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THE GOLDEN BOOK OF

CheJmistry Experi:nnents
How to Set Up a Home Laboratory-
Over 200 Simple Experiments
BY ROBERT BRENT
ILLUSTRATED BY HARRY LAZARUS
GOLDEN PRESS ~ EW YORK
Acid: a hydrugen.-eontaining conlpound
that release;; hydrugen ions in solution.
Alloy: a mat erial made up 0)' combining
two or more metals.
Analy.!!is: breaking down a compound
into two or more substances.
Anhydrous: free Crum water.
Atom: the small est unit of an clement
that can enler into the making of a
chemi cal compound.
Atomic .... ei1;ht: the weigbt of an alom
compared with the weight of an o:..)'gen
IItom set at 16.
Base: a compound containing the hy-
droxide group ( OH) .
Cataly.; t: a substance that helps in a
chemical reaction ..... itJloul i tself being
chllngcd.
Chemical changc: II change of a sub-
stance into another substance baving
different properties.
Chemistry: II branch of science dealing
with the comprn;itions of substances and
the changes that can be made in them.
Combustion: burning; a chemi cal
change that produces beat and light.
Compouud: a substance consisting of
two or more dilTerent kinds of IItom;; in
definite proportions br weight..
Crystal: a solid in wl,ich IItoms or mole-
cules are arrnnged in n definite pllttcrn.
Density: the weight of a liquid or a
solid in grams per cm
l
or miUiliter.
Distillate: a liquid I1ll1t hil S been turned
into Yllpor and again cooled into a1iquid.
Distillation: the process of producing
a distillate.
DII,:tile: capable of being drawn oul into
a wire.
Electrolysis: breaking down a substo.noo
by passing an electric current through it.
Electrolyte: a substance that, when in
a solution or when melted, will conduct
an eleetrie current.
Elemcnt: a substance lhat contains onl y
one kind of atoms.
Equation: a complete description of a
chemi cal reaction by the usc of s ymbols,
formulas, and signs.
E"aporalion: the changing of a sull-
stance ioto \apor; also the process of re-
moving wal er by heating.
Filtrate: a liquid obtained by filtrntion.
Filtration: the process of straining a
liquid from II solid through porous mllte-
rial , usually filter paper.
Forlllula: a group oC symbols o.nd num-
bers giving the compo;; ition of a com-
pound.
Hydrate: a compound containing loosely
bound water of hydration (wat er of
crystallization) that cnn be driven off
by heating.
Hydroxide: a compound that contains
lhe h ydrox)'1 ( OH) radicaL
Jon: an el cctri call) charged atom or
group of a toms ( radi cal ).
Malleahle: capable of being hammered
or roll ed into a thin sheet.
Matter: anything thllt takcs up space
and has weight.
Melal: an element thot is a good con-
ductor of electricity, has luster. and
whose o:..ide forms a base with watcr.
_Metalloid: an element that has proper-
ti{!iI of both metals and nonlll ctais.
Mixtllre: a mingling of substances not.
combined cbemicall y.
Molecular .... eight: the sum of the
atomic weights of the aloms thaI make
up a molecule oC a compound.
Molcculc: the s lllall est unit of a com-
pound that CliO e:..i st in the free s tate.
Ncutralization: the reaclion of lin acid
and a base to gil'e a snit and water.
Nonmctal: an element that is a poor
conductor of electricit.y, does not hll\e
luster, and whose oxide forms an IIcid
when combined with water.
2
Organic chcmistry: the chemi stry of
the carbon compounds.
Oxidation: the process by which a sub-
stance combines with oxygen.
Peccil)itat", an insoluble solid ronned
in II soluti on by chemical reaction.
Radical: a group of at oms that behave
chemically a s a single atom.
Reaction: II chemical change.
Reduction: remol'al of oxygen ; til e op-
posit e of oxiilation.
Salt: compound (other than water )
formed by the reaction of an acid and
a hasc.
Saturated solution: a :solution tha t
contains the maximum amount of solute
under the conditions.
Solubility: the number of grams oC a
solute needed to make a sa turated s0-
lution in 100 g rnms of soh-ent.
Solute: the substance di ssoh-ed in a
sohent.
Solution: a non-settling mixture of a
solute in a soh- ent.
Soh'ent: a liquid in whi ch a solute is
di ssolvcd.
Suhlimation' a IlfOCes;; by which II sol-
id is (limed int o l'apor and again cooled
into a solid without pa.ss.ing through a
liquid stage.
a slllall numeral indi cating
the numher of atoms of a certain clement
in the formula of a compound.
Suhstance: any specific kind of ma tter
whether el ement , compound, or mixture.
S)"I11hol: a letter or two lett ers repre-
senting one alom of an cl ement.
Synthesis: the making up of a com-
pound from simpler compounds or from
elements; tbe opposite of anal ysis.
Valcncc: the number of h)' drogcn atoms
which one atom of an el ement con dis-
place or with whi ch it can unite.
copper
o
tin
WHAT CHEMISTRY IS
WORDS USED BY C HE.m STS 2
THE hlPORTANCE OF CHEmSTRY. . . . "
CUEillSTS OF TIlE P ... ST ....... . . ... . ... 6
YOUR HOME LABORATORY
EQUlP;\lEi\1 FOR CIlElllSTRY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SETII1\"G UP YOUR H OME LABORATORy .. ...... 10
M ... KING ApP.\nATUS FOR EXPIUMENTS....... 12
ScIEl"TIFI C M E."-SUREllEi"iTS .......... . ....... 14
CORRECT L.rnORATORY TECHNIQUES .......... 16
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
F,rn.AD.-\Y'S CANDLE.... ........ ....... 18
You - SCIEi\IISTI ....... . ... . ....... .. .. .
ELEllE.t ..... S, CmIPOUNDS, Ai\"D i\lLxTUnES . .
WATER AND GASES
20
22
WATER-OUR i\IOST COlIPOU!'i D .. . 2l
OXYGfu"i" - THE BRE.n " OF L IFE . ......... ... 26
liYDROGEN - LIGHTEST OF ALL ............... 28
CARDON DlOXIDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
N ImOGEN AND ITs COllPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . .. 32
C HLOIUNE-FRIEND AI.,,\"]) FOE .. .......... .. 3-1
FORMULAS
CHElIIC.U S n Ol\TIIA.t'm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
THE PERIODIC T ABLE OF THE 38
ACIDS, BASES, Ai" D SALTS
TilE i\ [ YSTERIES OF SOLUTIOl'iS ............. . -10
WORKING WITH ACIDs ......... ....... ....... 42
WOIUill\"G WITH B.-\SES . ....... ...... . .. ..... 43
S.UTS - CHElllC.U.5 OF i\ IA.NY USES. .. . . . . . 46
N ONi\lETALS
100IN- V IOLET on ..... ......... .. 48
SULFun AND ITs CO;\IPomm s ....... . ......... 50
S ILI CON - TUE You STEP 0;"; . . . . . .. 5 4
BORON-FUTURE ROCKET-POWER ELElt E1\"T? . 56
3
Fe
.METALS
SoDIUM AND POT.-\SSIUM ... ... ........ ... .... 58
CALCIIDI - FOR BUILDI;";G . .......... ..... .... 60
LET' S CO;\PARE Two METALS ................ 62
ALUML."\"'lrn-IN AOUNDAI.'"CE ..... ....... ..... 6-1
- METAL OF i\lAl .... y COLORS .. .... 66
WE LIVE I N .\.N ACE OF Ino1\" ............... .. 68
COPPEll - YESTERDAY, TOD.\."\" ........ .. 70
SILVER - ONE OF THE "NOBLE" i\ l ET.u .5 ..... 72
MORE ABOUT
VALENCES .u,"D FOIUrt/L..-\S . ... ............. . .. i4
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CAlmo",' - ELllE;";T ct' .\. i\ lILLlON CQ)IPOUNDS. 76
THE C II EYl STRY OF C AROO::" COllPOUNDS ....... 78
TilE FORillJLA.S Of" CARBON CmlPouNDS ....... 80
A LOT OF H YDn OC.uIBONS .................... 82
CARBOHYDR.\.TES - SWEET .-\ND BLAI.,"O . .. 8-1
i\lA1lo:,' Knms OF ALConOLS ... .............. .. 88
C .-\ RBOXYLIC A CIDs ........ . . . . . ... .... . . . ... 90
FATS AND OILS FOR EiXERGY .. . ........ ... ... . 92
SOAP A!'iD SOAP i\lAK.L,"G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9-1
PROTEI1\"S-TlIE BODY-BuJl.DI!'ic FOODS .... ... 96
COLLOIDAL DISPERSIONS ..... ............ ... 100
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL FIBERS .......... ... 102
PLASTICS - A MODERN GUNT . .... .......... 104-
CHEMICAL MATHEMATICS
WORKL,"G OUT CUE;\IIC.U. EQUATIONS .. . . ..... . 106
THE FUTURE OF CHEMISTRY
WHAT'S AlIE.-\D l!'i .. .. ..... . . 109
WHEnE TO GET CITElIIC.U.5 AKD EQUlPllEfli T .. . llO
COlDIOl'O CHEltlCALS AI.,"D T HEIIl FOR.\ru L:\ s ..... 111
I NDEX .................................. 112
EVERY HOME KITCHEN IS A CHEMICAL LABORATORY. ::.
COOKING AND CLEANING ARE CHEMICAL PROCESSeS.
The Illlportance of Chemistry
THERE IS HARDLY n boy or a girl alive who is not
keenly interested in finding out about things. And
that's exactly what chemistry is: FINDING OUT
ABOUT - finding out what things are
made of aod what changes they undergo.
'What Any thing! Eyery thingl
Take a look around )' ou. All the things you sce-
and lots of things you can' t see - haye to do with
the science of chemistry.
Let's start wilh yourself. The air you breathe is
a mh:ture of chemical substances and the process of
breathing is a chemical reaction. The foods ) ' OU eat.
are all chemical products and the ways III which
your body turns them into muscles aod bones and
nen' es and hrain cell s arc some of the greatest of all
chemical mysteries.
The clothes you wear, the books you read, t.he
medicine you take, the house in which you li ye-
all these arc products of chemistry. So is the fami ly
car - the metal in it, the rubber on which it rolls,
the gas thut moves it.
Nature itself is a tremendous chemical laboratory.
Everything in nature is forc\er passing through
chemical changcs. Here 00 ear th, plants and animals

