Experiments for IB psychology SL

Asch (1951, 1952, 1956) - Conformity (Humans have the need to belong) Experiment: Aschs paradigm - page 48 Oxford Revision Book Aim: To test conformity under non ambiguous conditions Method: Subjects - All male American, 6-7 in a room, one true participant and rest are actors. Procedure: One participant and confederates were asked to enter a room. True participant did not know the rest were actors. A researcher told the group that they were going -to be taking part in a psychological experiment on visual judgement. Participants were asked to select the line from the second card that matched the length of the line on the first card. True participant is always asked second last or near the end. Findings: Around 75% of participants conformed in agreement with confederates at least once during the trials. Average rate of conformity is 32%. Around 24% never conformed. When interviewed, participants had reported to experienced some degree of self-doubt, and those ho conformed said they did not want to ruin experimenters results, just go along with the group or appear to be against the group. Some experienced the pressure of conforming. Conclusion: Humans have the need to belong, therefore the majority were pressured to conform. Most of them conformed due to peer pressure and the looks other people give you if you answer wrongly. In the interview, most participants had self doubt. Ethical: There was deception and participants could have experienced uncomfortable emotions. Strengths: Does prove conformity exists Relatable to humans having the need to belong, one of the principles of Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis Can be repeated Weaknesses: Only American culture, not others Lacks ecovalidity, not in real life Only male Did not account for the minority who did not conform 1950s time period Ethics: participants were deceived Scared of ruining experiments results (therefore show demand characteristics) and thus conforming not due to social pressure. Related experiments: Perrin and Spencer (1988) - Replicated experiment to engineers and medical students, conformity rates were almost nil. Stang (1973) - Participants with high self-esteem were less likely to conform to incorrect responses. Different way of looking at Asch paradigm - Can minority opinion sway majority to change its views? --> Moscovici and Lage (1976) Mead (1935) Documented numerous instances of cultural variations in 3 different cultures in New Guinea. Arapesh people characterized by women and men having same sensitive and non-aggressive behaviour as well as feminine personalities Mundugamor = both men and women were ruthless, unpleasant, dominant and masculine Tchambuli community = women were more dominant and men were more emotional and concerned about personal appearance. Meads demonstration of cultural differences in many respects a valid indication of how society scan influence gender-role development. Criticisms/weaknesses Reversal of western norms Shows that culture affects stereotypes as well as behaviour affected by conformity to social norms Human nature is malleable Her methodology is unscientific She was in her early 20s that time with little life experience Could have affected her judgement of what she was observing and influenced the way in

which she was regarded by the islanders whose culture values ages for its wisdom. Prior to her research she already held a strong belieft of the environment playing a role in changing behaviour and was subjective Errington and Gewertz (1989) revisited the Tchambuli and re-analysed Meads original material, they found women do not dominate men nor is the reverse true Mead only spent 6 months in these communities and not a yearly cycle Any other data would have been second hand She is a woman unable to understand a male perspective Tajfel et al. (1971) - Kandinsky vs Klee Aim: To test the Social Identity Theory Method: He conducted a study according to various situations in which Bristol schoolboys were assigned at random to one of two meaningless groups. They were assigned based on their preference on either Kandinsky or Klees paintings. They were asked to rate the in-group and out-group members on traits such as likeability. Findings: Tajfel found that the out-group was rated less likeable, but never actually disliked. Conclusion: There seems to be a preference of the in-group rather than out, however it is not clear that they make social comparisons to enhance either self-esteem. Later research shows group identity alone appears not to be responsible for intergroup conflict. In the absence of competition, social comparison does not necessarily produce a negative outcome. Jane Elliot Experiment 1984 Aim : To demonstrate Social Identity Theory Method: On the first day she made blue eyes is better than brown eyes and on the second day, brown was better than blue. The brown eyed students (on the first day) were discriminated and were called stupid. On that day, she designated the blue-eyed children as the superior group, giving them extra privileges like second helpings at lunch, access to the new jungle gym and five minutes extra at recess. She said blue-eyed children was linked to intelligence and ability, as the blue pigmentation would result in an increase of these qualities. The next day she did vice versa. Findings: At day 1 brown eyed children took 5 minutes in working with flashcards because they felt bad. At day 2 it took brown eyed children 2.5 minutes with flashcards because they have been promoted to feel more superior. Evaluation Has high ecological validity, not natural experiment as she manipulated the experiment, independent variable is the color of eyes, confounding variables is difficult to control as students might had bad day which caused to act in certain ways, student have needs to be in group. Snyder and Swann (1978) - Illusory correlation Aim: Test stereotyping Procedure: Told female college students that they would meet a person who was either introverted (reserved, cool) or extroverted (outgoing, warm). They were then asked to prepare a set of questions for the person they were going to meet. Findings: In general, participants came up with questions that confirmed their perceptions of introverts and extroverts. Those who thought they were meeting an introvert asked, What do you dislike about parties? or Are there times you wish you could be more outgoing? and extroverts are asked, What do you do to liven up a party? Conclusion: Questions asked confirmed participants stereotypes of each personality type. Leon Festinger et al. (1956) - When Prophecy Fails Most well known covert observation. In Chicago, there was a religious cult that believed the world would end on 21st December. They believed that when natural catastrophes began, they would be rescued by flying saucers as long as they followed the prescribed rituals and read the sacred texts. They were to remain isolated from all non-believers (making psychologists difficult to study them). Festinger and his team decided to become cult members to carry out a participant observation. They remained until that fateful day of 21st December and when nothing happened, Festinger

monitored the group members doubt, debate and rationalization. The members of the cult, as part of maintaining their self-esteem, decided that God and not destroyed the world because of their prayers. Principle: People have a social self and identity. Therefore they have a desire to protect their self-esteem. This is demonstrated in this study as the cult had decided based on their prayers that they have saved the world. Milgrams study (1963) - Study of obedience Aim: To investigate how far people will go in obey an authority figure based on how he wanted to prove the Germans were different from people that they were able to carry out barbaric acts against Jews and other minority people. Procedure: - Each participant was assigned with a confederate, and true participant believes confederate to be another participant - Participant and confederate were told that experiment was on human learning - They drew lots and it was made in such a way that the leaner would always be the confederate and the teacher, the participant - Participant was shown how the learner was being strapped to an impressive-looking machine, the generator. Then he/she was given a test shock of 45 volts to convince them it was real. - Participant leaves confederate and enters a separate room where their task was to read out 4 key words and 4 possible pairs, while the confederate had to press the correct button. - Each incorrect answer, a 15 volt shock was applied and for every consecutive incorrect answer, 15 volts was increased by another 15 and so on up to 450 volts. - Milgram wanted to see how far would the participant go Results: - Levels of obedience expected... psychology students and professional colleagues had a mean of 1.2% - Level of obedience obtained: 65% continued to max 450 volts and no subjects stopped before 300 volts. - Subjects realisation of shock effects (How painful to the learner were the last few shocks), mean response was 13.42 out of 14. - Subjects were seen to sweat, tremble, stutter, bite lips, groan. There were nervous laughs but they clearly admitted it was not funny at all. There were actual uncontrollable seizures observed in 3 subjects. On one occasion they had to call a halt to the experiment. Evaluation: - procedure was well standardised and obedience was accurately operationalised as the amount of voltage given - It took part in Yale University, a prestigious university, laboratory looked realistic - There was good control and little variation in experience for each participant as up to 75 volts, confederate would only have grunts of discomfort. At 150 volts, the leaner would shout and say he did not want to continue. At 300, he would refuse to give answers. - The experimenter would also occasionally give prompts and say You must continue or It is essential that you continue. - It lacks ecological validity - Some ethical problems (subjects were decieved, physically hurt and mentally) - Subjects were only American and male Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) - Conformity, SIT Experiment: A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison - page 46 Oxford Revision Book Aim: To demonstrate the situational rather than the dispositional causes of negative behaviour and throught patterns found in prison settings by conducting a prison stimulation with normal subjects playing the roles of guard and prisoner. Method: Subjects - 22 male subjects selected (through personality assessment). Mostly Caucasian, middle class, college students Apparatus - Prison, basement corridor in Stanford University Psychology department, in each prisoner room included covert video and audiotape data recording. Uniforms - role of identification, guards given khaki shirts and trousers, batons and reflecting sunglasses while prisoners wore loose fitting smocks and ID numbers.

