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Demography-Big-bang reproduction/semelparity-single reproductive opportunity Life Tables - age-specific summaries of survival pattern of a population; follow fate of a cohort (group

of individuals of same age) from birth until all dead; determine # of individuals that die in each age group calculate proportion of cohort surviving from one age to next, difficult for wild species, only few # Life-Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species Density-# of individ. per unit area/volume. Dispersion-the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population I: most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (humans).II: individuals die at a constant rate (birds, rodents, and perennial plants). III: most individuals die early in life (fishes, invertebrates, and plants). Production Efficiency - fraction of energy stored in food not used for respiration; net secondary production (growth) / assimilation of primary production -some energy in eaten leaf used for growth (chemical energy stored), some for respiration (lost as heat), some in feces (consumed by detritivores) Trophic Efficiency - % of production transferred from one trophic level to next; loss multiplied over food chain (10%) pyramid of net production -biomass pyramid - average weight of organisms x # of organisms at the trophic level; tier presents standing crop (total dry weight of organisms) in trophic level; narrow sharply from primary producers to top -energy pyramid shows amount of energy available at each trophic level; few trophic levels,only about . 1% of photosynthesis makes to tertiary consumer, limited top biomass concentrated in few but large individuals; reflected in pyramid of numbers , block size proportional to # of individual organisms in trophic level; worldwide agriculture more successful if humans fed more efficiently - eat plant material directly rather than eating meat Water Cycle: Solar Energy => Evaporation from sea and other bodies, transpiration -> Water vapor moves toward land (wind) -> Condenses with dust molecules -> Precipitation over land/sea -> Percolation -> Runoff and Groundwater PO4-Phosphate; Regulation of population: Competition, territoriality, health (disease), predation, toxic wastes or aggressive behavior. Steady declines are caused largely by predation while a dramatic collapse can be caused by severe weather and food shortage. Autotrophs: absorb nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur and other molecules necessary for life; provide both an energyfixation base as well as the nutrient-concentration base for ecosystems / Two types of autotrophs: Photoautotrophs - plants and some Protista// Chemoautotrophs - bacteria Primary succession - starts from barren ground, e.g. new islands or de-glaciated areas Secondary succession - starts from disturbed areas, e.g. abandoned farm land or storm ravaged land// Succession starts with a pioneer community, the first organisms to occupy an area // Several transitional communities may come and go A climax community, a stable, self-perpetuating array of species in equilibrium with one another and their habitat, will form Climate = the accumulation of weather events over a long period of time (temperatures, humidity, wind, cloud cover, rainfall) Climate is dependent upon several factors:Solar radiation The earth's daily rotation The earth's rotation around the sun The distributions of continents and oceans Elevation Heat energy from the sun drives the earth's weather systems, which ultimately determine composition Foundation Species: Organisms that cause physical changes in the environment. Habitat Destruction, Introduced Species, Overexploitation and Disruption of Interaction causes threats to biodiversity Taiga(Coniferous or Boreal Forests; 2nd largest forest in the world; Ring Arctic between Arctic and Deciduous Forest, 50-60 north latitude) upper elevations of mountains, angle of incidence for solar radiation low; twilight lasts many hours; fire major maintainer; seasons divided into short, moist, moderately warm summers and long, cold, dry winters (5-7 months) (-65 to 70 F); variable precipitation -soils scraped thin by glaciers acidic from decomposed pine needles; soil hard and compact from lack of earth-churning invertebrates (earthworms) Plants: conifers main producers; influenced by latitude and altitude; berry-producing shrubs important to birds, mammals, people; fungi, lichens, mosses Plant Adaptations: trees have upside-down cone shape so snow slides off, branches flexible to hold snow without breaking, trees thin and dense to protect from cold and wind, needles waxy for protection from freezing temperatures and drying out, needles present year around and deep green to absorb maximum sun warmth, thick bark doesnt easily burn and protects inner layers from heat and cones protect seeds Animals: millions of insects in summer to help feed migration, up to 3 billion insect-eating birds breed, seed eaters (finches, sparrows) and omnivorous birds (crows) stay year round, crossbill w/ specialized bill for prying open cones, nuthatch can break open, herbivores (small mammals, snowshoe rabbits, red squirrels, voles, lemming) -predators (owls, wolves, lynx, bobcats, minks, wolverines, weasels, mink, otters, martens), deer, elk, moose; largest predators (grizzlies, lynx, mountain lion) feed on weakened/young deer, elk, moose