INSeO SPRAYS MEAN
HEALTHIER LIVESTOCK.
CHEMISTRY PROVIDES FUEL FOR
ALL KINOS OF TRANSPORTATION.
4
-
grow, die. and decay; rocks crack and crumble under
the influence of air and water. In the uni verse, new
stars are formed, others fade. The sun that gives us
heat and light and energy is a flaming furnace of
chemical processes that will eventually burn itself
out, billions of years from now.
Chemistry is one of the most important of all sci-
ences for human welfare.
Chemistry means the difference between poverty
and starvation and the abundant life. The proper
use of chemistry makes it possible for farmers to feed
the world's over-increasing population, for engineers
to develop new means of transportation and com
munication that will bring the peoples of the world
closer together, for doctors to cure the diseases of
mankind, for manufacturers to produce the thou
sands of items tbat are necessary for better and
richer living.
And t.hi s is only the beginning.
Within recent years, scientists have succeeded in
penetrating into the innermost secrets of chemical
substances and have begun to make usc of the tre-
mendous force that li es hidden in them. This atomic
power opens up amazing possibilities for the future.
You will live in a world in which chemistry will
become ever more important. To understand that
world it is necessary to understand the truths and
laws on which modern chemistlJ' is based and to learn
how chemists of the past unravelcd them.
This book will help you get this insight - not
alone by your reading it . but also by )'our conscien-
tiously doing the experiments descri bed and learning
what e a c ~ of them has to tell you.
PAPER AND PRINTERS'
INK ARE MADE WITH
HelP OF CHEMISTRY.
--. . -
OIL IS THE BASIS fOR COUNTlESS CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
ATOMIC ENERGY FOR
THE FUTURE
UNITED STATES IS THE WORLD'S
LEADING PRODUCER Of STEEL
o
o
sublimate
~
c a p p ~
SYMBOLS USED BY ALCHEMISTS
Chemists of the P ast
MANY THOUS,...."!) -years ago, an early ancestor of
yours pushed a sti ck into the hot lava flowing from
an erupting "olcano. The stick burst into fire. He
held it up as a torch. It gave off li ght and heat and
finally turned into ashes.
This ancient man mi ght be considered the world's
first chemist. He had actuall y taken a substance
called wood and had, by a chemical process called
combustion or burning, turned it into something else.
The discover y of the use of fire was the first great
step leading toward modern chemistry. Fire D'ade it
possible to turn raw foodstuffs into edible meals, to
bake shaped clay into pottery, to make glass, to
drive metals out of their ores.
For thousands of years people were chiefl y inter-
ested in the results of what they did - they didn' t
BRONZEAGE MAN WAS ONE
OF THE EARLIEST CHEMISTS.
DEMOCRlTUS INSI STED THAT
MAnER CONSISTS OF ATOMS.
6
care about what happened or why it happened. It
was only about 2,500 years ago that philosophers
began to wonder about what things were made of
and what happened when a thing changed into some-
thing else.
Around 400 B. C. , in Greece. a thinker by the name
of Empedocles came up with an idea that seemed t o
make sense. He explained that eyer)' lhing in the
world was made from just four things which he
called " elements": fire. water, air, and earth. Think
of that burning stick mentioned above. It ga\'e off
fire-so, obviously, the stick had to contain fire.
It sizzled - which meant tbere was water in it. It
smoked - and smoke would be some kind of air. It
left ashes -and ashes are earth, as certainl y every-
one should know.
Everyone - cxcept anothcr Grcek, Dcmocritus,
born around the time when Empedocles di ed. He
had a different notion - that all matter was made
up of tiny particles which he called alomos - some-
thing that cannot be cut further.
But Democritus didn't gct very far with his idea.
The greatest Greek philosopher of the day. Aristotle,
held out for the four elements. And because of his
great reputation this false idea governed the thinking
of scientists for two thousand yea rs- because no
one dared suggest that he knew better than the great
Aristotlel
PARAcnsus TOLD HIS PU
PIlS TO USE EXPERIMENTS.
BOYlE INVESTIGATED GASES
AND BROKE OLD TRADITIONS.
In the meantjme, scientists of Arabia began work
in a subject they called alchemy - from Arabic af,
the, and kimia, pouring together. They mixed thi ngs
and boiled and distilled and extracted in the hope,
some day, of finding a way of making GOLD! They
discovered a great. number of things not. previously
known, developed many sound laboratory methods,
aod gave the science of chemistry its name - but.
they never created the sli ghtest speck of gold. Nei-
ther did a great number of European alchemists.
For hundreds of )' cars chemistry made little head-
way. Then, in 1525. a Swiss doctor and scientist
spoke up. He had the imposing name of Theophras-
lus Bombastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim. He chal-
lenged his students to tear up their books wi th the
old theories that had heen developed through reason-
ing onl y and t o find out for themselves throllg" ex-
perimenls whether a scientific t heory was right or
wrong. But. onl )' a few people paid attention to him.
More than a hundred )'ears passed before an Eng-
lishman, Robert Boyle, in 1661, succeeded in killing
off the old idea o[ the fOur elements. He did it. by
establishing that. there are many elements - suh-
stances t hat cannot. be formed by other substances
and cannot. be broken into oliler substances.
Another hundred years went by. Then, at. the time
of the American Revolution, the day finall y dawned
for modern chemistry.
PRIESTlEY USED HEAT OF
SUN TO PRODUCE OXYGEN.
LAVOISIER GAVE THE RIGHT
EXPLANATION OF BURNING.
7
A Swede, Karl Scheele, and an Englishman, Joseph
Priestley, discovered oxygen, and a Frenchman, An-
toine Laurent Lavoisier, explained the true nature
of burning and made up the fi rst. scicntific listing of
all knmvn elements - twenty-eight. at the time.
'Within a few years, more elements were found.
With the help of electricit.y, an English chemist,
Humphry Da,')' . in a single year brought to light
six new metals - among them sodium, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium.
Twenty years later, in 1828, another importa nt
break-through occurred. A German chemist. Fried-
rich WoWer, working in his laboratory produced a
chemical, llrea. that had never before been made
outside the body of a li ving animal.
More and more things were bappening. New ele-
ments were discovered, new chemicals created. The
advances in chemist ry greatl y influenced industry,
agriculture and medicine.
And then, in 1898, the Polish-born l\ larie Curie
and her French husband, Pierre, discovered the "mir-
acle element," radium. This opened up a whole new
age in chemistry.
Within the last. fifty years, chemistry has moved
forward ""ith giant steps. But not a single one of
these steps would have been possible without. t he
dedicated work of the chemists of the past who laid
the foundation on which modern chemistry rests.
DAVY BROUGHr ElECTRICITY
INTO CHEMICAL RESEARCH.
MARIE CURIE AND HER HUS-
BAND DISCOVERED RADIUM.
utility clamp
ring support
support
sland
REGULAR LABORATORY WARE
Flarence
flask
- ........
evaporating
dish
clay-stem Iriangle
8

/
beakers
,
,
lor
,
,
t:
,
.
,r---...
graduated
drying tube
filter -----'-
----
/I
7
'"
..... atch
glass
..... ire gauze with
asbeslos cenler

funnel
SO.ll. of the greatest. discoveries in chemistry were
made by scientists who had no special equipment
but simply used whatevcr was at hand.
In your home lab experiments it. will pay you
t o follow the example of these early chemists . Put.
your imagination to work. Use whatever suitable
equipmellt. you can fi nd around the house (as sug-
gested in column to the ri ght) and buy onl y what is
absolutcly necessary (as shown below). Some items
may be purchased in a local drugstore or scientific
suppl y shop. If not, you can buy them from one of
t.he suppliers list ed on page 110.
Later on - if you reall y get excited about. chem-
istry - ) ' OU may want to use your pocket money for
some of the lab equipment shown on page 8.
LABORATORY WARE FOR HOME LAB
red and
blue
litmus
paper
wide-mouth
bottle, 4 OI.
test tubes, Pyrex
16mmx150mm
rubber stoppers
numbers 00 10 6
triangular file
medicine

rubber tubing
inside diameter
9
IMPROVISED EQUIPMENT FOR HOME LAB
screwlop can
- mayonnaise r::- ::9'
1 pint


1/
lostic p
funnel
d
-
wire
stands made
of clothes
hanger wire
water
glass

s-'2
I ,
' 1\
': '
.,
J/
- ---

olive jar
--------.
2 OI.
custard cup
ink bottle
alcohol burner
IN A REGULAR LAB,
EVERYTHING HAS ITS
PLACE AND IS NEAR
AT HAND. AIM TO
KEEP YOUR OWN LAB
AS WELL ORGANIZED.
ettU.llg Up Your HOIlle L aboratory
BOX TO HOlD HOME
LAB CAN BE MADE
FROM PLYWOOD. KEEP
BOX LOCKED WHEN
NOT IN USE AS A PRO-
TECTION FOR YOUNG-
ER CHILDREN.
wastepaper
baskel
waste
10
IT IS possible that you may be permitted to work
at the kitchen t a ble when t his is not in usc. But it
is far better if you have a place where -you will not.
be dist urbed and where -you can st ore )our equip-
ment - a corner in your room, or in the basement
or t he garage.
T hese are the things you' D need in your lab:
Work Table. An old, st urdy tabl e will do. Cover
it with a plasti c top t o prot ect the wood.
Water Supply. If -you have a faucet nearby,
fine. Other wise. make a siphon bott le (page ll).
\Vaste Dis posal. If -you can dump your waste
directl y into the kitchen dra in (NOT into the sink),
you are all ri ght. If not , collect it in a pl asti c pail
to he thrown out when you're fini shed.
Source of Heal. In the r eguJar laboratory, spe-
cial gas burners are used. In the home lab, you can
use a burner for dena tured mcohol. Have a shallow
met al pan under the burner for fire safety.
Storage. If there's no one around to disturb your
chemicals and equipment, an open shelf is OK.
Otherwise, use a box that can be locked up.
Containers. Keep chemicals in glass j ars and
bottl es. LABEL THEM ALL CLEARLY.
Stands . l\ lake your own t est t ube stand as well
as stands for holding glassware for heating.
If YOU DO NOT
HAVE RUNNING
WATER IN YOUR
LAB, MAKE SIPHON
fROM A l-GAllON
BOTTLE. START
SIPHON BY BLOW
ING THROUGH
l-SHAPED GLASS
TUBE. SPRING
CLOTHES PIN
REGULATES
WATER flOW.

MAKE AN ALCOHOl BURNER fROM INK
BOTTLE, THERMOS BOTTLE CORK, AND LIP
STICK CONTAINER. BUY WICK AT A HARD-
WARE STORE.
3"
STRIP Of THIN CARDBOARD MAKES I
AN ADEQUATE TEST TUBE HOlDER. IF
YOU LIKE, YOU CAN MAKE A HOlDER
FROM CLOTHES HANGER WIRE AS
SHOWN HERE.
t
4"
t
,
,
,
8"

A

y,
,
_--.1
""\
YOU CAN MAKE A SIMPLE TEST TUBE
STAND FROM A SALT BOX. CUT our
SIDE AND USE CUT-OUT SEOION TO
KEEP TEST TUBES LINED UP STRAIGHT.
=

.
=
r-O
=
REGULAR LAB STAND fOR
TEST TUBES CAN BE PRO-
DUCED FROM STRIPS OF
JA-INCH WOOD. FOllOW
PATIERNS BElOW TO MAKE
TWO SIDES AND THREE
HORIZONTAL PIECES. DRILL
HOLES. ASSEMBLE WITH
THIN TACKS.