Procedure:Observation through covert video and audiotape data recording. Prisoners were arrested by real police outside their houses by surprise under the norm procedures and the guards worked 8 hour shifts and were only given the instructions to maintain a reasonable degree of order within the prison necessary for its effective functioning and a prohibition against the use of physical violence. Findings: Prisoners showed signs of depression, crying, fits of rage and acute anxiety. The experimenters proposed that these reactions were caused by a loss of personal identity, emasculation, dependency and learned helplessness due to the structures of the prison system. Guards showed Pathology of Power - the huge enjoyment of the power at their disposal. Conclusion: They conformed to their roles or were into their roles too much due to the situation and not the dispositional factors (like their own personalities) Ethical: It was unethical as the participants were both mentally and physically hurt. Strengths: Did prove to be true in one case http://www.psychologistworld.com/influence_personality/stanfordprison.php This was about the Abu Ghraib prison abuse where under the authority of American armed forces, they treated prisoners very harshly. (This was during the aftermath of 2003 Iraq war) Weaknesses: There is lack of ecological validity as simulation lacks mundane realism. Ethical guidelines breached: Caused dramatic and disturbing results, such as physical and mental harm Subjects were only debriefed months to years after the experiment There was conformed consent but not enough information Related experiments: Reicher and Haslam Reicher and Haslam (2006) Experiment: Rethinking the psychology of tyranny: The BBC prison study Aim: Provide detailed data on developing interactions between two groups of unequal power and privilege. Develop practical and ethical procedures for conducting important large-scale studies in social psychological research. Analyse conditions under which people will define themselves in therms of and act on group identities and accept or challenge group inequalities. Predictions: Dominant group members (guards) will identify with their group from start and impose power and subordinate group members will only identity and challenge inequality if relations are seen as impermeable and insecure. Method: 15 participants randomly divided into two groups of 5 guards and 10 prisoners. Participants spent 8 days under video and audio surveillance. Prisoners had to wear and dress according to the norm and so did guards. Guards had a better quality in living. Independent variables (4): 1. Amount of power (guard vs. prisoner) 2. Group permeability (before vs. after being told it was no longer possible for prisoners to become guards on day three) 3. Legitimacy (before vs. after being told there were no psychological differences between prisoners and guards to justify their allocation to different groups) - variable was not tested 4. Cognitive alternatives (before vs. after the introduction of a new prisoner who was an experienced trade union official on day five). Dependent variables: 1. Social variables: social identification, awareness of cognitive alternatives, right-wing authoritarianism 2. Organizational variables: compliance with rules 3. Clinical variables: self-efficacy, depression. Quantitative measurement via daily psychometric tests and qualitative behaviour analysis of audio and video recordings Procedure: Participants spent 8 days under constant video surveillance in a controlled environment resembling a prison aimed to create inequalities between groups that were real to

participants. Prisoners shaved heads, basic uniforms, basic food and living conditions in lockable 3-person cells. Guards had better uniforms, food, accommodation and control over keys and resources to use as rewards or punishment. They were shown prison timetable/chores and had complete freedom in how they implemented their responsibility for smooth running of prison (exception of physical violence). Findings: Guards did not internalize their role nor develop an act in terms of a group identity (or negative views of the role). Prisoners wanted to be promoted to the guard group until impermeability was introduced on the third day causing rebellion and the prison system to collapse by the sixth day. A self-governing commune was created but lack of group identity led some participants to favour a more tyrannical new system and authoritarianism scores increased. Conclusion: There was no automatic conformity to group roles nor act tyrannically in groups. Groups helped resist tyranny. Failing, powerless groups however can lead to tyranny. Evaluation: Research on significant social psychology issues can be ethical, the psychologists and ethics committee were able to change or terminate the study. Money (1974) - Case Study of David Reimer (1965-2004) About: A baby boy born in Canada was named David Reimer. Eight months old he was brought in for circumcision. His penis was burned off. Parents brought him to visit John Money and he suggested a simple solution: a sex change. They accepted not knowing that the doctors true intentions were to prove that nurture, not nature, determined gender identity. David turned to Brenda. She acted like a boy having confusing feelings. Then she decided to become David again. Ethical guidelines breached: A lot of deception and uninformed consent, no protection from physical and mental harm, no withdrawal. Evaluation: Money had also ignored the evidence that everything was not as he predicted and chose to believe that his theory of gender neutrality could be applied to all children. Milton Diamond was not convinced examined the role of hormones on the developing fetus. He said that it psychosexual development is not determined by genitalia or upbringing, but rather chromosomes and hormones. Dr. Harry Harlow (1960) - The Well of Despair About: Dr. Harry Harlow conducted on rhesus monkeys concerning social isolation. He took infant monkeys who had already bonded with their mothers in a stainless steel chamber with no contact. They were kept up to one year. Many of the monkeys came out psychotic and many did not recover. He concluded that even a happy normal childhood was no defense against depression. Ethical guidelines breached: There was no consent and the monkeys were forced to separate from other monkeys. There was no protection from mental harm. Little Albert (1920) About: John Watson, used orphans in his experiments. He wanted to test the idea of whether fear was innate or conditioned response.Little Albert was a nickname given to a nine month old infant Watson chose from a hospital was exposed to a white rabbit, white rat, monkey etc... for two months without any conditioning. After the experiment, he started to generalize his fear response (because it was associated to loud noises that scared him) to anything fluffy and/or white. Ethical guidelines breached: Watson engraved mental harm to Little Albert and did not allow him to withdraw from the experiment. Learned Helplessness (1965) About: Mark Seligman and Steve Maier conducted an experiment where three groups of dogs were placed in harnesses. Dogs from group one were released after a certain time with no harm. Group two were paired up and leashed and one from each pair was given electrical shocks. and could ended by pressing a lever. Group three were paired and leashed, one receiving shocks but it didnt end when lever was pressed. Dogs assumed nothing could be done. Group three was then placed in a box by themselves and were shocked. They could escape by jumping out of the box, but they gave up.

