor. In the 20th century, the Suona became a regular member of the Chui (wind) section of the modern traditional Chinese orchestra and an occasional guest soloist as well, particularly in pieces depicting military scenes or those evoking the music of the nomadic peoples of the north and west. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Suona is overwhelmingly loud, easily cutting through a full Chinese orchestra or percussion group. Its strident timbre dominates the melody line in Chuida (outdoor wind and percussion) ensembles and it is often used in modern orchestral music to evoke village life or nomadic cultures of the Silk Road. Players make use of flutter tonguing to produce descriptive effects and utilize circular breathing to keep the sound constant for long periods.

Guanzi Classification The instrument currently called Guanzi or Guan is classified as an aerophone of the shawm subcategory. It is classified as bamboo family in the Ba Yin system and is probably originally entered China from the north west.

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Physical Description The modern Guan is a short cylindrical tube of wood (or bamboo) with seven finger holes on the top surface and one thumb hole on the back for the left hand. A large double reed, similar to that of a western contrabassoon is inserted into the top end of the tube. History and Repertoire The character Guan appears in Zhou dynasty sources and seems to refer to end-blown wind instruments such as the Xiao and perhaps the Paixiao. Double reeds do not seem to appear in Chinese ensembles until the late Zhou or Han dynasties when they are referred to as Hujia foreign reed pipe. These appear to be primarily military instruments for signaling, and are depicted in early Chinese poetry as raucous and barbaric. By the Tang dynasty, when all things from the Silk Road gained popularity, another version of the double reed pipe called the Bili became a significant member of the court orchestras. This bamboo instrument fell out of favor at court in subsequent dynasties, but remained an important part of folk ensembles and Chuida wind-percussion groups which performed at festivals and celebratory occasions. It is through this outdoor ensemble tradition that the Guan was absorbed into the Beijing opera orchestra, where it is used to underscore military scenes along with its cousin the Suona, and a battery of percussion. It is a frequent member of the wind section of the modern Chinese traditional orchestra and is often manufactured now with extra holes and metal keys to allow a wider and fully chromatic range. Musical Techniques, Characteristics and Examples Unlike that of the Suona, the reed of the Guan is controlled by the players lips, giving the instrument a less strident tone. The Guan is celebrated for its ability to sing in a style like that of northern Chinese folk songs and much use is made of vibrato and wide pitch bends through embouchure manipulation.

Sheng Classification The Sheng is classified as an aerophone of the mouth organ subcategory. It is classified as gourd and bamboo in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China.

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Physical Description The Sheng consists of a bowl-like wind chamber with 14 to 22 bamboo pipes emerging vertically from its top, and a blow pipe emerging from its side. Originally the pipes were placed in parallel rows, but by the Tang dynasty, the pipes were arranged in a semi-circle, as they still are today. Each pipe has a metal single reed inserted into it near the bottom end and inside the wind chamber. Above the wind bowl and accessible to the fingers, each pipe also has a small finger hole which, when covered, forces the air in the pipe to vibrate at a frequency which causes the reed to sound. Thus, the pipe will not sound unless its finger hole is covered. The reed may be sounded by either blowing air in or sucking it out, making it possible for the Sheng player to play continuously. History and Repertoire The Sheng is one of the earliest Chinese instruments, dating back at least as far as the Shang dynasty where it is mentioned in oracle bone inscriptions with the name Yu or He (large and small versions) meaning a bundle of reeds. Legend attributes its invention to Fuxi, thus making its age and pedigree equal to that of the venerable Qin! The Book of Songs from the early to mid Zhou dynasty frequently mentions the Sheng as an important member of the ritual orchestras, where it apparently played in unison with the bamboo flutes. The earliest existing instruments come from Zhou dynasty tombs and consist of 14 to 22 bamboo pipes mounted in two parallel rows on an air chamber of gourd or wood. By the Tang dynasty, the Sheng had adopted its circular arrangement of pipes, and was found in both the ritual music and the banquet music ensembles. It was also a staple of courtesan music for centuries, in ensemble with flutes and plucked strings. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was a standard member of the Kunqu opera ensemble, as