F-

=
:0-
=
=
-:
r-=
'"
moke 2 of these-cut
one olong dotted line
7%"
c {0. __ ___ __ g ___ __ __ .. .
Atlf v,0:Y'O 0 0 0 0 +1
1+-- 3
1
12"
11
USE A PAIR Of PLIERS FOR MAKING
THESE STANDS FROM CLOTHES HANGER
WIRE. ALSO MAKE THE FUNNel STAND
IllUSTRATED ON PAGE 9.
t
5'12"
6"
t-...
I
No. 5
7 om
E
v

FIRST DECIDE ON
APPARATUS YOU
WILL NEED. THEN
fiGURE OUT SIZES
OF PARTS. THESE
ARE THE PARTS
fOR THE SAFETY
GAS GENERATOR
ON PAGE 29.
---+1
. " I

I "' aec
i i
,
!
E
v

E
v
..,
:
I
i1
9 om
Making A pparatus for Experiments
MOST of your chemical experiments )'OU will perfonn
ill test tubes and jars. But. occasionall y you will need
an apparatus - a devi ce consisting of bottles and
stoppers, glass and rubber tubing,
A good chemist. takes pride in his apparatus. He
makes it with great care - not. just. for looks but ,
more important, for safet.y. An apparat us that leaks
flammabl e gas can be very dangerous.
Before )'ou start t o put. an apparatus together,
make a simple drawing of it so that ),Oll will know
what. it. wi ll consist. or. Then get out the Yarious parts
you will need to put it together.
To make an appnratus, you need to know how to
15 mm 17 mm 19 mm 20 mm
= =
= co
No. 00 No. 0 No. I No. 2
10 mm
13 mm 14 mm
16 mm
THESE ARE THE ACTUAL SIZES OF RUBBER STOPPERS. BY
MEASURING THEM AGAINST YOUR LAB WARE YOU Will
cut a glass tube, how to bend it. and how to draw
it t o a jet point. See page 13.
It. is wi se to usc glass tubes of one diameter onl y,
wi th rubber tubing to fit. Glass t ubes of an oufside
di ameter of 6 millimeters lit snugly into the holes in
the usual rubber stoppers. Rubber t ubing of an ill-
side diameter of ;(6' fits oyer the 6mm glass tubes.
To determine the right. size stoppers to use in t he
bottles of appara tus, measure the mouths of
the bollies against the stoppers shown below in
actual size. Order stoppers by number. Keep a selec-
tion of different sizes on hand.
12
Folluw thl' !<afl' lr prl'comtions on 16 .
24 mm 26 mm
27 mm
= =
No. 3 No. -4 No.5
"- )
18 mm
" ./
20 I1Jm 23 mm
KNOW WHICH TO ORDER. No. 0 FITS THE 16 mm TEST
TUBE. No. S FITS 40Z. WIDE.MOUT'1 BOTItE.
CUTTING GLASS TUBES
---. '."
use triangular file
,
thumbs under mark
.
. ':',

push thumbs away from you
MAKE SINGLE SCRATCH WITH fiLE- DO NOT " SAW."
HOLD TUSE WITH SOTH HANDS, THUMSS SElOW MARK.
SNAP TUBE INTO TWO PIECES WITH A QUICK JERK.
BENDING GLASS TUBES
" H : ~ ~ E T H : ~ : ~ ~ ~ ( t
WHERE YOU WANT TO
BEND IT, FOR ABOUT
TWO INCHES, BY ROll
ING AND MOVING
THE TUBE BACK
AND FORTH .
WHEN GLASS IS
"S'OfT, REMOVE fROM
fLAME. SEND QUICK. "'>,.
lY, HOlD UNTIL THE
GLASS HARDENS.
bend quickly
13
FIR! GLAZING
CUT EDGES
,
ROUND THE ROUGH EDGES OF CUT
TUBE BY ROTATING IN flAME. THIS
IS CAllED " fiRE GLAZING,"
MAKING JET POINT
<- -4

heat for about 1 '12 inches
fire glaze lip
~ -. ,
~ - -
1 HEAT SECTION Of TUBE EVENLY WHERE YOU WANT
FORM JET POINT, BY ROlliNG IT IN THE flAME.
2 WHEN SOfT, PUll SLOWLY, CUT APART WHEN HARD.
POOR BEND
POOR SEND
r
100 hal here
100 hot her:;
IF HEATED TOO
MUCH, THE TUBE
WilL FLATTEN
OR " SUCKLE,"
METRIC UNITS OF LENGTH
1000 meters (m) == 1 kilometer (km)
1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters (mm)
1 meter 1m) == 39.37 inches
2.540 centimeters (em) = 1 inch
cubic centimeter
cm'=lcc=
milliliter =
ml
_ c.:: .
"" , ,0 ,
0 '
. - ,
Making a Model
of a Cubic
Centimeter
BonOM LINE OF FIGURE
TO THE RIGHT IS 1 DECI.
METER (1 dmJ OR 10 CEN-
TIMETERS (10 em) OR 100
MILLIMETERS (100 mm).
FRONT SURFACE OF FIGURE
IS 1 SQUARE DECIMETER (I
dm'l OR 100 SQUARE CEN
TIMETERS (100 em').
----
Scientiffic MeaSurelllents
I N SCIENCE, the metric system is preferred over our usual sys-
tem. It is much easier to work with when once -you have learned
it- for instead of dividing or multiplying by 12 or 32 or 16
to go from one unit to the next, ) ' OU simply move the decimal
point. Just remember these two things:
1. That the names of the basic units are meter for lengths,
liter for volumes, grams for weights - abbreviated to m, I,
and g (without a period after them).
2. That 1000 of a kind are called kilo; 100, hekto; 10, deca ;
1/ 10 is called deci ; 1/ 100, cent!; 1/ 1000. milli.
METRIC UNITS OF VOLUME
liter (I) == 1000 cubic centimeters
(em' or cc)
titer (I) == 1000 milliliters (mll
tiler II) == 1.06 quarts (liquid)
METRIC UNITS OF WEIGHT
1000 grams (g) == 1 kilogram (kg)
1 gram (g) == 1000 milligrams (mg)
1 gram (9) == 0.035 ounces avoirdu-
pois
0.946 liter (I) == 1 quorl {liquid)
28.350 grams (g) = 1 ounce avoir-
dupois
././
./
1/
1/ VOlUME OF WHOlE fiGURE
IS I CUBIC DECIMETER (I
dm') OR 1000 CUBIC CEN.
TlMETERS (1000 cm' OR
1000 cc) OR 1000 Milli_
lITERS (1000 ml) OR 1 lITER
(1 I). I I WATER WEtGHS
I KILOGRAM (1 kg).
1 cubic decimeter = 1 liler = 1000 cubic cenlimelerl = 1000 millilileu
! l'IIIIII:IIIII >l III! III III InrI!! I II I I J I II "!r ".1 I ',m,! , I
' I I I I , I I I I I I ' 1' 1 I I I 1'1 I I I 1' 1'1 Ij
1. 2 .3 _
centimeter
ruler
inch
ruler
I
MAKING A HAND BALANCE
Ii>
MAKE THE TWO PANS FOR
THE HAND BALANCE fROM
TOP AND BOnOM Of A
fROZENJUICE CAN OPEN
CAN AT SIDE. CUT THE
PANS WITH TIN SNIPS.
string
,;
o
USE PAITERN BelOW
TO MAKE BEAM WITH
TONGUE ATTACHED.
CUT CAREFULLY WITH
TIN SNIPS. FOLD BEAM
LENGTHWISE. PUNCH
HOlES WITH NAIl.
FOR MANY EX-
PERIMENTS YOU
NEED TO WEIGH
CHEMICALS. FOR
THIS, MAKE A
HAND BALANCE.

=- 2.5g
YOU CAN USE COINS TO
WEIGH 2.5 g, 5 g, 7 .S g, 10 g,
ETC. FOR SMAllER WEIGHTS,
CUT A TIN STRIP TO WEIGH THE
SAME AS A NICKEl. THEN CUT
IT IN FOUR 1 9 AND TWO .5 g
WEIGHTS.
'10
o
o
o

ASSEMBLE BALANCE
AS SHOWN . IF
BEAM DOES NOT
BALANCE HORI-
ZONTAllY, PUT
SMALL " RIDER" CUT
fROM TI N CAN
OVER ONE ARM Of
THE BEAM.
rider
QicKEQ ::
5 9
1 9
lID
MAKING A GRADUATE
A GRADUATE IS USED FOR
MEASURING LIQUIDS.
YOUR 6" TEST TUBE HOLDS
22 ml. YOU CAN USE IT FOR
ROUGH MEASUREMENTS:
TUBE NOT QUITE FULL IS 20
ml, NOT QUITE HALf FUll 10
ml. FOR SMAllER AMOUNTS.
COPY THE RULER TO THE
RIGHT AND A IT ACH IT TO
THE SIDE OF A TEST TUBE
WITH SCOTCH TAPE FOR
MEASURING ml's .
pallern far bar and 0 tangue for hand balance
o
o
pallern for support for hand balance
Scotch
tape