Animal Adaptations: birds migrate south in winter, winter hibernation, stored extra fat layers for winter, change diets to season, extra fur on feet bottoms for treading, fur color and coat thickness change by season, live in snow tunnels under snow in winter 5-7 months./Filters millions of liters of water/Stores large amounts of carbon/Produces oxygen/Rebuilds soils and restores nutrients/Bogs and marshes provides habitats for large numbers of species from fish to birds (C)Pollution-chemical waste, mining, hydroelectric development/Clear cutting -trees are cut in large sections leaving no protection for wildlife; logging in national parks and other protected areas without government permission/Poaching hunting and fishing out of season, on protected land, or to endangered species/Forest fires unnatural fires caused by careless humans./Mining -destroy wildlife habitat/Drilling for oil and natural gas disrupt the forest; stores large

quantities of carbon stored as plant material on forest floor/Taiga acts like a large refrigerator preventing fallen trees, needles and other debris from decomposing (co2)/Heating up the taiga is causing the following problems/Litter decompose putting carbon in atmosphere/forest fire increase Infestation by bark beetles which is killing the trees and forming tinder to fuel the forest fires and adding more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Tundra: earth land surface/next to icy, treeless regions, top of mountains above tree line (alpine tundra), -30 to -40 C, 34 C, 6-10 in precipitation, winds 3060 mph, few hours sunlight in winter, 24 hrs in summer, ground surface uneven spongy from freezing and thawing, plains covered w/ ice and snow (permafrost), highest summer 10 C, 50-60 day reproduction season (short), 1700 plants and 48 land mammals (low biotic diversity), simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, energy and nutrients in dead material, large population oscillations Plants: tiny flowering (<4 in), grasses, lichens (crustose and foliose), sedges, willows Plant Adaptations: plants perennial store food from season to season, adapt to strong winds and soiil disturbances, short and grouped together, form cushions/mats close to ground where warmer than air, photosynthesis at low temperatures and intensities, reproduce asexually short growing seasons Animals: primary consumers (herbivores) lemmings, insects, musk oxen, reindeer/ secondary consumers (carnivores) snow owls, arctic foxes, polar bears/ migratory birds (ravens, snow bunting, falcons, loons, sandpipers, terns, snow birds, various gull species/ insects (mosquitoes, flies, moths, grasshoppers, blackflies, arctic bumble bees), fish/reptiles and amphibians few/absent Animal Adaptations: adapt to extremely cold winters, breed and raise young quickly during short summers, birds migrate south in winter, those that stay hibernate, constant immigration and emigration/ detritus eaters (bacteria, nematodes) Environmental Importance: filters millions of liters of water, stores carbon, permafrost doesnt thaw out, organic matter stored and trapped, global warming lowers thaw depth, peat and organic matter begins decaying inputting of CO2 to atmosphere Conservation Concerns: large scale extraction industries (oil, gas, minerals), pollution (chemical waste, mining, hydroelectric development), expansion of agriculture/livestock, vehicular traffic, touism increase degradation, global warming - soil bound carbon in this area, melting permafrost releases CO2 increasing greenhouse effect, erosion from permafrost and overgrazing, poaching (hunting and fishing out of season on protected land of endangered species), like desert plant systems fragile, ground bears human traffic marks for years, short few chains, few species, fragile ecosystem, balance upset greatly if species reduced or diseased, hunting or predation Role in Regulating Earths Climate: global warming at twice rate of more temperate regions, affect release/retention of greenhouse gases (CO2 and methane) methane 20x more efficient at trapping warmth than CO2, soil nutrients, plant type, plant biomass affected by changes in soil moisture and can modify amount and type of greenhouse gases, can tip climate balance of not just Arctic region, but whole world -perennials and annuals dependent on ecosystems and each other (cooperation); ruderal plants (weeds in other areas) need moisture and minerals; outproduce competition by flowering quickly, dont share water/nutrition; year-to-year, no long-term strategy; native ecosystem well-ordered and long-term; no extended period of drought for last 100 years; native plant communities shift from competitive to cooperative; everything happens slower; longer-lived native plants build seed bank over years to have sufficient numbers to regenerate during periods of normal rainfall; weeds need to be removed or kept out -> prevent succession of plant community and cause death of long-lived; mutualism; protective, closed biomass system; based on mycorrhizal relationships; grassland, desert, oak woodland communities natural cycles in one season w/out climax species; dual complementary cycle; plants have simple symbiosis; combination of yearly and long cycle; in grasslands, desert wildflowers come up w/ adequate moisture and inoculated at germination by spores and root from on site shrubs and perennials -Drought 1) water from mother plants 2) more surface area and length in mycorrhizal roots 3) quicker uptake on water after rain shower 4) rainfall captured in below ground ecosystem (bodies of microorganisms, roots, soil) 5) little runoff, erosion, leaching of soil, increasing effective rainfall ; -wildflowers essential, cant be replaced by alien annuals, dying at end of short life season transfer nutrition, moisture, biomass to other mycorrhizal hosts; -cycle of energy transfer from wildflowers in spring to perennials, trees, shrubs in summer, wildflowers next spring -bare period when perennials and shrubs carry energy to next wildflower show; shrubs flower in midsummer from much energy in late-spring early-summer period; period of extended drought w/ browsing last few years depleting biomass, put on ground level where soil organisms assimilate and recycled back in -when rains come reproductive circle has enough energy to reproduce on mineral soil; decreased herbivore activity allow new plants; heavy feeding on plants reduce fire loading and cause mosaic pattern allowing mother plants to survive -allows oakland to burn without harm; light browsing after drought for plant-fungal community to reproduce + enough energy in local biosystem to last until next drought; many native species need fire at end of drought period to meet dormancy strategies + drive back herbivores so seedlings can mature without being eaten; most habitats fire not every drought; some good bacteria and fungi from natural succession disappearing; before and after 1979 fire no alien plants; wildflowers die down by summer leaving clear ground; alien species stay flammable after dying;

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