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well as participating in music for ritual and festival occasions. It became a common member of the Jiangnan Sizhu (south of the Yangzi silk and bamboo music) tradition of amateur tea house ensembles, and has a standard place today in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. In response to changing and increasingly complex orchestral repertoire, a chromatic Sheng has been developed with keys like those found on western woodwinds. To provide a wider range for the wind section, a family of Shengs has been produced- the lowest of which sits on a table in front of the player and is approximately the size of a tuba. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Sheng is one of the few Chinese instruments which commonly plays multiple notes simultaneously. This practice apparently goes back to ancient times, when its simultaneitys perhaps helped to outline the sacred scale degrees of ritual music. Like those of western medieval organum, Sheng harmonies provided a richness to sacred musical melodies, but unlike organum the practice never developed into a science of harmony. The Sheng today still plays primarily a series of octaves, fourths and fifths in accompaniment to its primary melody. For more on the Sheng, see Chapter 9 Chinese Music Theory.

Percussion
Bianzhong Classification Bianzhong collected bells are classified as idiophones of the bell chime subcategory. They are classified as metal in the Ba Yin system and are indigenous to China.

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Physical Description Bianzhong consist of a set of bronze bells, usually 8 to 16 in number, suspended from a wooden rack. They have no interior clappers, but rather are struck on the outside with wooden hammers or poles. The smallest bells are three inches or so in height; the largest are approximately 2.5 feet tall. The shape of the mouth of the bell varied with dynasty- the Shang dynasty bells are rounded oval in cross section, Zhou dynasty bells are pointed ovals and later versions are round. The most spectacular example of Bianzhong was the set discovered in 1978 in Hubei province in central China in the tomb of a Marquis Li of Zeng (Zenghou Li) dating from the 5th century B.C. This set consisted of 64 bells arranged on three racks with a range of five octaves. The middle three of these octaves contained bells for all 12 pitches of a chromatic scale! History and Repertoire The earliest bells, called Nao, were found in Shang dynasty sites from about 1500 BC along with the other ritual bronze vessels. They were mounted on stands with their bells up and were struck with wooden mallets. Bianzhong as described above were a development of the Zhou dynasty and demonstrate a more sophisticated technology, both in bronze casting and acoustic design. The pointed-oval cross-sectional mouth of Bianzhong divided the bell into two separate vibrating sections, each producing its own separate pitch, usually a major or minor third apart. Though sophisticated bronze casting originated with the high culture of the Shang in northern China, recent archeology provides evidence that the highest achievements of bell manufacturing (and indeed perhaps even bronze casting in China) come from further south in the ancient Zhou era kingdom of Chu along the Yangzi river. This is the origin of the Marquis Li (Zenghou Li) set, as recorded in the inscriptions cast onto the surface of the bells themselves. (These inscriptions also provide information on the organization of pitches into scales, tuning information and the names of each pitch on each bell. For more on these bells see Chapter 1 and Chapter 9.) After the fall of the Zhou dynasty, it appears that this very specialized knowledge of bell casting was lost, for when Han dynasty makers tried to re-invent them for use by court ritual orchestras, the bells were circular in cross-section, single-pitched, and decidedly inferior in tone. It is this Han dynasty style of Bianzhong that was used in ritual orchestras until the present century. During the Han, it appears that these semi-sacred bells were used in entertainment music as well as ritual music. Tomb carvings show them in ensemble with a variety of winds, strings and percussion instruments accompanying acrobats. By the Tang dynasty, however, the Bianzhong seem to have been relegated only to ritual music, and left in the hands of the least talented musicians of the court. Thus their repertoire never developed and they became ritual icons more than living musical instruments. Musical Techniques and Characteristics From tomb evidence and images from the Zhou and Han dynasties, we know that musicians in antiquity played the smaller bells with wooden hammers, and the larger ones with the end of a long wooden pole. In the tradition as it survived into this century, the smaller bells played the tunes in conjunction with the winds

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and strings, and the larger bells were sounded to underscore important pitches such as those at beginnings or endings of phrases. It seems reasonable to assume that this was the practice in antiquity as well.