8
7
6
5
3
2
read at bottom
of hollow
!called miniscus)
o
o
o
/' poper clip
.r---1PC---"''---.... COPY THE PATTERNS ABOVE
R S ON TO A PI EC E 0 f PAP ER . TRANSFER DESIGNS TO PIECE
Of TIN CAN. CUT OUT AND
BEND AS SHOWN TO THE LEFT.
15
SET OUT All THE
EQUIPMENT AND THE
CHEMICALS YOU NEED.
PLACE USED EQUIPMENT TO THE
STOE FOR CLEANING WHEN EXPERI -
MENT IS COMPLETED.
a FOllOW
INSTRUCTIONS
IN PERFORMING
THE EXPERIMENT.
-- !..
~ -
L A READ INSTRUCTIONS
,r:. ~ R E F U L L Y BEFORE START-
l iNG EXPERIMENT. ~
'd'd ll =
Correct Laboratory Techniques
I N YOUR home laboratory, t hree considerations arc
of Lhe greatest imporLa nce: SAFETY, NE..\TNESS,
and EXACTNESS.
SAFETY - All the experiments in this book are
safe when done in the eOt'fccL laboratory way as
shown on these pages.
Trent chemicals wilh respect. Never taste any
thing unless specificall y told to do so. If there are
younger children in tbe famil y, lock up your chem
icals when you are noL working with them.
Protect your c10tbes wiLh a plastic apron.
Bc careful wilh fire. When you use your alcohol
burner, have a metal pan under it. for safeLy.
PLAY SAFE WHEN YOU PUT A GLASS TUBE IN A STOPPER.
PROTECT YOUR HANDS BY WRAPPING TOWEL AROUND
THEM. MOISTEN GLASS TUBE AND STOPPER WITH WATER,
THEN PUSH THE TUBE INTO THE STOPPER WITH A SCREW_
DRIVER MOTION.
16
NEATNESS - Get. the habit. of lining up equip-
ment. and chemicals you need on one side and placing
used items on the opposite side - keeping lhe space
bet ween thelll clear for your experimellts.
Put. chemicals away and clean glassware as soon
as you have finished an experiment.
EXACTNE-SS - Label all bollies and jars con-
taining chemicals clearl y and correctl y.
Where amounts of chemicals are noL given, use
the smallesL amount that will tell you what you want
to know.
Observe the chemical reactions carefull y and make
complete notes of them as you go along.
j
-- ----. H
,
WHEN YOU MAKE AN APPARATUS FOR A CHEMICAL EX-
PERIMENT. MAKE SURE THAT ALL CONNECTIONS ARE AIR-
TIGHT. USE THE RIGHT SIZE STOPPER FOR MOUTH OF
CONTAINER, GLASS TUBES THAT FIT SNUGLY INTO THE
STOPPER HOlES, AND TI GHT-FiniNG RUBBER TUBING.
MAKE IT A HABIT
TO READ A lABEl
TWICE TO BE SURE
YOU HAVE
THE RIGHT
CHEMICAl.
IN WEIGHING OUT A DRY
CHEMICAL, PlACE EQUAl-
SIZED TISSUE PAPERS ON
EACH PAN OF THE SCALE.
ROlL JAR BETWEEN FIN-
GERS OR TAP IT GENTlY
WITH YOUR INDEX FINGER.
HEATING A LIQUID IN A TEST
TUBE, HOLD TUBE WITH A HOlDER.
KEEP THE TUBE MOVING. DO NOT
HEAT BOTTOM OF TUBE-CON_
TENTS MAY "BUMP" AND SQUIRT
OUT. NEVER POINT MOUTH OF TEST
TUBE TOWARD YOURSelF OR TO-
WARD ANYONE ELSE.
USE A TEST TUBE BRUSH FOR CLEANING TEST
TUBES. RINSE IN COLD WATER.
17
1
2
TRAINED CHEMISTS NEVER PUT
STOPPER OF BOTTLE ON DESK-
THEY KEEP IT IN ONE HAND.
1 TAKE STOPPER OFF BOTTLE
WITH YOUR LEFT HAND.
li' KEEP STOPPER IN THE lEFT
H;(ND WHilE YOU POUR FROM
THE BOTTlE IN YOUR RIGHT,
WITH THE LABEL FACING UP.
THEN REPlACE THE STOPPER.
<2"J_. ~ ? J >
~ - -.
,
USE A GLASS ROD TO
DIRECT THE STREAM
WHEN POURING A LIQ-
UID FROM ONE CON
TAINER TO ANOTHER,
/
DO NOT BRING TEST
TUBE UP TO YOUR
NOSE FOR SMELLING.
INSTEAD, WAfT THE
ODORS TOWARD YOU
WITH YOUR HAND.
PLACE A BURNING CANDlE IN THE SUN AND CATCH
THE SHADOW ON A PIECE OF WHITE PAPER. YOU
WILL DISCOVER THAT IT IS THE BRIGHTEST PART
OF THE FlAME THAT CASTS THE DARKEST SHADOW.
CANDLE FLAME IS BURNING VAPOR
YOU CAN PROVE IN SEVERAL
WAYS THAT THE FlAME OF A
CANDLE CONSISTS OF BURNING
PARAFfiN VAPORS.
BtOW OUT THE CANDLE, THEN
QUICKLY BR ING A LIGHTED
MATCH INTO THE VAPORS.
CANDLE IS AGAIN IGNITED.
Mr. Faraday's Candle
IN TIlE winter of 1859, Michael FllTaday, a great.
British scientist., gave a number oflectures for young
people. The talks dealt wilh one subject. only : the
feat ures or "phenomena" of - a candle!
"There is not. a law," Farada y told his listeners,
" under which any part. of this uni verse is governed
which does not. come into play and is touched upon
in these phenomena. There is no better, there is no
more open door by wbich you can enter into the
study of natural philosopby than b), considering the
phenomena of a candle." He then set out. to prove
his point by lighting a candle and demonstrating all
the processes invohed.
In burning a candle you start with a SOLID sub-
stance that. turns, first . into a LIQUID, then into a
GAS (or, more corrcctl y, into a gas-like vapor). The
melted candle grease is held in a level position by
GRAVITY yet. seems to defy gravit), by rising in the
wi ck by a force called CAPILLARY ACTION. I n
burning, the candle produces ENERGY in the form
of LIGHT and HEAT. At. tbe same time. it goes
into CHEi\ IICAL REACTIO 18 that. reveal what
it is made of.
As )'OU enter the study of chemistry, you can do
no better than to repeat for yourself some of the
experiments that. Mr. Faraday demonstrated to his
young a udience.
MAKE A GAS WORKS
FROM A CANDLE BY
HOLDING A GLASS
TUBE, DRAWN TO A
POINT, IN THE FlAME
AND LIGHTING THE
VAPORS AT THE END
OF TUBE.
YOU CAN ACTUALLY LEAD
THE VAPORS FROM A BURN-
ING CANDLE THROUGH A
BENT GLASS TUBE INTO A
WATER GLASS. IF LEFT
ALONE, WHITISH VAPORS
CONDENSE INTO A SOLID.
18
CANDLE CONTAINS
HYDROGEN
A CANDLE FORMS WATER WHEN IT BURNS. ONLY
HYDROGEN BURNING IN OXYGEN FORMS WATER .
HOLD A COlD GLASS FOR A FEW MOMENTS OVER
l"BURNING CANDLE. DEW FORMS ON THE INSIDE .
.. BY WIPING FINGER INSIDE THE GLASS YOU CAN
Z KE DEW flOW TOGETHER INTO WATER DROPS.
CANDLE CONTAINS CARBON
ANOTHER WAY
TO SHOW THAT
CANDLE CON-
TAINS CARBON
IS TO PROVE
THAT CARBON
DIOX I DE I S
FORMED WHEN
CANDLE BURNS.
PLACE PIECE OF WIRE
SCREENING OVER
FlAME. SCREENING
COOLS THE FlAME
AND SOOT FORMS.
THE SOOT IS CARBON.
i
WHAT PART OF THE
FLAME IS HOnEST?
TO FIND OUT, PUSH
PIECE OF CARDBOARD SIDEWAYS INTO FlAME.
OUTSIDE OF FLAME SCORCHES A SOOTY RING.
I
..
PLACE FUNNEL OVER FLAME. HOLD
HTED MATCH IN HOT AIR FROM FLAME.
MATCH GOES OUT IN THIS AIR.
PLACE TEST TUBE OVER FUNNEL AND
LlECT HOT AIR. POUR LIME WATER INTO
TUBE AND SHAKE. LIME WATER GETS
CLOUDY FROM CARBON DIOXIDE.
19
CRUSH A FEW ICE CUBES
AND SPRINKLE THEM WITH
SALT. WRAP IN ALUMINUM
FOIL HOlD OVER BURNING
CANDLE. WATER DROPS WILL
FORM ON THE OUTSIDE OF
THE FOIL.
WHAT YOU FOUND OUT
HEAT
LIGHT
II condie-
power!
(1,000 CI
glowing
corbon
portides
burning
corbon
monoxide
ICO)
GASlIKE
VAPOR
uses
oxygen
10'
burning _>.._


oclion
LIQUID
SOLID
y ou-Scientist!
IN 1896, a young Polish chemist, Marie Curie, and
her French husband, Pierre. decided to fmd out why
a certain uranium ore called pitcbblende gave off
rays that were much stronger than the uranium con-
tent of the ore could explain.
They securea a whole ton of powdered ore from
a mine in northern Bohemia and set to work. First.
the powder had to be boil ed with strong acids to
ext ract the substance hidden in it.. Then
the solution had to he filtered and boiled down.
What remained had to be purified by various proc-
esses which the Curies had to invent themselves.
After two years of back-breaking work they reach-
ed their goal. One night they went to t he shed in
which they had been working, They opened the door
and stepped in without putting on t he li ghts. All
around them, the containers that held the solutions
or the new substance glowed in the dark! They had
discovered a new element - radium - a million
times more active than uranium.
--
. . _ :
. / ' fold-in- ,
. :' , ' quorter '
."'-....- -
' -' -, .
.
. ..