Ethical guidelines breached: The dogs were physically and mentally harmed and were not allowed to withdraw. This is animal cruelty by how the researchers abused them. Jones and Harris (1967) Essay of Fidel Castros rule in Cuba... supportive or critical of Castro. Participants were asked to guess attitude of writers to Castro. Half of participants were told that the essayists were free to choose and other is they were forced to write either pro-Castro or anti-Castro. Participants in choice condition assumed essays reflected genuine attitudes... however even in the no choice condition, they still thought the authors were genuine. This proves that although behaviour was severely constrained by situation, observers still opted for internal attribution. Weakness of FAE: Miller discovered that Indian-Hindus took situational factors into account for explaining actions of when someone has done wrong, juxtaposing how FAE applies to Americans. Lee et al. (1977) - Fundamental Attribution Error Aim: See if student participants would make fundamental attribution error, even though they knew that all actors were simply playing a role. Method: Participants were randomly assigned to one of three roles: a game show host, contestants on game show or members of the audience. The game show hosts were instructed to design their own questions. They audience then watched the show through the series of questions. When show was over, observers were asked to rank intelligence of people taken part. Results: They consistently ranked the game show host as most intelligent. They failed to attribute the role to the persons situation, instead attributed the persons performance to dispositional factors. Evaluation: - The sample is problematic, they only made use of student participants - University students spend their days listening to professors, who are seen as authorities who ask questions and give answers and is not a learned response rather than attribution error. - Question... if findings are generalizable. - However it can reflect what we see in everyday life... people with social power usually initiate and control conversations. Medical doctors and teachers are often seen as experts and when they publish something outside their field, their work is rarely challenged. - Miller discovered that Indian-Hindus took situational factors into account for explaining actions of when someone has done wrong, juxtaposing how FAE applies to Americans. Miller and Ross - Cognition factors How if we expect to succeed, and succeed we attribute it to dispositional factors. Expect to succeed, and fail, attribute it to situational factors. Expect to fail and fail, attribute it to dispositional factors. Expect to fail and succeed, attribute it to situational factors. Nisbett et al (1973) Male college students were more likely to attribute their own choices of girlfriend and major study to external facts (e.g. shes a relaxing person, chemistry is high paying). When attributing their friends choices, were more on dispositional factors (e.g. need someone to relax with, want to make a lot of money), without considering their situation. Lau and Russel (1980) - Self-serving bias Found that American football coaches and players tend to credit their wins to internal factors (such as good shape, hard work etc...) and failures to external factors (such as injuries, weather etc...) Kashima and Triandis (1986) - SSB (Self-serving bias) + Modesty bias asked participants to remember details of slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries. When asked to explain their performances, Americans attributed it to their success to ability while Japanese tended to explain their failures in terms of lack of ability. Chandler et al. (1990) observed this bias in Japanese students and Watkins and Regmi

(1990) found the same in Nepalese students. Halim and Chew (2008) Their aim was to compare singapore, Japan and US companies in their performance attributions. Nowadays self-enhancing SSB tendencies exist in all countries due to globalization and rapid communication adopted in Western countries. Cialdini et al. (1976) Demonstrated social comparison with college football supporters. After a successful football match, supporters were more likely seen wearing college insignia and clothing than after defeats. It is assumed that our need for a positive self-concept will result in bias in these intergroup comparisons. Tajfel calls this the establishment of positive distinctiveness. Reicher (1984) Riots in mainly Afro-Carribean area in Bristol 1981. SIT - rioting was the result of local population reasserting their social identity when it was threatened by action of police. Only attacked out-group targets or anyone/thing that represented authority (e.g. banks, local government buildings) but nearby houses, local shops were not. This increases the sense of identity/community pride after riots. Hamilton and Gifford (1976) Experiment - Participants asked to read desirable and undesirable trait adjectives about 2 group members A and B. Group A had twice the number of statements but with an even distribution of desirable and undesirable statements about each group. After people completed group-trait memory and evaluate judgement tasks, results showed participants over-estimated frequency of undesirable behaviours belonging to group B. Bandura et al (1961) - Social Learning Theory Experiment: Bobo doll page 73 Oxford Revision Book Aim: To demonstrate that learning can occur through mere observation of a model and that imitation can occur in the absence of that model. See if children will imitate aggression modeled by the adult identifying with the model with gender Method Subjects - 72 children, 36 boys, 36 girls (aged 37 - 69 months) Procedure: In experimental conditions, children were shown individually into a room containing toys to play in the corner for 10 min after seeing a non-aggressive adult model (male/female) plays quietly in a subdued manner or the aggressive adult distinctively aggressed against a 5 foot inflated bobo doll, also saying verbally aggressive statements. Then the children were then moved individually to another room consisting on aggressive and non aggressive toys, including the bobo doll, left for 20 minutes for observation. Findings: Groups that were exposed to aggression by model, same gender, showed more aggression. Conclusions: Girls were more likely to imitate the verbal aggression and boys were likely to imitate the physical aggression. Ethical: Negative emotions, informed consent from parents, sample size, reasonable, no gender bias Proved SLT - learned to bash a bobo doll (new behaviour) Strengths: P.A., can explain media influences P.A. Can also explain the influences of coercive home environments .. Parents solve arguments through aggression (Patterson et al, 89) Well- controlled, can be confident of cause and effect relationship Reliable, can & has been repeated, same results have been found Has much supporting evidence e.g. Eron et al (72) Weaknesses: Oversimplified in reality models arent clearly rewarded or punished for aggressive behaviour

Bandura didnt distinguish between pretend play & real aggression Findings could be due to demand characteristics b/c the doll was designed to be hit Confounding variable = familiarity children unfamiliar with doll were 5x more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour, compared with those that had played with one before Ethics Huesmann and Eron (1986) longitudinal study discovered a positive correlation between number of hours of violent television watched and their levels of aggression as teenagers. Those who watched a lot of television violence when they were 8 years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults. Sherman (1980) Called residents in Indiana (USA) and asked them if hypothetically they were to volunteer to spend 3 hours collecting for the American Cancer Society. Three days later a second experimenter called the same people and actually requested help for this organization. Those responding to the earlier request was 31%, this was much higher than the 4% of the group of people who volunteered to help when approached directly. Cialdini (1978) Asked students if they would participate in a psychology experiment that started at 7 am. Most refused. In an experimental condition, Cialdini asked people if they would participate in a psychology experiment but were not told the time and most people agreed. They were later told that it started at 7 am and were given a chance to drop out if they wanted. On the day, 95% turned up as promised for the 7 am appointment. Festinger and Carlsmith (1957) - Cognitive dissonance http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html Aim: Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) investigated if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behaviour. Method: In their laboratory experiment, they used 71 male students as participants to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a waiting participant (a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the confederate that the boring experiment would be fun. Results: When the participants were asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie. Conclusion: Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance. Cialdiini (1975) Asked people if they would escort a group of young delinquents to the zoo. Most refused to go. (Control condition) Then another similar group were approached and were asked to spend 2 hours per week as a peer counsellor to the young delinquents for 2 years. Again most said no. However, in experimental condition people were asked to be peer counsellors then the request was downgraded to escort them to the zoo (target request) and 50% agreed to the request. Jenness (1932) - simplistic experiment where... subjects were asked to estimate the number of beans in a bottle individually, then as a group. When asked individually again, subjects tended to shift their answers more towards the