Bianqing Classification The Bianqing collected stone chimes are classified as idiophones of the lithophone (sounding stone) subcategory. Made of limestone, jade or marble, they are thus classified as stone in the Ba Yin system and are indigenous to China.

Physical Description Bianqing are collections of five-sided, triangular slabs of stone each cut to produce a particular pitch when struck with a wooden hammer. Each Qing has a hole bored in the top angle of the stone from which it is suspended from a carved wooden frame. Most Qing have a carved surface depicting an abstract animal design of sacred significance, often a tiger. Early Bianqing contain stones of similar thickness and are tuned by varying the size. Later sets, from the Han period on, have stones of similar size and are tuned by varying the thickness. History and Repertoire The Bianqing are among the oldest of the sacred ritual instruments of the Chinese. Small sets have been found from the pre-historic (pre-Shang) era, and by the late Shang, they are recorded in oracle bone inscriptions and mentioned in poems contained in the Book of Songs. During the Zhou dynasty, the standard number in a set seems to have been 16, arranged in two rows on the rack. Though they seem to

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have been included in entertainment ensembles as late as the Han, where they are depicted in images of musicians accompanying acrobats, the Bianqing were primarily thought of as ancient members of the ritual orchestras. Like the Bianzhong (collected bronze bells) they became musical icons more than living performance instruments and their repertoire never developed. Musical Techniques and Characteristics Images from antiquity depict one player at a set of Bianqing holding wooden hammers. They are primarily higher pitched instruments, with a clear but not loud tone, and they do not sustain a pitch nearly as long as do the bronze bells. It appears Bianqing were though of as melody instruments in ceremonial music along with the upper bells and the winds and strings.

Xiaogu Classification The Xiaogu small drum is classified as a membranophone of the barrel drum subcategory. It is classified as hide and wood in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China. The Ban (clapper) hangs on the stand.

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Physical Description The Xiaogu is an interesting modification of the hoop drum concept found all over the world. Unlike most hoop drums, which consist of a thin wooden hoop of wood over which is stretched a piece of hide, the Xiaogu is assembled from triangles of hard wood bound into a circular disk about eight inches across and three inches thick with a small central hole. The triangles create an amplifying cone on the underside of the drum. The hide is stretched over the whole top surface of the disk, but only the hide over the small central hole vibrates. This high-pitched tock sound is amplified greatly by the cone and can be heard easily over the loud cymbals and gongs of an opera orchestra. The drum is suspended on cords from a wooden stand and struck with light bamboo sticks. History and Repertoire The Xiaogu is also called Danpigu single headed drum or Bangu clapper drum. It is of fairly recent origin (several hundred years) and is most associated with Beijing opera ensembles where its player is the leader and indeed the conductor of the whole performance. It is also found in Chuida wind percussion ensemble traditions where it also is usually the leader. Musical Techniques and Characteristics The Xiaogu has a very clear and incisive sound which can be heard over the opera orchestra. It signals to the orchestra what music is to follow through the use of signal patterns, and it then is used to keep the beat during instrumental passages. Often the same player plays the Xiaogu with one hand and the Ban wooden clappers with the other to produce a tick-tock effect. For more on the role of the Xiaogu in Opera and its repertoire of signals and rhythmic patterns, see Chapter 10 Selected Pieces from the Repertoire: part 4- a scene from Beijing Opera.

Dagu Classification The Dagu large drum or Da Tanggu large hall drum is classified as a membranophone of the barrel drum subcategory. It classified as hide and wood in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China.