. .. ,>
, - ' , "
. . '
- . .
open ond
ploce in funnel
SOLUTION-STIR WATER INTO THE
MIXTURE OF SALT AND DIRT. THE WA_
TER Will DISSOlVE THE SALT BUT NOT
THE DIRT. YOU NOW HAVE THE SALT
IN "WATERY SOLUTION."
DECANTATION-LET DIRT-MIXED
SALT SOlUTION STAND UNTIL MOST
OF THE DIRT HAS SETTLED, THEN POUR
OFf THE LIQUID, THI S PROCESS IS
CALtED "DECANTATION,"
FILTRATION l - THE LI QUID IS PROB-
ABLY STILL MURKY. TO CLEAR IT, IT
NEEDS TO BE FILTERED BY LETTING IT
RUN THROUGH FILTER PAPER (PAPER
TOWELING Will 00),
20
Wby tell again the story of the discovery of
r a d i u m ~ Because it contains all the features that.
show the nature of the true scientist .
Curiosity first.. The CUl'ies were curious about the
myst ery that lay in that greyish-black powder. They
became obsessed with a desire to find out - not in
the hope of gaining money or fame but to establish
a scientific truth.
Before starting their work, the Curies gat.hered all
the known facts about. the material with which they
were to work. To this knowl edge they added their
own imagination, figuring out. the method they had
to use to arrive at the result they were seeking.
For the next. t.wo years t.hey literally slaved in the
drafty shed that was their laboratory.
After they had made their discovery, the Curies
made their method of extracting radium known to
the world so that other scientists could check and
test. what they had done.
As an example of the scientific method the Curies
used, let us follow in their footsteps - but with a
much simpler problem:
1 MIX THOROUGHLY ONE TABLESPOON OF DIRT AND
ONE TEASPOON OF ORDINARY TABLE SALT. NOW DE
CIDE THAT YOU WANT TO EXTRACT THE SALT FROM THIS
MIXTURE AS EARNESTLY AS THE CURIES DECIDED TO EX
TRACT THE MYSTERIOUS SUBSTANCE FROM PITCHBLENDE
- WITH THE EXCEPTION THAT YOU KNOW WHAT YOU
ARE AFTER.
2 GET THE fACTS TOGETHER. DIRT IS "DIRTY, " SALT IS
WHITE. DIRT PARTICLES ARE OF MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES,
SALT CONSISTS OF TINY CUBES. DIRT DOES NOT DISSOLVE
IN WATER, SALT DOES.
3 NEXT FlGURE OUT A SUITABLE WAY OF SEPARATING
THE TWO SUBSTANCES. ON THE BASIS OF WHAT YOU
KNOW YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO SEPARATE THEM WITH
A PAIR OF TINY TWEEZERS-BUT IT WOULD PROBABLY
TAKE YOU A YEAR TO DO IT. OR YOU COULD DISSOLVE
THE SALT IN WATER AND SEPARATE THE SOLUTION FROM
THE INSOLUBLE DIRT.
4 YOU DECIDE ON THE SECOND WAY, USING THE
STEPS SHOWN ON THE BOTIOM OF THESE PAGES. IN
DOING THIS, YOU DO WHAT THE CURIES DID IN EX
TRACTING RADIUM AND LEARN, IN THE PROCESS, THE
IMPORTANT LABORATORY TECHNIQUES OF SOLUTION,
DECANTATION, fILTRATION, EVAPORATION, AND CRYS
TAllIZATION.
5 FINALLY, YOU CHECK THE RESULT. THE WHITE SUB.
STANCE lEFT AFTER EVAPORATION SHOULD BE SALT-
BUT IS IT? IT LOOKS LIKE SALT. IT TASTES LIKE SALT. BY
CHEMICAL TESTS YOU CAN PROVE THAT IT IS SALT.
By using the same procedure in all other experi-
ments in this book you are learning the methods
that real scientists follow in their work - you are
becoming a scientist yourself.
- '
, -
..
-:
.
.
>
,
filTRATION 2- FOLD FILTER PAPER
AS SHOWN ON OPPOSITE PAGE AND
fiT IT IN FUNNEL POUR LIQUID ONTO
FI lTER PAPER. CLEARED LIQUID IS
CAllED " FILTRATE."
I:VAPORATION-THE FILTRATE CON
TAINS THE SALT. THE SALT CAN NOW
BE FREED BY REMOVING THE WATER
BY BOILING IT AWAY. THIS IS KNOWN
AS " EVAPORATION."
CRYSTALLIZATION-AS WATER IS
REMOVED, THERE IS TOO lITILE OF
IT LEFT FOR THE SALT TO STAY IN
SOLUTION. THE SALT MAKES ITS Ap
PEARANCE AS T!NY CRYSTALS.
21
-::.'. -
. '-";
"-
, -.
., .,.
EleIllents, C OIllpounds, and Mixtures
IN ALL :your experiments in chemistry, you will be
dealing with "matter."
Matter is anything that takes up room and has
weight (or "mass"). An iron bar is matter - it takes
up room and is hea-v"y, as you very well know. Water
is ruatter ........ it takes up room when you fill a pail
with it., and a full pail weighs plenty. The air around
you is matter - it takes up lots of room; it may not
seem very heavy, yet the earth's atmosphere presses
down on every square inch of your body wit h a
weight of almost fifteen pounds.
Matter bas three distinct forms. IroD, for in-
stance, is a SOLID. Water is a LIQUID. Air has
the form of a GAS.
If you should take iron and divide it again and
TWO ELEMENTS AND A MIXTURE
mixture
again until you couldn' t di vide it any further, every
tiny particle would stiLi be iron. A thing that consists
of one kind of matter anI), is called an ELE!\IENT.
Take water, on the other band. You will learn t o
break water up into two kinds of matter - each of
them an element. A thing in which two or more ele-
ments are combincd chemicall y is called a COM
POUND. In a compound the proportions of the dif-
ferent clements that make it up are always exactly
the same.
Air also consists of different kinds of matter, but
they are not combined chemicall y - they are simply
mixed together. Whcn you make a MIXTURE, you
can mix the ingredients together in any proportions
that suit you.
MAKING A COMPOUND
MIX TOGETHER 2 9 Of flOWERS Of SULfUR
AND 3.5 9 OF IRON FILINGS. PLACE MIXTURE
IN A DAMAGED TEST TUBE. HEAT. SHORTLY
A CHEMICAL REACTION TAKES PLACE.
THE MIXTURE GlOWS AND BLACK
IRON SULfi DE fORMS. THIS
CANNOT BE SEPARATED
INTO SULFUR AND IRON
A S IN PREVIOUS
TESTS.
POWDERED SULFUR AND IRON CAN BE MIXED
TOGETHER IN ANY PROPORTIONS AND
AGAIN SEPARATED.
DRAG A MAGNET THROUGH THE SULfUR-IRON MIXTURE.
THE MAGNET Will PICK UP THE IRON PARTICLES.
POUR HYDROCHLORIC ACID ON SOME Of THE MIXTURE
IN A TEST TUBE. IRON DISSOlVES, SULfUR DOES NOT.
22
ELEMENTS ARE SUBSTANCES THAT CONSIST OF ONE METALS, METALLOIDS (METAL*lIKE), NONMETALS. SEV
KIND OF MAnER ONLY. THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO ERAL OF THE NONMETALS ARE GASES.
METALS METALLOIDS NONMETALS
antimony



"" Ii.
carbon
sulfur horon
capper
COMPOUNDS-INORGANIC. ALL COMPOUNDS
CONSIST Of TWO OR MORE ELEMENTS. INORGANIC
ACIDS
SUlfURl f
AtlO


...
-'
ItTO)l-)
Lalll{
ACID
BASES
CARBON COMPOUND5-0RGANIC. ORIGINALLY,
COMPOUNDS MADE BY LIVING THINGS (PLANTS AND
silicon
G5?dine
COMPOUNDS (WITH A fEW EXCEPTIONS) ARE THOSE
THAT DO NOT CONTAIN THE ELEMENT CARBON.
SALTS OTHERS
WAT
-
ANIMALS) WERE CAllED "ORGANIC." TODAY ORGAN
IC CHEMISTRY COVERS THE CARBON COMPOUNDS.
HYDROCARBONS, ALCOHOLS, ORGANIC ACIDS, nco
A
,
'0
"
o
,
MIXTURES CAN CONSIST OF ELEMENTS OR COM
POUNDS. SOME MIXTURES ARE COARSE. SOME (COL*
lOIOS) CONTAIN TINY PARTICLES. STILL OTHERS (SO
LUTIONS) ARE OF SAME STRUCTURE THROUGHOUT.
GRAINY MIXTURES
COLLOIDS SOLUTIONS
rock



.>-TJ
. IlIP bread
soda
,
23
o
WATER CYCLE
Evaporation from ocean
r r 1 r
. . .
, , I
: : !
Water-Our Most I m portant Compound
YES, WATER is the most import ant of all chemical
compounds. Without it, there would be no life - all
huruan beings and all animals would thirst to death.
and all plant li fe would wilt and die.
Fortunately, water is also the most common com
pound in the world. Almost three quarters of the
earth's surface is covered by wat er. This water is
forever traveling. It. is turned into invisible vapor
by evaporation from oceans and lakes and growing
WATER AS A SOLVENT
THE MOST IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF WATER IN
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS IS AS A SOlVENT-
THAT IS, A LIQUID IN WHICH CHEMICALS MAY
BE DISSOLVED. FINO OUT BY AN EASY EXPERI
MENT WHETHER HEATING THE WATER HELPS IN
DISSOLVING A CHEMICAL.
cold waler
DROP 1 TABLE_
SPOON WASHING
SODA IN 1f2 GLASS
OF COLO WATER.
STIR. PART OF THE
SODA DISSOLVES
SLOWLY.
REPEAT WITH
HOT WATER. SODA
DISSOlVES QUICKLY.
HOT WATER IS USU
AllY FASTER THAN
COlO FOR PREPAR-
things. Wben cooled. the vapor forms clouds of tiny
water drops. Further cooling makes the drops faU
to earth as rain or snow that fill up ri vers and lakes
and oceans anel continue the wnter cycle.
Chemists usc nature's method to produce chem-
icall y pure wa tcr. They turn ordinary tap water in-
to steam by boiling, then tllrn the steam back into
water by cooling. This process is called distillation
and the water is called distilled water.
WATER AS A CATALYST
WATER HELPS BRING ABOUT MANY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS WITHOUT IT
SELF ENTERING INTO THEM. A SUB-
STANCE THAT ACTS THIS WAY IS
CALLED A CATALYST.
warm
wal er
~ '----'
candle ~ ~
PLACE 1 TEASPOON DRY BAKING
POWDER IN SMALL JAR. ATTACH WIRE TO
CANDLE. LIGHT CANDLE AND LOWER IT
INTO JAR. CANDLE GOES ON BURNING.
hot waler
ING A SOlUTION. ~ : ~ ~
NOW POUR WARM WATER ON THE
BAKING POWDER. A CHEMICAL REACTION
MAKES THE POWDER FOAM. THE GAS RE
LEASED IS CARBON DIOXIDE. IT MAKES
CANDlE flAME fliCKER AND GO OUT.
24
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
ELECTRICITY CAN BE USED TO BREAK WATER APART
INTO THE TWO ELEMENTS OF WHICH IT CONSISTS
- THE GASES HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN.
YOU CAN GET THE REQUIRED ElECTRICITY FROM THREE
OR FOUR ORDINARY FLASHLIGHT BATIERI ES. YOU WILL
ALSO NEED TWO PIECES OF INSULATED COPPER WIRE
AND TWO " ElECTRODES" MADE FROM CARBON RODS.

Making El e ctrode s

rod
1 SCORE THE MI DDLE OF THE
CARBON ROD FROM AN OLD
FLASHliGHT BATIERY, USING
A FI LE. BREAK THE ROO INTO
TWO PIECES.
2 BARE THE WIRE FOR 2"
AT EACH END OF TWO IS"
LENGTHS OF INSULATED WIRE.
TI E ONE BARED WIRE AROUND
2 END OF EACH OF CARBON
bared wire
o
o

..;. insulated wire


a BI ND EL ECTR I -
CIAN'S TAPE FIRMLY
AROUND CAR BON
RODS SO THAT NO
WIRE IS EXPOSED.
lape

se"lng up Electrol ys is
WATER IS A POOR CONDUC.
TOR OF ELECTRICITY- SO YOU
DISSOLVE I TASLESPOON OF
WASHING SODA IN 1 PINT OF
WATER AND Fi ll A WATER
GLASS AND TWO TEST TUBES
WITH THIS SOlUTION. THEN
SET UP THE APPARATUS AS
SHOWN AT RIGHT.
-- 2
0
0
0

D
0


0

0
TEST FOR
HYDROGEN
WITH YOUR THUMB, CLOSE THE MOUTH OF THE TEST
BE FIRST FILLED WITH GAS. LIFT THE TUBE OUT OF THE
WATER, MOUTH DOWN.
2. BRING UGHTED MATCH TO THE MOUTH OF THE TUBE.
ONTENTS BURN WITH A SOFT " POP! " THIS IS THE TEST
FOR HYDROGEN.
clip
I
25
MATERIALS fOR EXPERIMENTS
AN ORDINARY FLASHLIGHT BATIERY WILL GIVE
YOU MATERIALS YOU NEED FOR EXPERIMENTS
ON THIS AND SEVERAL FOLLOWING PAGES.
I OPEN UP BATIERY CASE CAREFUllY WITH A
CAN OPENER AND CLEAN THE ZINC CASING.
2 SCRAPE CARBON ROD CLEAN WITH DUll KNIFE.
a DRY OUT THE MOIST BlACK POWDER, WHICH
IS MOSTlY MANGANESE OIOXIDE. STORE IN JAR.
THROW REMAINING PARTS OF THE BATIERY AWAY.
Pe rforming the El e ctrolysis
SUP THE TOP OF A CARBON elECTRODE UP
INJO EACH OF THE TWO TEST TUBES.
2' BIND THREE-OR, BmER, FOUR_ flASHLIGHT
BATIERIES TOGETHER WITH ADHESIVE TAPE, TOP
OF ONE TOUCHING BOTTOM OF THE NEXT.
a WI TH ADHESIVE TAPE fASTEN THE BARED END
OF THE WIRE LEADING FROM ONE CARBON ROD
ELECTRODE TO THE TOP OF THE FIRST BATTERY.
4 TAPE THE BARED END OF THE WIRE FROM THE
OTHER ELECTRODE TO BOTIOM OF LAST BATTERY .
AS SOON AS CONNECTION IS MADE, AIR BUBBLES
BEGIN TO COlLECT IN THE TWO TEST TUBES-
ABOUT TWICE AS FAST IN ONE AS IN THE OTHER.
TEST FOR
OXYGEN