groups estimate than their own. Sherif (1935) - Subjects were asked to estimate how far a spot of light in a completely dark room has moved. (The light in fact did not move at all, only due to autokinetic effect illusion caused by eye movements did people think the light moved) When placed in a group, their estimates converged to a central mean, despite not being told to arrive at a group estimate and denying they had been influenced. Crutchfield (1954) - Without physical presence, he placed subjects in individual cubicles with electronic display boards which supposedly let each subject know what the others had answered. However each were believed to be the last to answer and presented them with uniformly wrong group answers on half the tasks. He tests over 600 subjects using various stimuli. Aschs line comparison test - 30% conformity 46% conformity that a picture of a star had a larger surface area than a circle (when it was 1/3 smaller) 37% agreement to the statement I doubt that I would make a good leader which none agreed to when asked on their own. Plus point: - Gave an insight to conformity Criticisms of conformity: Artificiality - Above studies used well controlled and standardised procedures but reflected conformity under laboratory conditions, meaningless stimuli It is not etic as this type of conformity was true for USA in the 1950s but it may differ over time and for different cultures Ethics - subjects were deceived Perrin and Spenser They carried out an exact replication of the original Asch experiment using engineering, math, chemistry students as subjects. Results were clear cut that only one out of 396 trials did an observer join the erroneous majority. They argue that cultural change has taken place in the value placed on conformity and obedience and in the position of students. One problem in comparing studies is that very different types of participants were used. Science and engineering students who might be expected to be more independent by training when it come to making perceptual judgements. Allen and Levine (1975) Variation of Aschs experiment - he introduced a dissenting confederate wearing thick-rimmed glasses - thus suggesting he was slightly visually impaired. Even with this seemingly incompetent dissenter conformity dropped from 97% to 64%. With the presence on an ally decreases conformity. Moscovici and Lage (1976) Involved 4 participants and 2 confederates. Minority of two confederates described a bluegreen colour as green. Minority was able to influence about 32% of participants to make at least one incorrect judgement about colour of slides shown. In addition, participants continued to give incorrect responses even after 2 confederates had left experiment. Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch paradigm. The studies were carried out in the following 17 countries: USA, Canada, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Portugal, Japan, Hong Kong, Fijiu, Zimbabwe, Congo (Zaire), Ghana, Brazil, Kuwait and Lebanon. The meta-analysis showed that more conformity was obtained in collectivistic countries like the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong and Brazil than in individualistic countries like the USA, the UK or France. Bond and Smiths findings are consistent with the way the individualism/collectivism dimension was portrayed earlier. Members of collectivistic countries value conformity because it promotes supportive group relationships and reduces conflicts (Punetha et al., 1987). Tali Sharot (2001) - studying the part of the brain responsible for flashbulb memory,

using the fMRI Based from the attack of 9/11 24 witnesses of the scene from different locations in manhattan The people in downtown (closer to the attack) has a longer and more in-depth recall. surprisingly, a major cortex (parahippocampa, major part of the brain which is involved with recall) was used less than usual when they recalled flashbulb memories Personal involvement is critical in producing flashbulb memories, therefore the distance between the attack and the person at that time will affect the amount of detail encoded into the person. The closer they are, the more longer and more in-depth they can recall the situation Found out that the amygdala was involved when subjects were recalling the 9/11 attack They asked them to recall the events during 9/11 and the told them to recall their personal summer holiday. The impact of 9/11 activated the amygdala more than their personal vacation (with more detail recalled for 9/11). Frederic Bartlett (1932) - Schema Theory Experiment: Memory and recollection Aim: Prove that memory is reconstructive and schemas influence recall. Demonstrate role of culture in schema processing. Method Serial production, where one person reproduces the original story, a second person reproduce the first reproduction and so on. This is meant to duplicate process by how rumours and gossips are spread, or legends passed through generations. Procedure: Bartlett used a Native American legend called the War of the Ghosts and asked participants to read through story twice. None of participants knew the aim/purpose of experiment. After 15 minutes, Bartlett asked participants to reproduce story from memory. He asked them to reproduce the story a couple times more and he noticed each participants memory of an experience changed with each reproduction. Findings: People from western cultures found it difficult to reproduce because of its unfamiliar style and content. Story became shorter. Story remained a coherent story no matter how distorted it was compared to the original. Bartlett said people interpreted the story as a whole, both when listening and retelling. Story became more conventional and retained only details that could be assimilated to shared past experience and cultural background of participants. Conclusions: People reconstruct the past by trying to fit it into existing schemas. More complex the story, the more likely elements are forgotten/distorted. People try to find a familiar pattern in experiences, past or new. Memory - according to Bartlett - is an imaginative reconstruction of experience. Ethical: He did not give the details to the aim of experiment, but it is acceptable as no one was harmed. Strengths: Much evidence of theory: Bartlett (1932) and work of Loftus on eyewitness testimony Theory can be tested experimentally Weaknesses: Bartletts story did not make sense so participants may have altered it because of demand characteristics Theory describes memory as reconstructive but does not deal with the processes Related experiments: Wynn & Logie Similar study to Bartletts War of the Ghosts using real life events experienced during their first week at university at various intervals of time ranging from 2 weeks to 6 months. They found initial accuracy of recall was sustained throughout the time period, suggesting schema-induced memory distortions may be less common in naturalistic conditions that laboratory. Gauld & Stephen Found instructions stressing need for accurate recall eliminated almost half errors usually obtained in Bartletts War of the Ghosts.