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Physical Description The modern Dagu is a large wooden drum about three feet high and three feet wide at the top. It is shaped like a flower pot with a large and a small end- each covered with hide. The drum is suspended by cords on a wooden stand with the large drum head up, and it is played with two wooden sticks. History and Repertoire Drums are among the earliest instruments mentioned prominently in ritual archives of the Shang dynasty. They are mentioned as central to ancestor rituals as well as general sacrifices to nature spirits for such things as rain, floods and eclipses. Both Shang and Zhou dynasty drums have been unearthed from various tombs. They are either of wood with hide heads or made entirely of bronze. They were usually barrel shaped, quite large, and placed sideways on a tall stand so that either end could be played with wooden sticks. The modern Dagu is clearly a descendent of this long tradition of barrel drums, and is used in Beijing opera during battle scenes or to represent such things as the night watch. It is prominent in Luogu gong and drum and Chuida wind and percussion ensembles which play at festivals and other ritual occasions, and has developed a role as the bass drum in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. Another closely related traditional barrel drum still in use today is the Tanggu hall drum which is smaller than the Dagu and higher pitched. Musical Techniques and Characteristics Heavy strikes, rolls and soft, evocative effects on the Dagu are common in opera and orchestral music, whereas loud repetitive patterns are more common in the noisier festival music of Luogu and Chuida ensembles.

Ban Classification The Ban flat board is classified as an idiophone of the clapper subcategory. It is classified as wood in the Ba Yin system and is indigenous to China. (For photo see Xiao Gu above) Physical Description The most common Ban today is that used in opera orchestras. It consists of two pieces of hard wood tied tightly together with string, and hit with another piece of the same wood which is itself connected to the other two by a string cord. The player holds the single board, letting the connecting cord drape over his

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thumb. The single board is then struck against the other two with a crisp twist of the wrist producing a clean resonant click. History and Repertoire Clappers appear in early depictions of music making and appear to have been thought of as time keepers and beat markers. Images from the Song dynasty show gentlemen playing the clappers for their women musicians, or singers keeping the time with their accompanists. Ban were prominent in Kunqu opera ensembles where they punctuated the tunes on important beats and became part of the Gu-Ban drumclapper combination used by the ensemble leader in Beijing opera and Chuida wind-percussion ensembles. Musical Techniques and Characteristics In lighter song traditions, the Ban are often the only percussion and are used elegantly to mark important beats and to keep time. In opera and Chuida traditions, the ban are often used loudly and frequently as part of a tick-tock effect in combination with the Xiaogu small drum. For more on the role of the Ban in Opera, see Chapter 10 Selected Pieces from the Repertoire: part 4- a scene from Beijing Opera.

Bo Classification The Bo are classified as idiophones of the cymbal subcategory. They are classified as metal in the Ba Yin system and came into China from the northern border cultures. (For photo see Luo below) Physical Description Cymbals come in many sizes, shapes and sounds in China. The most common are 1) the small cymbals used in Chinese opera which are about six inches across and have a high central bulb in the center and 2) the larger, flatter cymbals used commonly in festival and parade music. The former have more of a ring to them, though they do not really produce a true pitch. The latter produce only a very resonant crash.

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History and Repertoire Cymbals seem to have entered China during the Period of Disunity through contact with the military music of occupying northern cultures. They were very popular in the court music of the Tang dynasty, where they were associated with the vigorous music of northern tribes. Continuing this reputation, they played only very limited roles in Kunqu and other Southern opera styles in subsequent dynasties, but emerged again during the Qing as Beijing opera developed and absorbed more of the northern folk and festival traditions into its musical repertoire. Musical Techniques, Characteristics and Examples Both in opera and in Luogu gong and drum and Chuida wind and percussion ensembles, the cymbals play a leading role with vigorous and often complex rhythmic patterns. Various effects are used, such as clapping the cymbals together damped, scraping them across each other and scrubbing them in a circular motion to produce a churning sound. Together with the large and small gongs and the Xiaogu small drum, the cymbals perform in the percussion section of the Beijing opera ensemble and they also have a prominent place in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. For more on the role of the Bo in Opera, see Chapter 10 Selected Pieces from the Repertoire: part 4- a scene from Beijing Opera.