5lraw
2
, WHEN SECOND TUBE IS FUll
OF GAS, CLOSE ITS MOUTH WITH
YOUR THUMB. tiFT THE TUBE OUT
OF THE WATER WITH MOUTH UP.
2 LIGHT A BROOM STRAW.
BLOW OUT THE FlAME. BRING
THE GLOWING END DOWN IN
THE TEST TUBE. GlOWING EM
BER BURSTS INTO BRIGHT FlAME.
THIS IS TEST FOR OXYGEN.
TREE5-75 % OXYGEN
AIR-21 % OXYGEN
SOIL-SO % OXYGEN -
O
OXYGE
El e me n t 8
Alomic wi.
........
--
-
Oxygen- The Breath of Life
I F YOU could hold )' our breath ror a rew
minutes so that no air could get into your
lungs, yon would die.
For thousands or )' ears, people have
known that no human being can li ve
without air. But it was not until Karl
Scheele, a Swedish chemist , in 1772, and
Joseph Priestley, nn Englishman, in 177:1,
discO\'ered and described oxygen that
people knew that it is the oxygen in the
air that is important to life.
Both or these scientists discovered that
t hings burn more fiercely in pure oxygen
than they do in the mixture or oxygen
and other gases called "air."
In the lab, oxygen is produccd by driv-
ing it out or certain oX)'gcn-containing
compounds. A good onc to use in the
home lab is hydrogen pcroxide. You can
get it at a drug store in a 3% solution.
Hydrogen peroxide is related to water,
\Vatcr, as you know, consists of 2 parts
or hydrogen to 1 part of oxygen. You
could write it: Hydrogen 2 - Oxygen 1.
That's pretty much wbat chemists do-
except that they abbreviate the names to
initials, use slll all numbers, and don' t
bother about the number 1. The rormula
becomes H
2
0.
Hydrogen peroxide contains 2 parts or
hydrogen to every 2 parts or oxygen. How
would you write it in
You're perfectly ri ght!
H, O, becomes water (H20) and gives
off oxygen (0 ) when you lhrO\v a catalyst
into it. For a catalyst , )'ou can use the
manganese dioxide from an old flashlight
battery (page 25).
IT'S A LONG STEP FROM THE DIS
COVERY Of OXYGEN IN 1772 TO
ITS PRESENT-DAY USE IN INDUS
TRY AND HOSPITALS, AIRPLANES
AND SPACE SHIPS, AND fOR SEND
ING SATellITES INTO ORBIT.
26
>.
I
A MOMENT LATER.
CANDLE GOES QUT.
WATER RISES IN JAR TO
REPLACE OXYGEN USED.
THE ATMOSPHERE CONTAINS OXYGEN
fASTEN A SMAll CANDLE TO MIDDlE OF
PIE PLATE WITH CANDLE DRIPPINGS. Fill PIE
PLATE WITH WATER. LIGHT CANDLE. PLACE
AN EMPTY JAR OVER CANDLE.
-
-- -.
MAKING A SMALL AMOUNT
OF OXYGEN
Fill JAR ~ FULL OF 3,,/. HYOROGEN PER-
OXIDE. ADD PINCH Of MANGANESE 01.
OXIDE FROM fLASHLIGHT BATIERY ISEE
PAGE 25). TEST FOR OXYGEN WITH
GLOWING BROOMSTRAW. EMBER GLOWS
BRIGHTER AND MAY BURST INTO FlAME .

MAKING OXYGEN IN
THE HOME LAB
"
\,'\ I'
~ , , \ /1:
'":,, /1
<.
1 TO COLLECT OXYGEN, YOU NEED A "PNEUMATIC TROUGH,"
THIS IS A DEEP, WATER-FILLED TRAY WITH METAL "BRIDGE,"
FIT BonlE WITH STOPPER WITH l.SHAPED GLASS TUBE AND
RUBBER TUBE LONG ENOUGH TO REACH HOlE OF BRIDGE.
3 fill BonlE I j ~ FUll Of 3 '"I. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE. ADD
Va TEASPOON Of MANGANESE DIOXIDE. PUT THE STOPPER IN.
4 fill JAR WITH WATER AND PLACE IT UPSIDE DOWN ON THE
BRIDGE IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE OXYGEN BUBBLES INTO IT
AND FillS IT BY FORCING OUT AND REPLACING THE WATER
5 WHEN JAR IS FULL Of OXYGEN, SLIDE A GLASS PLATE UN
DER OPENING (OR PUT STOPPER IN IT). TURN JAR RIGHT SIDE
UP-QUICKLY, TO PREVENT THE OXYGEN fROM ESCAPING.
MANY MATERIALS BURN IN OXYGEN
1 ATIACH TlJFT Of STEel WOOL TO WIRE. HEAT
TO RED HEAT OVER ALCOHOL BURNER. LOWER INTO
JAR OF OXYGEN. IRON BURSTS INTO FLAME.
'''-''
oxygen is slightly
heavier than air
-so keep mouth
of ior up
2 PLACE SMALL PIECE OF SULFUR IN CROOK Of
BENT STRIP Of TIN CUT FROM CAN. IGNITE SULFUR
WITH MATCH. LOWER INTO JAR OF OXYGEN. SUL-
FUR BURNS WITH A BRILLIANT, BLUE liGHT.
"BRIDGE" FOR " PNEUMAT
IC TROUGH" MADE FROM
2Y2 " STRIP Of TIN CAN.
27
If
HENRY CAVENDISH, WHO DIS-
COVERED HYDROGEN IN 1766,
HAD NO IDEA OF THE ASTON-
ISHING fORCE Of HYDROGEN
WHEN RELEASED IN A BOMB.
of All
HnlROGE..t"i is the lightest element in existence- X"
the weight of air. For this reason one of its early
uses was for filling balloons. The first. man-carrying
gas balloon was sent up by the Frenchman, Jacques
Charles. in 1783. The danger of using an explosive
gas for . this purpose was demonstrated in 1937 in
the Hindenburg disaster, when the b) dragen-filled
Zeppelin dirigible exploded on arriving at Lakehurst,
New Jersey, after a trip across the Atlantic Ocean.
Thirty-six people lost their lives.
Hydrogen is one of the most important of all the
elements. It is found in all li ving things - your own
body is approximately 10 per cent hydrogen. Water,
as you know, is part hydrogen. So is the food you
eat, the milk you drink, the clothes you wear, and
such common, everyday things as gasoline and fuel
oil and cooking gas.
In the home lab, you can make hydrogen by add-
ing strips of zinc from a flashlight bat.tery to hydro-
chloric acid whi ch consists of hydrogen (11) and
another gas called chlorine (CI). The zinc forms a
compound (ZoCl ,) with the chlorine and sets the
hydrogen free (H,).
HYDROGEN FORMS WATER WHEN IT BURNS
1 FILL TEST TUBE 3,4 fUll OF HYDRO- CHlORIC ACID. ADD A COUPLE
Of ZINC STRIPS. BUBBLES OF HYDROGEN fORM IMMEDIATELY.
2 CLOSE TEST TUBE WITH RUBBER STOPPER WITH GLASS TUBE
DRAWN TO JET POINT. COVER APPARATUS WITH A TOWEl.
PLACE EMPTY TEST TUBE OVER GLASS TUBE. AFTER 1 MINUTE,
TEST THIS TUBE FOR HYDROGEN WITH LIGHTED MATCH. IF TUBE
" BARKS, " PUT IT BACK. AFTER ANOTHER MINUTE, TRY AGAIN. WHEN
SOfT "POP" TELLS YOU GAS IS PURE, LIGHT JET.
4 HOLD A COLD GLASS OVER HYDROGEN fLAME. DEW COVERING
THE INSIDE Of THE GLASS SHOWS THAT WATER IS fORMING.
HYDROGEN IS LIGHTEST
GAS KNOWN
1 FILL A POP BOTTLE V ~ fULL Of HALf-
AND-HAlf MIXTURE OF HYDROCHLORIC
ACID AND WATER. DROP IN HALF A DOZEN
ZINC STRIPS. lET NO FlAME COME NEARI
FIT BALLOON ON MOUTH OF BOTTLE.
WHEN BALLOON IS INflATED, TIE
OPENING WITH STRING AND REMOVE
fROM BOTTLE. If PERMITTED, BALLOON
WILL RISE TO CEILING INDOORS. OUT-
DOORS, IT WILL SOAR UP IN THE SKY.
28

MAKING HYDROGEN IN THE LAB
1 MAKE THE SAfETY GAS GENER
ATOR DESCRIBED ON PAGE 12.
SET UP PNEUMATIC TROUGH AS ON PAGE

6
fill BonLE A
fULL OF MIX
TURE Of EQUAL /lJI
PARTS OF HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID
AND WATER.
I
A