Anderson and Pichert (1978) Experiment: Based on reconstructive memory - retrieval Aim: Investigate if schema processing influences both encoding and retrieval Method Experimental where participants were given one schema at encoding stage and another at retrieval stage to see if it were influenced by the last schema when they had to recall the information. Procedure: Participants were to hear a story about two boys who decided to stay away from school one day, instead they went to the home of one of them because the house was always empty on Thursdays. The house was described as being isolated and located in an attractive neighbourhood, but also having a leaky roof and a damp basement. The story also mentioned various objects in the house like 10-speed bike, colour TV and a rare coin collection. Participants heard a story that was based on 72 points. These had previously been rated by a group of people for their importance to either a potential house-buyer (e.g. leaking roof, attractive grounds) or a burglar (e.g. coin collection, nobody home on Thursdays). Half of the participants were asked to read the story from the point of view of a house-buyer (the buyer schema) and half from point of view of burglar schema). Once participants had read the story, they performed a distracting task for 12 minutes before their recall was tested. Then there was another 5-minute delay in the experiment. Half of the participants were given a different schema, so that those who used burglar schema in first trial were switched to buyer schema vice versa. Other half of participants were asked to retain original schema and their recall was tested again. Findings: Participants in changed schema group recalled 7% more points on second recall test compared to first trial. Recall of points that were directly linked to new schema increased by 10%, whereas recall of points that were important to previous schema declined. The group which continued with first schema actually remember fewer ideas at second trial. Conclusions: Schema processing must have some effect at retrieval as well as encoding, as new schema could only have influenced recall at retrieval stage. People also encoded information irrelevant to their prevailing schema since those who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when schema was changed and vice versa. Ethical: He did not give the details to the aim of experiment, but it is acceptable as no one was harmed. Strengths: Experiment was highly controlled and conducted in a laboratory Variable control, enabled researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship on how schemas affect different memory processes. Weaknesses: Lacked ecological validity Reading ability Milner & Scoville (HM) Henry Gustzv Molaison An American memory disorder patient who was widely studied from late 1957 until his death suffered from intractable epilepsy due to a bicycle accident at 9 suffered from partial seizures for many years, and then several tonic-clonic seizures at 16 HM at 27, had a neurosurgeon, Scoville localized HMs epilepsy to his left and right medical temporal lobes (HM lost approximately two-thirds of his hippocampus parahippocampal gyrus and amygdala After the surgery, his epilepsy got controlled, but he suffered from severe anterograde amnesia (although his working memory and procedural memory were intact, he could not commit new events to LTM) Unable to recall people and magazines he has read Prevalent in acetylcholine - from hippocampus, but this had failed. Discovered that the cortex and hippocampus is connected and years in first grade would not be fully consolidated until first year in sophomore. His emotional memories were still intact because at the mention of the death of his favourite uncle, he felt distressed. Effects of memory:

- He cant remember people he has met or what he has done. He had anterograde amnesia... the inability to store memories after the operation - He is unable to retain any new information, could not convert short term memory to long term. - Retrograde amnesia, had no memory until after 11 years later, he could remember. - It was found that the cortex and hippocampus had been connected for years - Years in first grade would not be fully consolidated until first year in sophomore. - Brain development - if at early age - would not be able to store much - Memory can be stored in different areas of the brain but hippocampus is the main area. - Researchers could use MRI scanners in 1997, so it became clear exactly which areas were affected by the operation. Damages include the hippocampus, the amygdala and other areas close to hippocampus. - However, he could remember some fragments of his past e.g. mentioning his uncles death caused him distress and grief Shallice & Warrington (KF) He suffered brain damage as a result of a motor bike accident. his LTM was fine Forgetting auditory letters and digits was much greater than forgetting visual stimuli. he can only remember 2 digit numbers this shows that there are more than 1 store for STM Evaluation of the multi-store model as a weakness - only part of his short-term memory is affected. There is not just one short-term memory... supports working model. Schachter & Singers (1962, 1970) - Two-factor theory of emotion Experiment: Two-Factor Theory (which suggests that emotion comes from a combination of a state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense of the situation the person is in. It argues that when people become aroused they look for cues as to why they feel the way the do.) Aim: To test the the two-factor theory of emotion. These three propositions (or hypotheses) were devised: 1. If a person experiences a state of arousal for which they have no immediate explanation, they will describe their emotions in terms of the cognitions available to them at the time. 2. If a person experiences a state of arousal for which they have an appropriate explanation (e.g. I feel this way because I have just received an injection of adrenalin) then they will be unlikely to describe their emotions in terms of the alternative cognitions available. 3. If a person is put in a situation, which in the past could have made them feel an emotion, they will react emotionally or experience emotions only if they are in a state of physiological arousal. Method 184 male college students took part. Procedure: The participant is taken to a private room by the experimenter and is told the aim of the experiment is to look at the effects of vitamin injections on visual skills and asked if he would mind having an injection of (made up name). 184/195 agreed. They were given an injection by a doctor of either adrenalin or placebo (with no side effects). The effects were increase in blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level, respiration rate, and blood flow to the muscles and brain with decrease in blood flow to skin. There were tremors, flushing and faster breathing. The effects begin after 3 minutes and last from 10 minutes to an hour. They were then put into one of the four experimental conditions: 1. Adrenalin ignorant - participants with adrenalin were not told of the effects 2. Adrenalin informed - participants given adrenalin injection warned of side effects and they were prepared for the effects although they thought it was the (made up name) vitamin drug. 3. Adrenalin misinformed - participants given adrenalin injection and told to expect side effects but were told it would be numb feet and headache. These participants would therefore not be expecting effects of adrenalin. 4. Control group - Placebo - participants were given an injection with no effect and no

instructions of what to expect. They were then allocated to either euphoria condition or anger condition. Euphoria situation - An assistant in a waiting room carried out silly tasks to entertain participant. Anger situation - Assistant in waiting room designed to annoy participant. Researchers made observational measures of emotional response through a one-way mirror and took self-report measures from participants. Findings: In euphoria condition, misinformed participants were feeling happier than all others. Second happiest was ignorant group. Participants were more susceptible to assistant as they had no explanation of why their bodies felt as they did. Informed group felt least happy as they understood why they felt that way. In anger condition, ignorant group felt angriest. Second angriest was placebo group. Least angry group was those who were informed. This shows participants were more susceptible to the assistant as they had no explanation of why their body felt as it did. *susceptible - liable to be influenced or harmed. Conclusions: Schachter and Singer argue their findings support their two-factor theory of emotion. The two-factor theory of emotions states that the physiological arousal in different emotion is entirely the same and we label our arousal according to the cognitions we have available. Ethical: Discomfort to those who were in the ignorant group for anger condition. Strengths: It supported the three propositions. Weaknesses: It was measured rather rudimentary - by only pulse rate. Replication failures - Mezzacappa et al. 1999 Related experiments: Rizenzein, 1983 Marshall and Zimbardo, 1979 Mezzacappa et al. 1999 Clive Wearing Who was he? - Highly respected musician, who in his 40s contracted a viral infection in 1985. - His disease left him with extensive brain damage (parts of his temporal lobes) - He did NOT suffer from Alzheimer's disease. - He is unable to form memories of new information... anterograde amnesia, unable to form new long term memories, also suffers from retrograde amnesia - MRI scanning show damage to the hippocampus and some of frontal regions. - Episodic memory and some of his semantic memory are lost. - He can still play piano, conduct music and remember his wife - He still has his implicit memory including his emotional memory for his wife. Brown & Peterson (1958) Aim: Test duration of STM and not the hypothesis that information not rehearsed is lost rapidly from short-term memory Method: Lab experiment Procedure: On each trial, participants were presented with a trigram consisting of three consonants (e.g. BVM, CTG), which they new they would be asked to recall in the correct order. Recall was required after a delay of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. Participants counted backwards in threes from a random 3-digit number (e.g. 866, 862, 860 etc.) between initial presentation of the trigram and the time when they were asked to recall it. This was done to prevent rehearsal of trigram as rehearsal would have improved performance by keeping information in STM. Results: rapid increase in forgetting STM as the time delay increased. After 3 seconds 80%