Luo Classification The Luo are classified as idiophones of the gong subcategory. They are classified as metal in the Ba Yin system and entered China from the northern border cultures. Pictured here are (from left to right) Da Luo (large gong), Bo or Naobo (cymbals), Xiao Luo (small gong).

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Physical Description Luo is a generic name for gongs, which come in a variety of sizes and styles in China. The three most important are all round and flat, with edges turned up at right angles to the surface and no central bulb. The Da Luo large gong of Chinese opera is about 12 inches across, is held by a cord and handle and is struck with a cloth covered beater. Its primary characteristic is a suddenly dropping pitch. The Xiao Luo small gong also used in Chinese opera is about 8 inches across, is held by a single finger under its rim and is struck by a light slip of wood. Its characteristic sound is a quickly rising pitch. The Yun Luo cloud gongs are small tuned gongs which traditionally came in sets of nine or ten and sounded the pitches of a seven note, diatonic scale. Modern sets may have as many as thirty six gongs. They are hung by cords on frames of wood.

Yun Luo

History and Repertoire Gongs came into China from the northwest before the Tang dynasty and were associated with military music where they were used to sound retreats and other signals. They were prominent in court music of the Tang and remained important in festival and military music in subsequent dynasties. The characteristic sounds of the Daluo and Xiaoluo were absorbed into Beijing opera and became one of the most prominent sounds of that tradition. The Yunluo seem to have appeared in China later, perhaps during the Yuan dynasty, and were often associated with Buddhist temple music. Today all three gongs have important places in the modern traditional Chinese orchestra. Musical Techniques and Characteristics For more on the role of the Luo in Opera, see Chapter 10.

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Muyu Classification Muyu (wooden fish) are classified as idiophones of the slit drum subcategory. They are classified as wood in the Ba Yin system and are indigenous to China. Two Muyu are pictured here along with another Buddhist temple instrument- a brass bowl bell.

Physical Description Called temple blocks in the West, Muyu are hollowed-out wooden hemispheres with a slit in the front side. They may be hand held or mounted on racks in semi-pitched sets of five to eight. They are struck with a wooden mallet to produce a short, resonant clop sound. History and Repertoire Wood blocks were an early part of the ritual orchestras of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. One called Chu was struck to begin a verse of a ritual ode and another called Yu was struck to mark the end. The latter was shaped like a tiger with a serrated ridge upon its back. The player struck the head with a wooden beater and scraped the serrations with a split bamboo rod. These two remained in the Confucian ritual orchestra until the 20th century. The Muyu appeared perhaps during the early Han dynasty where it may have been associated with prayers for rain. It was associated over the centuries primarily with Buddhist and Daoist temple music where it was used to punctuate the recitation of liturgy. Musical Techniques and Characteristics Today the Muyu are used in conjunction with other types of wood blocks to produce incisive punctuation or a steady clip-clop effect in the music of the modern traditional Chinese orchestra and certain types of percussion music. They have also been enthusiastically adopted by Western and Chinese composers of western orchestra music for their hollow resonant timbre.

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Further Reading
Instruments, Traditions and Ensembles The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments Stanley Sadie, editor, Music of the Billion Liang Mingyue, Heinrichshofen, 1985 Chinese Music and Orchestration: A Primer on Principles and Practice Shen Sin-yan, Chinese Music Society of North America, 1991 Silk and Bamboo Music in Shanghai Lawrence J. Witzleben, The Kent State University Press, 1995 The Way of the Pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music John Myers, Kent State University Press, 1992

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