B
\
\
o
o
o
o

7
PLACE 1" LAYER OF SMAll PEBBLES ON BOnOM
OF BOnLE I . DROP ZINC STRIPS ON TOP OF PEBBLES.
FIT STOPPERS AND TUBES AIRTIGHT.
H
HYDROGEN
Elemen t 1.
At. wt. 1.008
Colorless, odorlen
ond combustible
go Ii. Highly I!ltplo-
liive in mix tures
with oir . 1/14
weight of gir o
Slightly soluble in
woter-l.8 vol-
umes in 100 vol-
umes at 20 C.
5 POUR ACID fROM BonLE A INTO BonLE I ,
OR FORCE IT OVER BY BLOWING IN TUBE C.
6 CLOSE TUBE OF BOnLE A WITH CLOTHESPIN.
AS SOON AS HYDROGEN STARTS TO BUBBLE UP THROUGH WATER
PNEUMATIC TROUGH, COLLECT SOME IN WATER-FIllED TEST TUBE.
WHEN fUll Of GAS, TEST IT AS DESCRIBED AT BOnOM Of PAGE. WHEN
HYDROGEN IS PURE, BU8BlE IT INTO UPSIDEDOWN, WATER-FILLED JARS.
WHEN YOU HAVE MADE THE EXPERIMENTS YOU WANT, CHANGE
SPRING CLOTHESPIN fROM RUBBER TUBE OF BOnLE A TO RUBBER TUBE
OF BOnLE I. HYDROGEN FORCES ACID fROM BOTTLE I BACK INTO A.
WHEN ACID NO lONGER TOUCHES ZINC, REACTION STOPS.
,LA YINO SAn WITH HYDROOIN
IN MIXTURES WITH AIR, HYDROGEN IS HIGHLY
EXPLOSIVE. FOLLOW SAFETY RULES BelOW.
MAKE ONLY SMAll AMOUNTS OF HYDRO-
GEN IN THE HOME LAB. A 4-0Z. GENERATOR
BonlE WILL GIVE YOU All THE HYDROGEN
YOU NEED. MAKE All CONNECTIONS AIRTIGHT.
TEST HYDROGEN FOR PURITY BY COLLEOING
A TEST TUBE FUll OF IT AND BRINGING A LIGHT
ED MATCH TO MOUTH OF TUBE, AS SHOWN
ON PAGE 25. HYDROGEN MIXED WITH AIR EX-
PLODES WITH A SHARP "BARK." PURE HYDRO-
GEN BURNS WITH A QUIET "POP."
KEEP FLAME AWAY FROM YOUR MAIN GEN
ERATOR BonlE.
IGNITE HYDROGEN ONLY FROM TEST TUBE
GENERATOR DESCRISED ON OPPOSITE PAGE,
AND THEN ONLY AFTER YOU HAVE TESTED IT
FOR PURITY.
29
i
1
WHEN YOU KNOW FROM TESTING SAM_
PLES OF GAS COLLECTED IN TEST TUBES
THAT HYDROGEN IS PURE, Fill SMAll JAR
WITH IT. LIFT JAR OUT OF WATER, MOUTH
DOWN. BRING LIGHTED CANDLE UP INTO
JAR. HYDROGEN BURNS AT MOUTH OF
JAR. CANDlE GOES OUT.
00 0
lNIiA.lE ANIMALS C) "-
OXYGEN V
, <)
......
-..... - . ----- CARBON DIO;IDE CYCLE
0.'
0"
OXYGEN
TAKE !N
CARSON
Dloxroe
LI QUID CARBON DIOX-
IDE IS USED IN FIRE EX-
TI NGUISHERS.
.'
Car1bon Dioxide
You aWE already learned in experimenting with a
burning candle that when something containing car-
bon burns in the air, a gas, carhon dioxide (CO,),
is formed. This is one of the most important gases
for human life. The reason is that green plants, in
sunlight, arc able to take the carbon out of the car-
bon dioxide in the air and, by combining it with
oxygen and hydrogen from water and wi th various
minerals in the soil, produce all the vegetable matter
that humans and animals eaL
You cannot see the CO
2
in t he air - but you can
see it when it has been cooled and compressed into
a solid block of " dry ice." Wben dissolved in water
(H,D), carbon dioxide (COl) forms a weak acid
(H
2
CO
J
) . You know the taste of this acid from soda
water - the bubbles are CO, being set free.
Carbonic acid combines with many metals to
make "carbonates." You can drive the CO, out or
most carbonates with the help of a weak acid - even
with yinegar, which is diluted acetic acid.
MAKING A FIRE EXTINGUISHER MODEL
PUSH A SHORT GlASS TUBE
ITH A JET TIP INTO A RUBBER
STOPPER. WRAP BICARBONATE OF
SODA IN A SHEET OF TOILET TISSUE.
ATTACH SODA PACKAGE TO TUBE
WITH A RUBBER BAND.
.-
filL BOTTLE HALF FULL Of MIXTURE OF 1 PART VINE
PART WATER. PUT IN THE STOPPER.
Ni
CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
r
CONTAIN SOlUTION Of BAKING . . "
SODA AND A BonlE OF SUL- ' :
FURIC ACID. WHEN TURNED UP
SIDE DOWN, THE CHEMICALS MIX
AND FORM CARBON DIOXI DE
WHICH FORCES OUT THE WATER.
30
,
/
" ,

==
'"
a
"-
HOLD STOPPER FIRM
FINGERS. TURN BOTTLE
UPSIDE DOWN. THE CO
2
FORMED BY MI XING
VINEGAR AND SODA
DRIVES WATER OUT IN
POWERFUL JET.
CAR.ON
DIOXIDE
Compound.
Moleculor wt. 44.
Colorleu, odorl ess
gOJ. DoeJ not burn.
Don not IUppOri
combustion (burning).
1.529 weight of air.
Fairly soluble in we
FEATURES OF CARBON DIOXIDE
CO
2
IS HEAVIER THAN AIR AND
DOES NOT SUPPORT 8URNING.
YOU CAN PROVE 80TH POINTS:
PLACE 1 TEASPOON OF BAKING SODA IN A PITCHER. POUR
A SMALL AMOUNT OF WHITE VINEGAR OVER THE SODA.
HANG A LIGHTED CANDLE IN A JAR BY A WIRE. POUR THE
CARBON DIOXIDE FORMED IN THE PITCHER INTO THE JAR THE
WAY YOU WOULD POUR WATER. WHEN THE CARBON DIOXIDE
REACHES THE TOP OF THE CANDLE, THE FlAME GOES OUT.
MAKING CO. FROM MARBLE
MAKING
LIME
WATER
STIR 1 TEASPOON OF
HYDRATED LIME INTO
1 PINT OF WATER.
_ LET STAND UNTIL LIME SINKS TO THE
15nOM. FILTER LIQUID INTO A BOnLE.
CLOSE BOnlE TIGHTLY.
BURNING PRODUCES CARBON DIOXIDE
HANG BURNING CANDlE IN JAR CONTAINING A
FEW ml LIME WATER. COVER TOP WITH A GLASS
PLATE. WHEN CANDlE HAS GONE OUT, SHAKE
LIME WATER UP WITH THE AIR. MILKINESS PROVES
THAT CO. HAS BEEN PRODUCED.
TEST fOR CO.
CO. TURNS
LIME WATER
MILKY BY
CHANGING
CALCIUM
HYDROXIDE
- TO CALCIUM
CARBONATE.
IN LABORATORY, CARBON DIOXIDE IS USUALLY MADE
FROM MARBLE CHIPS AND DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
ACID (1 PART ACID TO 1 PART WATER). PLACE CHIPS
ON TOP OF PEBBLES IN YOUR GAS GENERATOR, THEN
PROCEED AS FOR MAKING HYDROGEN (PAGE 29).
31
CO,
BREATHE THROUGH GLASS TUBE INTO
LIME WATER IN TEST TUBE. LIME WATER
GETS MILKY. THIS SHOWS THAT BREATH
ING IS A BURNING PROCESS.
.
NITROGEN GOES INTO
Colorleu, odorless
80TH FERTILIZERS AND
gos. DOei not bum.
EXPLOSIVES.