of the trigrams were recalled, 6 seconds 50% recall, 18 seconds less than 10% recall. Thus there was rapid rate of forgetting and little information remained in STM for more than 18 seconds. Conclusion: Findings suggest strongly that information held in STM is lost rapidly when there is little or no opportunity to rehearse it. Thus information in STM lasts no longer than 18 seconds. Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) Aim: Test primacy-recency effect Method: Lab experiment Procedure: In free recall experiment participants are given 20 words in succession to remember and asked to recall them in any order (free recall) Results: Results reliably fall into a pattern known as the serial position curve. Curve consists of primacy effect where participants tend to recall first words of list and recency effect where participants recall items at end of the list. Words in the middle are least likely to be recalled as they are in process of being transferred form STM to LTM. Conclusion: Suggests early words in list had been transferred to LTM, whilst those late in list were still in STM. Recency effect disappears if recall of list was delayed by 30 seconds as later words are no longer in the STM. Provides evidence for multi-store model of memory. Craik & Tulving Aim: Test levels of processing theory of memory Method: Lab experiment Procedure: Participants presented with words and were asked one of four different types of questions about each word. - Whether it was in capital letters (presenting visual/shallow processing) - if it rhymed with another word (phonetic/intermediate processing) - if word fitted into a sentence (semantic/deep processing) After answering yes or no to the questions participants had to recall. Results: Agreed with LOP and claimed that semantic processing leads to better recall Conclusion: Memory is improved by deeper processing. Hyde & Jenkins Aim: Test whether incidental learning at depth is as effective as intentional learning. Method: Lab experiment Procedure: Presented four groups of participants with same list of nouns and asking each group to perform a different activity with the list. Group 1: Participants were asked to rate a list of words for pleasantness Group 2: Estimate their frequency of usage Group 3: Count the e and g Group 4: Memorize the words Participants were not told that there will be a memory test (incidental learning). Results: Retention was found to be 51% higher when semantic tasks were given (In group 1 and 2 than 3) Scores in first 2 groups were similar to those in 4. Conclusion: Incidental learners recall as well as intentional learners, which suggests that it is the nature of processing that determines recall. Brown & Kulik Tested their Flashbulb memory hypothesis by asking 80 participants what they were doing when they heard President Kennedys assassination. They found that all but one person recalled quite well what they were doing. Relevance or emotional significance is very important and would increase the likelihood of being stored as a FBM. They also found that 75% of black people were able to recall the assassination of Martin Luther King, while 33% of white people could do the same. Shoemaker & Cohen (2006)

Media analysis of the most popular news coverage in US/GER/ASIA Sport takes up 19% US 13% GER and 4.5% Asia of time. Less coverage of sport in Asia means Asians get less exposure to these cultural events and therefore when there is a flashbulb memory to be formed, it is more likely that this FBM would be formed in Americans. It also depends what is broadcasted on TV and the demand of the viewers, meaning the preference of the majority will influence everyone else. Rime et al. 20% of Koreans never shared their emotional experiences compared to only 5% in the US. Schmolck et al. OJ Simpson trial... Asked students how they heard of the verdict of OJ Simpson 3 days after event then 15-32 months after. 15 months were fairly close and only 11% inaccuracies. 32 months after, only 29% of people recalled details accurately. This questions the whole existence of flashbulb memories. Cohen et al. 1994 (Margaret Thatcher) Aim: To prove flashbulb memory Procedure: Young and older adults were asked to recall details about what they learned from Margaret Thatchers resignation in 1991. They were questioned 2 weeks after the event and again 11 months later. Findings: 90% of young adults and 42% of older adults remembered accurately and met the true criteria of the flashbulb memory. No/little decline in memory. Confounding variables: Key differences were the level of importance attached to the event. There are factors such as the interest in politics that may alter the way we remember. Neisser and Harsch (1992) - Space shuttle challenger Memory What happened: The Challenger exploded seconds after launch and seven astronauts on board were all killed. It was tragic and shocking. The day after the accident, researchers asked their introductory psychology class to fill in a questionnaire regarding the situation they were in when they first heard about the accident. Three years later, they asked the same subjects to fill in the same questionnaire again and were also asked to rate how confident they were with their accuracy of recalling the event. Results Neisser and Harsch found that only 3 of 44 students had perfect recall 11 students (25%) had completely inaccurate memories The rest had a mix of accurate and inaccurate information in their recall The students with false memories were very confident that they remembered correctly

Wright - Hillsborough Football Tragedy occurred on 15 April 1989 at Hillsborough, a football stadium where 96 Liverpool supporters were crushed to death resulting in the deaths of 96 people, and 766 being injured remains the deadliest stadium-related disaster in British history and one of the worst ever international football accidents. Aim: To study flashbulb memory Procedure: Interviewed people about their recall of events related to the Hillborough football disaster where 96 Liverpool supporters were crushed to death after 5 months Result: most people didn't show strong flashbulbs, but vague memories Conclusion: Most people reconstructed their memories blending new experiences with accounts by other people and things they had read about

Loftus - dodgy questions Aim: If participants could be influenced by misleading questions to remember false details of a film. Procedure: 150 student participants were shown a piece of film of a car being involved in a crash. They were presented with 10 questions about the film. 9 of them were given to all participants but one differed. In one condition, participants received question How fast was the white car going when it passed the barn?. There was no barn. In control condition, they were asked How fast was the car going while travelling along the country road? - no misleading information. One week later the participants were given a further 10 questions about the film and one of them was Did you see a barn?. Findings: Participants in misleading condition were more likely to respond a week later saying they had seen a barn: 17% reported seeing a barn as opposed to less than 3% of control group. Extra: IV - whether questions contained a misleading question, whereas control condition did not. DV - Accuracy of participants memories of event. Limitations - Experiment takes place in artificial surroundings and participants know they are taking a psychological study and may not behave naturally. Tasks given in laboratory are different in which we use memory in real life. We question the ecological validity of this experiment. Loftus & Palmer (1974) - Eyewitness testimony Aim: Demonstrating effect of questions on accuracy of recall Procedure: Participants were shown footage of a car crash and were asked How fast were the cars going when they smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted? These different verbs imply different speeds, which affected the participants recall. Results: Smashed - 41 mph. contacted - 32 mph. One week later they asked Did you see any broken glass? and 32% of smashed group reported seeing it. 14% of hit group and 12% of control group said they saw a broken glass. There was in fact no broken glass in the film. Loftus & Pickrell (1995) - False memory Aim: Attempt to implant fake memories Procedure: 24 adult participants had their background checked by relatives. Researchers made a booklet for each participant from their relatives containing short stories about 3 real life events from each participant and a false story about being lost in a shopping mall at age of 5 years. They were then asked to write what they remembered about the events in the booklet. Results: 7 of the 24 remembered the false event and sometimes in vivid detail. Loftus and others suggested that false memories are generated during therapy in much the same way as they may unintentionally provide post-event information in their questioning of patients. Dutton & Aron Aim: Test the two-factor theory of emotion. Procedure: Participants (men) were to cross 1 of 2 bridges: a stable without reason to worry and wobbly bridge with danger. After crossing the bridge, they were asked by an experimenter if they were willing to answer some questions. Experimenter was either female or male for half participants. After questions, they were shown a picture of a woman covering her face with her hand and were instructed to invent a story to this (image had no obvious sexual content). At end, experimenter offered his/her phone number so if respondent can all in for results if interested. DV: 1. No. of respondents who accepted the phone no. 2. How many respondents called 3. Sexual imagery score for story. Results: Arousal from crossing wobbly bridge was attributed to attraction of female experimenter. It was only possible that risk-seeking men that caused attraction. These men may be prone to sexual adventures therefore more frequently than men who crossed stable bridge. More people accepted phone number for female and called. Higher sexual imagery for female

