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Environmental Management
1) The Earth, its rocks and minerals
Structure of the Earth Core: it divides into the solid (or inner) core and the molten (or outer) core. Temperatures can reach more than 4000oC. The core is formed by metals: iron and nickel. Mantle: it is a thick shell of molten rock. From here magma reaches the surface during volcanic eruptions. Crust: it floats on the mantle, and forms the surface layer. It is the most important one for people, as it lets farming take place and as it is a supply of rocks, minerals, metals, energy between others. The crust is made up of mobile tectonic plates. In many places it is unstable. Type of rock Rocks that form the crust can be divided according to how they were formed. Igneous rocks: they are formed when lava cools down. E.g. granite, basalt Sedimentary rocks: they are made of sediments, small particles of rock broken off from others. They are commonly found in large lowland areas. E.g. sandstone, clay, limestone Metamorphic rocks: they have been changed by heat (volcanoes) and pressure (earthquakes) in the crust. E.g. limestone => marble, clay => slate Distribution, types and reserves of major minerals Mineral: a substance obtained by mining. Some are very abundant, others very scarce. Ore: the rock that contains a mineral. Classification of minerals and examples of types of minerals Ferrous Iron Copper, Tin Metallic minerals Non-ferrous minerals Lead, Bauxite Precious metals Gold, Silver Minerals used for industry Sulphur, Salt Potash, Minerals used for farming Phosphates Non-metallic Minerals used for energy minerals Oil, Coal supplies Diamonds, Precious gemstones Emeralds Minerals are usually found in: Areas of very old igneous rocks Areas of young fold mountains (great Earth movements) 1

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Non-metallic minerals are more widely distributed because they can be found in many different types of rocks and geological formations. Mineral reserves Reserve: a known source of the mineral, which has not yet been mined. Life expectancy of a mineral: the number of years reserves are expected to last at present rates of use (amount of reserves / amount used every year). Common minerals will last for hundreds of years, but many others are expected to run out more quickly. Known reserves are being used up quicker than new deposits are being found. Methods of search and extraction of rocks and minerals Opencast mining: 1. Vegetation is cleared, top soil is removed 2. Explosives are used to loosen rock 3. Loose rock is removed by diggers 4. The rock or mineral is loaded into trucks 5. (Remove rock from mineral) Deep mining: 1. Sink a vertical shaft down 2. Make a horizontal tunnel 3. Extract minerals by digging 4. Bring the loose rock from the mine and pile it up on waste heaps on the surface 5. Transport minerals away in trucks or trains Adit mining: it is not industrial, the oldest way of mining and used for exploiting precious metals. It is made on hillsides or mountainsides. Mountain top mining: a mine on the top of a mountain, which is removed and flattened.

Impacts of exploiting minerals and environmental conservation

Impacts of mining on environments Opencast and deep mining both lead to surface piles of waste, which look unsightly and spoil the scenic beauty of the area. After heavy rain, they can become unstable and flow down slopes, destroying everything. Building of roads can lead to clearance of forests, resulting in the loss of wildlife habitats. Also drilling rights for oil and gas have disturbed wildlife. Dust and fumes from chimneys cause air pollution. Rivers and streams are polluted by water flowing through old mine workings. Aquatic wildlife and vegetation is killed. Opencast mining leaves huge holes on landscapes, and are widened and deepened. It is difficult to preserve environments, because companies want to make profit and miners are more concerned in their safety. Impacts of mining on people Deep mining and its bad impacts Miners have to work in narrow spaces, deep underground, in wet, dirty and dusty conditions. Most of the miners suffer injuries. The air supply underground is poor 2

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and there is a lot of dust, which can cause breathing and chest problems. Many miners die young from diseases. Opencast mining and its bad impacts People living in surrounding settlements are badly affected by noise, air and visual pollution. Noise comes mainly from explosions; air is dusty and dirty; and scenery is destroyed and wildlife is driven out of the area. Mining and its positive impacts Mining benefits the economy and people from a country. Exporting minerals is very profitable. Mining is better paid than farming and other unskilled works. It often takes place in areas where there are few other ways of making a living. How supply and demand affects mining Supply: the amount of a resource that is known to exist Demand: the amount that people need to use Factor 1 2 Geological Depletion rate Chances of mineral exploitation High Chance Simple geology Easy to use machines Low chance Difficult geology Impossible to use machines Only small reserves are left

Large deposits and plentiful reserves remain Climate is easy to work in, no Climate Extreme climates extremes of weather Close to places where many In remote places far away Location people live and industries from people and economic Transport using minerals are already activities, roads and railways located, networks of roads and are needed to be built railways High prices encourage more Price fluctuations Low prices reduce output production Economic consequences of overexploitation of mineral resources Some mineral resources, as coal, gas and oil, are being used up by the present generation faster than they are being formed. Once finished, future generations will need to find alternative resources, which are likely to be more expensive to obtain. Countries that depend on mineral exportation will no longer have the money to buy goods and services. The prices of manufactured goods could increase worldwide. Conservation of environments damaged by mining As soon work stops, the most convenient action for a mining company to do would be to fill in the hole and replace the top soil. It usually happens where the mine is small and where the company is forced to abide by strict planning rules. Landscaping: trees, grasses and shelter belts can be planted Restoration: the land is restored to what it was like before Reclamation: the land has been reclaimed from mining to be used for farming Landfilling: old quarries and large holes are convenient places for disposal of waste, which is cheap and an easy way to get rid of it 3

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Disposal of waste in landfill sites need to be managed carefully, because it may produce: a) Land Contamination dangerous substances are dumped b) Water Pollution contaminated substances leak into the ground and are carried by filtration into ground water supplies and rivers c) Health Hazards from rodents, flies, bad odours One way to manage landfill sites is to make alternating layers of compacted refuse and soil. This is known as sanitary landfilling.