condition.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) - neurotransmitters, learning, memory, acetylcholine Experiment: Role of neurotransmitters in learning and memory Aim: Determining the role of neurotransmitter acetylcholine on memory. Acetylcholine - supposed to play a role in memory formation Method: Rats were trained to go through a maze to get to the end, and as a result of that receive food. Procedure: When the rats are trained to get through the maze, one group were injected with scopolamine (drug), which blocks acetylcholine receptor sites decreasing acetylcholine. The second group of rats were injected with physostigmine (prevents clean up of acetylcholine), blocking the production of cholinesterase. Cholinesterase does the clean-up of acetylcholine from synapse and returns the neuron to its resting state. The third group (control group) were not given any injections. Findings: Rats injected with scopolamine were slower at finding their way in the maze and made the most errors among the three groups. The physostigmine group ran through the maze and found the food more quicker and took fewer wrong turns. Conclusions: Acetylcholine plays an important role in creating memory of the maze. Ethical: Damage to the rats Strengths: Design and application - use of experimental method with a control group made it possible to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between levels of acetylcholine and memory Weaknesses: Questionable to what extent these findings can be generalized to humans. Archer (2005) Research review concluded that testosterone levels have a low but positive correlation with levels of aggression in humans, but higher with measures of dominance. Gur et al. (1995) Found more active metabolism in primitive brain centers controlling violence in men than in women by using a PET scan. Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness Sperry (1968) Aim: To show the behavioural and psychological effects when the brain is split into two by severing the corpus collosum. This is to prove that each side of the brain has different functions. Method: Participants are patients who had epilepsy until they have undergone an operation by severing the corpus collosum. Design: Natural experiment Procedure: Since each hemisphere receives information from the opposite side of the body, if images are presented visually, they would have to be presented at a duration of 1 tenth of a second so that the eye does not have enough time to refocus and therefore is sent to the opposite hemisphere. If tactile objects are presented, the information received by touch from one hand would be sent to the opposite hemisphere. Results The results show that the separate hemispheres have different functions and abilities. If a visual is shown to the right eye, received in the left hemisphere, the person would be able to use speech to say what it is. However, if it was done in reverse, the person would not be able to say what the image is and can only be identified through pointing. This is when the visual is presented one at a time. When visuals are presented both at once, the person can name what the image was if it was received through the left hemisphere, however, as for the right hemisphere, the only way to know is to draw the image out with the left hand. Tactile stimuli - If information is received in the left eye and the person is needed to pick up

the object, he would grab the correct one without knowing why. If its the right eye, he would be able to pick out the object and know why he did so. Evaluation methodological validity - being a natural experiment, lack of control over variables. Theoretical - Research has revealed many differences. Findings appear most in right-handed men. It must keep in mind that the left and right hemispheres share many functions that are highly integrated. Applications: Implications for helping those with brain damage. Kasamatsu & Hirai (1999) Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brain. Procedure: Researchers studied a group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72-hour pilgrimage to a holy mountain in Japan. On the mountain, monks did not consume food or water and did not speak. They were exposed to the cold, late autumn weather. After 48 hours, they began having hallucinations, often seeing ancestors or feeling a presence by their sides. Researchers took blood samples before and after monks went to the mountain. Findings: They found serotonin levels increased in monks brains. Higher levels were activated in hypothalamus and the frontal cortex resulting in hallucinations. Rosenthal (1987) Evidence that higher levels of melatonin contribute to seasonal affective disorder. SAD. Siffres cave study Spent 6 months in a cave underground which effectively removed external zeitgebers like light levels and human activity patterns. No time cues were given via his telephone contact with outside world and artificial lights were switched on when he woke and off when he slept. Under these natural conditions, his natural body rhythms lengthened to 25 hours so when he left the cave he experienced fewer days than everyone else. Czeisler et al. (1982) Studied a group of industrial workers who followed a shift pattern and their suggestion that they moved clockwise in shifts (phase delay schedule) on a three week rather than one week basis for better work health and morale, as well as higher productivity levels. As when there is a mismatch between body rhythms of arousal and zeitgebers of activity levels or delay in catching up of body rhythms by shortening the day or not allowed for adjustment time for body rhythms, this increases chances of accidents due to human error. Lisa Mosconi (2005) Aim: Find earliest signs of Alzheimers disease in brain which affects memory. Method: Using technology (PET scan) Procedure: 53 normal healthy people were placed through a PET scan. Their metaboli, c rate in the brain was measured. After 9 to 24 years, she checked if they were diagnosed with Alzheimers disease. Results: Correlation between reduced metabolic rate in hippocampus and those who eventually developed Alzheimers disease. Technology can pick initial stages of deterioration in memory accurately. Evaluation: Weakness --> Cannot measure how Alzheimers may be affected by genes and inheritance. De Bellis et al. (2000) Aim: To find if there are sex and age differences in brain development during childhood and adolescence by investigating 3 areas of the brain to find volume of those areas changed over time. Method: Using MRI scan. Results: Volume of grey matter decreased volume of white matter and corpus callosum increased with age. Sex differences --> females showed less change compared to males. Hietala (1995) Presynaptic dopamine function - measured by uptake of flurodopa (used for PET radioactive compound), was observed by a PET scan for 7 schizophrenic patients and 8 healthy people

(whom were the control). Findings: The fluorodopa influx constant increased in schizophrenic patients. Conclusion: Alterations in presynaptic dopamine function make people more inclined to have schizophrenia. Dabbs et al. Aim: Testosterone levels has correlation with aggression. Method: Testosterone levels in saliva of 692 male adult prisoners were measured. Results: Inmates who committed more crimes of sex and violence had a higher level of testosterone level compared to those who were in jail for property crimes or drug abuse. Baddeley et al. Aim: to prove the existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Method: Participants were given visual tasks to track a moving light with a pointer. At the same time they were either asked to describe the angles on the letter F (first task) or perform a verbal task (second task). Findings: Those who did the first task found it challenging, while it was less harder in the second task because it involved a different component or slave system. Raine et al. (1997) He studied murderers (for those who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity) using PET scan. Findings should generalise category to murder. Evaluation - advantage: To an extent there is ecological validity as they could have been nervous, which affected their brain functioning. Texas Adoption Project (Horne 1983) Data was collected from a private adoption agency in Texas. Agency gave IQ tests to unmarried mothers of some 469 children who were adopted after birth by 300 adoptive families. IQs of adoptive mothers were also available. Findings: Correlation of adopted childrens IQ with biological mothers IQ was 0.28 and with their adoptive mothers IQ 0.15. (weak correlation) There is some genetic contribution but the difference between it is very small. Horne also studied adopted children of two groups of biological mothers with widely different IQ scores. Those with IQs above 120 and those below 95. When tested in middle childhood, the average IQ of children of biological mothers with lower IQs was 102, but the average IQ of the children of the high-IQ biological mothers was 118. This study shows both environment and heredity contribute substantially to IQ. There is 80% variation in childrens IQ scores to be accounted for by individual environmental experiences outside the shared home, like school. - assumption that biological and adoptive fathers contributed similarity... are they really? +ve - studies can be longitudinal - Adoption studies are natural experiments, they can never completely control environmental effects, e.g. separated twins may be placed in similar adoptive families and still shared womb environment.... - environmental factors may not be different Allows researchers to compare IQ correlations of children with both biological and adoptive parents Intelligence can be changed and the environment has its own influences.

Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al. 1990)

- longitudinal study since 1979 - MZAs (identical twins raised apart) compared with MZTs (identical twins raised together) - most cross-cultural study to date Each twin completed approximately 50 hours of testing and interviews. Concordance rates of intelligence: Same person tested twice 87% Identical twins reared together 86% Identical twins reared apart 76% Fraternal twins reared together 55% Biological siblings reared together 47% Bouchard et al. determined a heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetic inheritance. 30% of intelligence may be attributed to other factors. Advantage: mean age of MZAs was 41 years old (at start of study) - until this point, almost all intelligence research on twins was carried out with adolescents Criticisms - Bouchard relied too much on media coverage to recruit participants - Some ethical concerns about how he reunited the twins - No adequate control to establish frequency of contact between twins prior to study - cannot assume twins raised together experienced the same environment equal environment assumption Most of the intelligence can be attributed to genetic inheritance while the environment does play a subtle role. Haynes and Feinleib (1980) What they looked at: Compared working women whom have been working for over half their adult years to housewives and men. Findings: Working women who had children were more likely to develop coronary heart disease (CHD) and increased in likelihood with the number of children. Whereas CHD had decreased with more children for housewives. Marmot et al. (1997) Findings: Civil service clerical and office support employees on lowest grades were four times more likely to suffer from heart attacks than those of senior grades. He identified that the lower levels of control caused greater stress as the most influencing factor. Cohen et al. 1993 Participants who contracted cold virus experienced more colds if they have higher levels of stress within the past year. Waterhouse et al. showed us that the effects of jet lag on the circadian rhythm can differ due to different variables Objective: To identify some determinants of jet lag and its symptoms Subjects: - 85 (54 men) subjects - mean age: 32.1 yrs old - 51 athletes, 18 coaches and 16 academics from UK attending a conference in Australia - Subjects differed very widely in: - age - sex - flexibility of sleeping habits - fitness

- time of arrival in Australia - whether or not they had previous experience of travel to Australia Procedure: GENERAL - Subjects travelled from UK to Australia on two flights with a one hour stopover in Singapore - the flights were 24 hours in total, including stopover - Subjects were studied during the flights and for the first 6 days in Australia - variables in subjects were compared to see how these variables effect the extent of jet lag that they experience BEFORE DEPARTURE - personal data was collected - they were also asked to record details about the flight they were about to board - 1/3 of subjects left UK at local evening time, and arrived at Australia in the early morning (0600 local time) - this group was called group 0 - the rest of the subjects left UK in the morning and arrived in Australia in the late afternoon - this group was called group 1 - Fitness was determined from a questionnaire, and took into account the age of the subject - A score between 1 and 5 (most fit) was awarded - Chronotype was determined by questionnaire - results show that 7 subjects were morning type, 1 was evening type, and the rest were intermediate type - Languidness/vigorousness and flexibility/rigidity of habits were determined by questionnaire DATA COLLECTION DURING FLIGHT - subjects were free to choose how they spend their time on the flight - Some were required to keep a record of the amount of time they spent asleep, both before and after the stopover - 32 subjects from group 0 and 25 subjects from group 1 participated in this - subjects who left at night and arrived in the morning were advised against having a full sleep (anchor sleep will synchronize rhythms) DATA COLLECTION AFTER ARRIVAL IN AUSTRALIA - Data was collected for the first 6 days in Australia, arrival as the first day - Data responses were answers to questionnaires on jet lag and its symptoms - subjects were asked to fill in a questionnaire about jet lag, using a visual analogue scale - there were questions about: - the amount of jet lag - the amount of fatigue - time of getting to sleep, the ease of sleeping, ease of staying asleep, time of waking up, alertness 30 min after rising Before the journey, subjects were shown the questionnaire so they could become familiar with its contents. Specific advise regarding the meaning of jet lag was not given. RESULTS - measurements made in Australia showed that symptoms of jet lag decreased over time - men showed a slight tendency to sleep later and record less fatigue - this may be due to the presentation of a "macho" image - however this cannot be certain - old subjects showed less jet lag and fatigue, particularly in the middle of the day and just before retiring - this argues against that younger subjects are more flexible in their sleeping habits - it supports that older subjects can pace themselves better - however the younger subjects in this experiment tended to be athletes, and they may be more sensitive to ill effects because of the interference with their training

- those who had not traveled to Australia before showed less jet lag and fatigue, and went to sleep later on the first three nights - excitement associated with a long journey keeping them up and overpowering the negative symptoms - Subjects who arrived in Australia later in the afternoon (group 1) went to sleep later on the first two nights after arrival, and reported less jet lag and fatigue - this was despite having slept less on the plane (group 0 slept twice as much as group 1 on the plane) - these results show that the amount of sleep on the plane is not critical to severity of jet lag Conclusion: Waterhouse et als experiment showed us the different variables that plays into the severity of jet lag.

Block and Davidson noticed a surprising number of elderly rats died when daily cycle of light followed by darkness was altered so that light came six hours earlier. Aim: To examine if there is a link between the daily cycle and the death of rats. Method: 3 groups of mice. Each group contained 9 young male mice and 30 old male mice. Group 1 (control): Normal daily cycle of 12 hours of light followed by 12 hours of darkness. Group 2: 12 hours of light delayed by 6 hours once a week (replicating jetag experienced after traveling west) Group 3: 12 hours of light advanced by 6 hours once a week, mimicking eastbound travel. Experiment lasted for 8 weeks. Results: Young mice of 3 groups fared relatively well, just one died. Group 1: 17% of elderly rats died Group 2: 32% died Group 3: 53% died They repeated the experiment but either delayed or advanced the light part of the cycle every four days and in both groups, the mice perished more easily, especially the 'eastbound' mice (group whose light cycle had been brought forward). Researchers investigated anxiety levels of mice by measuring a stress hormone called corticosterone in their faeces. Level remained consistent among elderly mice in all three groups. Therefore mice did not die because they became stressed, but by the changes to their body clocks. past research indicates that circadian clock governs physiological rhythms in many parts of the body. Le Deux Aim: Investigate the role of the amygdala Sample: Mice Method: Mice were exposed to mild shocks, conditioned response, sound of tone and the rats freeze Then their amygdala was cut out. Results: When pathway to amygdala was cut, they were observed to have no fear to sound.