Does not support
;1
\ 1 ;/: If DRY AMMONIA GAS IS USEO IN THE
<;; r;::'", 'I / /1: _ lA'GE_SCALE PRODUCTION OF ICE.
f{; - I II
combustion (burn.
ing) . . 967 weight
of air. Slightly sol-
uble in woter-I .S
vol umes i n 100
vols. a t 20C.
- u f.". "",,y- ,4 I N 't d I L C cIs
I rogen an w . ompoun
WHEi'O "\ou burnanyllllng ill thc rur, onl y about one-
-"",- - _ fifth of the air goes into chemical combinati on with
'....-- ___ --:---:: - "_.' - what you are burning. The rest (except for a small
-"'-. fraction) does not enter into the process. It is a gas
NITROGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
I % RARE GASES,"
78% NITROGEN
... ... RGON
NEON
KRYPTON
XENON
fl El IU .....
ALSO, CO,_ H,Q
21% OXYGEN
REPEAT CANDLE-BURNING EXPERIMENT ON PAGE 27.
UNUSED GAS IS ALMOST All NITROGEN- WITH SMAll
PERCENTAGE OF RARE GASeS AND CARBON DIOXIDE.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
IN A WELlVENTILATED
ROOM, HEAT EQUAL
AMOUNTS OF SALTPETER
AND SODIUM BISULFATE
IN DRY TEST TUBE. IN A
MOMENT, A BROWN GAS
FORMS. IT IS NITROGEN
DIOXIDE. DO NOT INHALE"
-OAS IS VERY IRRITATING.
32
called nitrogen (N) - the most abundant free ele-
ment on earth.
Nitrogen is what you might call a " lazy" element.
It does not help in burn.ing nor docs it burn if you
try to ignite it. IL is onl y at high temperatures and
under great pressures that a chemist can make ni-
trogen combine with another element., hydrogen, to
form ammonia gas (NH,), from which other nitrogen
compounds can be made.
Yet. in nature, liny bacteria on the roots of cer-
tain plants can take nit rogen from the air and make
it combine with oxygen and minerals in the soiJ into
" nitTat es." And that is of tremendous importance to
aU of us - for all plants need nitrates if they are to
thrive. If plants do DOt get. nitrates naturall y, the
farmcr must add them to his soil in the form of somc
kind of fertilizer.
You will not have much satisfacti on out of work-
ing with nit rogen ilsclf, but wiU find it inter-
esting to deal with some of its compounds - espe-
ciall y with ammonia gas (NH,). You will also want
to ha vc a look at one of the half dozen combinations
nitrogen makes with oxygen, the hrown gas called
nitrogcn dioxide (NOt).
NH AMMONIA
3 Molecular
weight 17. Color-
less gas with
strong, penetrating
odor .. 596 weight
of air. Highly sol-
uble in waler-
70,000 yols. in I
at 20 C.
MAKING AMMONIA FROM
SAL AMMONIAC
PRODUCING AMMONIA
/
SIMPLEST WAY OF PRODUCING
AMMONIA IS TO GET IT FROM ITS
SOLUTION AS HOUSEHOLD AM
~
MONIA.
,
,
,
fILL PINT CAN ONE QUARTER FUll OF
t
1
HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA. FIT STOPPER
WITH 6" GlASS TUBE IN OPENING.
PLACE TEST TUBE OVER GLASS TUBE.
HEAT CAN OVER lOW flAME. TEST
TUBE IS fULL Of AMMONIA WHEN
MOIST, RED lITMUS PAPER
ITS MOUTH TURNS BLUE.
SOLUBILITY OF
AMMONIA
REMOVE A FillED
TEST TUBE FROM
GAS GENERATOR
CAN, MOUTH
DOWN. CLOSE
MOUTH OF TUBE
WITH THUMB. OPEN
TUBE UNDER WA-
TER. AMMONIA DIS-
SOLVES EASilY,
WATER RUSHES IN
AND FillS TUBE.
MOIST, RED
lITMUS PAPER
TURNS BLUE
IN AMMONIA.
HElD AT
THE AMMONIA FOUNTAIN
AMMONIA'S EXTRAORDINARY SOLUBILITY CAN BE
SHOWN IN A SPECTACULAR DEMONSTRATION.
1 MAKE UP APPARATUS AS SHOWN IN ILLUSTRATION.
Fill IT WITH WATER. ADD 5 DROPS OF PHENOlPHTHAL-
EIN SOlUTION.
FILL DRY, EMPTY BOnLE WITH AMMONIA FROM
GENERATOR CAN. KEEPING BOnLE UPSIDE DOWN,
PLACE IT FIRMLY ON TOP STOPPER OF APPARATUS.
BLOW INTO LSHAPED GLASS TUBE TO DRIVE A FEW
DROPS OF WATER UP INTO THE UPPER BonlE.
ON A PIECE OF PAPER, MIX I PART OF SAL AMMO-
NIAC WITH 2 PARTS OF HYDRATED LIME. ADD A fEW
DROPS OF WATER. DROP MIXTURE INTO A TEST TUBE.
PROVIDE TUBE WITH STOPPER AND l-SHAPED GLASS
TUBE. THEN HEAT OVER LOW ftAME.
4 SUDDENLY, WATER SPURTS fROM LOWER BOnLE
UP INTO UPPER BOntE IN A FOUNTAIN THAT TURNS
PINK AS AMMONIA REACTS ON PHENOlPHTHALEIN.
THE WHITE SMOKE
MYSTERY
. COLLEO AMMONIA IN DRY TEST TUBf. TEST IT WITH
LTrMUS PAPER AND FOR SOlUBIlITY.
MOISTEN INSIDE OF
JrR WITH SMALL AMOUNT
OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
POUR EXCESS ACID BACK
INTO ITS BOnLE. COVER
JAR WITH SQUARE Of
CARDBOARD .
Fill ANOTHER JAR WITH AMMONIA. PLACE
."... UPSIDE DOWN ON CARDBOARD.
HOlD ON TO AMMONIA-Fi llED JAR AND
"m"U CARDBOARD AWAY. IMMEDI ATELY, BOTH
JARS Fill WITH " SMOKE" OF TINY AMMONIUM
CHLORIDE CRYSTALS.
33
"
hydrochloric
acid
Element 17.
Atomic t
idl-yellow, suffo-
cating gas. Com-
bines active l y
- ;?? jof air. Fairly sol-
uble in water-
-=: 226 vols. in 100
I I
Chlorrne- F riend and Foe
CHLORll\"'E IS a gas of great importance. We wouldn't
be certain of safc drinking water in our cities if it
weren't for chlorine - a small amount of it in the
water kills the dangerous germs that may lurk in it.
Chlorine is also used extensively in bleaching.
Chlorine is a friendly gas when it is used correctly.
But it is dangerous when used improperly because
it affects the lungs. As a "poison gas" it caused many
casualties in Worl d War I.
You can produce chlori ne as a greenish-yellow gas
by dri ving it out of one of i ts compounds - hydro-
chloric acid (lIe!), which consists of hydrogen (H)
and chlorine (el) , or a common laundry bleach
(" Clorox" or others), which is a solution of sodium
hypochlorite (NaCIO).
Have a bottle of diluted household ammonia (90%
water, 10% household ammonia) on hand. Sniff this
if )'OU get too strong a whilI of chlorine.
NOTE: Perform these experiments out-of-doors or be-
fore an open window. Be careful not to breathe fumes.
MAKING TEST PAPER
FOR CHLORINE
CORN
MIX .5 g TEASPOON) ml
WATER. BRING TO BOIl. DISSOlVE IN MIXTURE
A SMALL AMOUNT OF POTASSIUM IODIDE (AS
MUCH AS TWO GRAINS OF RICE). DIP STRIPS
OF FILTER PAPER IN MIXTURE; THEN DRY THEM.
34
CHLORINE FROM
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Put .5 9 !Va TEASPOON) MANGANESE DIOXIDE INTO
TEST TUBE. ADD 3 ml (V. TEST TUBE) UNDilUTED HYDRO
CHLORIC ACID. HEAT GENTlY. CHLORINE FORMS. WAFT
A lITILE CAREFULLY TOWARD YOU FOR A SNIFF.
TEST GAS BY HOLDING MOISTENED STARCH-IODIDE
PAPER AT MOUTH OF TUBE. PAPER TURNS BLUE.
MAKING CHLORINE IN THE HOME LAB
,
(j)
MAKE APPARATUS SHOWN AT
RIGHT. POUR 1 INCH OF LIQUID
BLEACH (CLOROX) INTO BOTTLE A.
BOTTLE a IS EMPTY. BOTTLE C HAS
WATER: IN WHICH V) TEASPOON lYE
IS DISSOlVED.
--u-- ~
Sani
Flush
TAKE STOPPER OUT
OF BOTTLE A. DROP IN
V) TEASPOON SODIUM
BISULFATE jSANI.FlUSHj.
REPLACE THE STOPPER.
CHLORINE GAS
FORMS AND FilLS B.
~ ~
C
A
LYE WATER IN BOT-
TlE C ABSORBS EXCESS
OF CHLORINE GAS.
WHEN REAOION SLOWS
ADD MORE SODIUM BISULFATE
EXPERIMENTS WITH CHLORINE
!
CHLORINE REACTS
.JL.
VIGOROUSLY WITH
!i,
MOST OTHER ELE-
MENTS. IT IS PAR-
TICULARLY ACTIVE
WITH HYDROGEN
AND MANY HYDRO-
GEN COMPOUNDS.
,....---.....
LOWER A BURNING CANDlE INTO
A BOTTlE OF CHLORINE GAS. A
DENSE SMOKE OF CARBON IS
FORMED. THE CHLORINE COMBINES
WITH THE HYDROGEN OF THE CAN
OLE AND SETS THE CARBON IN IT
FREE AS SOOT.
CHLORINE WILL COMBINE
DIRECTlY WITH SEVERAL
METALS. IRON ACTUALLY
FASTEN A SMALL WAD OF
STEEl WOOl TO A PIECE OF
WIRE. HEAT IT WITH A MATCH
AND LOWER IT INTO CHlO
RINE. FlllED BOTTLE. A HEAVY
BROWN SMOKE OF IRON
CHLORIDE POURS OUT.
A c
. . ...
NOTE, EACH TIME YOU II:
MOVE lH'E GAS-COllECT
ING BOTTLE a FOR EXPERI
MENT, CONNECT BOTTLES
A AND C TO PREVENT
CHLORINE FROM GmlNG
OUT IN THE ,00'"
35
/
'I .
TO SHOW THE SOLUBiliTY OF CHLORINE,
POUR A SMALL AMOUNT OF WATER INTO
A CHLORINE-FillED BOTTLE. CLOSE THE
BOTTlE MOUTH WITH YOUR PALM.
SHAKE. THE CHLORINE DISSOlVES AND
THE BOTTLE STICKS TO YOUR PALM FROM
THE SUOION CREATED.
CHLORINE HAS
GREAT USE IN
BLEACHING COT-
TON AND LINEN
AND WOOD
PULP. YET IT IS
NOT THE CHLO-
RINE THAT PER-
FORMS THE
BLEACHING.
./ ~
1
d",
-
// ~
.f'
/.[
moist
-
FILL A BOTTLE WITH CHLORINE GAS. HANG
IN IT (FROM A CORK OR FROM A PIECE OF CARD-
BOARD) A STRIP OF DRY, BRIGHTlY COlORED COT-
TON CLOTH. NOTHING HAPPENS. COlOR OF
C10lH IS NOT AFFEOED.
MOISTEN THE CLOTH AND AGAIN HANG IT
IN THE CHLORINE. SOON THE COlORS FADE-
ONLY TRULY " FAST" COLORS REMAIN. CHLORINE,
IN CONTACT WITH WATER, COMBINES WITH THE
HYDROGEN AND UBERATES OXYGEN. THE liB-
ERATED OXYGEN DOES THE BLEACHING.
J)
,-

silver
/

/
;
. //
/ '1
7


'i;'Cf'

iron 0
THE ALCHEMISTS USED FANCIFUL FIGURES TO
REPRESENT THE CHEMICALS WITH WHICH THEY
WORKED.
o
sulfur hydrogen
00]
oxygen ammonia
JOHN DAlTON SUGGESTED
MARKED CIRCLES TO INDICATE
8m09neSium
DIffERENT ElEMENTS.
H
hYdrogen;urn
C
carbo
kOrbo
n
)
JONS JAKOB BER-
zeuus DEVELOPED
THE SYSTEM USED
TODAY,IN WHICH
THE NAMES Of
ElEMENTS ARE
ABBREVIATED.
36
Chemical Shorthand
SO FAR YOU have experimented with oxygen and
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and chlorine;
you have also separated water into the two ele
meats of which it consists, and have combined the
two elements iron and sulfur into a chemical com
pound. In taking notes of your experiments you are
certain to have learned that it is much quicker to
write " HI> than " hydrogen," and easier to write
"CO," than "carbon dioxide." Before long, it will
seem the simplest and most logical thing in the world
to use these abbreviations of the names of the dif-
ferent elements rather than the full names.
Yet it took chemists hundreds of years before they
settlcd on this uniform method of wTiting out their
chemical formulas.
In the early days of chemistry no one bothered to
do much writing about it. But it became necessary
for the alchemists to write down their experiments
- how else could they retrace their steps in case they
actuall y hit upon the gold thcy were seeking? They
invented a whole line of complicated symbols that
only they could undcrstand.
As chcmists dclvcd deeper and deeper into the
mysteri es of mattcr it became more and morc im-
portant for them to write out their experiments in
such a way that all other chemists would know what
they were trying to explain.
The first to invent a usable system was J ohn Dal-
ton, an English scientist. Tbe invention was almost
forced upon him.
In his study of chemistry he had become convinced
that all chemical reactions could be explained in
terms of the tiniest possible part of one element re-
acting with the tiniest possible part of another. These
particles he called " atoms." The smallest possi ble
part of the compound that resulted be called a " com-
pound atom"- today we call it a "molecule."
To explain his " atomic theory" Dalton made use
of circles, each with a marking to indicate a spccific
clemcnt. These circles served to explain Dalton's
theory but they were too diffi cult to work with to
show complicated.chemical reactions.
A Swedish chemist, Jons Jakob Berzclius, worked
out a simpler system - the same system scientists
use today.
For his s)'mbols he look the first letter of the Latin
name of each element- C for "carbo," S for "sul-
fur. " Where two names started with the same letter,
he addcd a small letter to one of the symbols to
distinguish the two elements from each other - he
used Ca for "calcium," for instance, to distinguish
it from carbon (C).
But Berzelius went an important step further.
By then the French chemist, Josepb Louis Proust ,
had discovered that whenc\'er elements form com-
pounds these are always of a very definite compo-
sition - the " Law of Definite Composition." Water
molecules, for example, always contain the same
number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. And Dalton
bad found that when two elements combine in dif-
ferent ways t hey do this in simple proportions - the
"Law of Multiple Proportions." One atom of carbon
and one atom of oxygen make carbon monoxide; one
atom of carbon and t wo atoms of oxygen make car-
ball dioxide.
To describe these thi ngs in a simple way Berzelius
made each of his symbols stand not onl y for a specifi c
element but also for its relative weight as compared
to t he weight of other clements-its "atamic weight."
To show tbe composition of a compound he simply
put together the symbols for the elements into a
" formula"-CO, HCI, FeS, and so on. ;'CO" then not
onl y meant that one atom of carbon and one atolD
of oX)'gen combine to make one molecule of carbon
monoxide, hut also that 12 weight uni ts of carbon
(12 being the atomic weight of carbon) combine with
16 weight uni ts of oxygen (l 6 being the atomic weight
of oxygen) to form 28 weight uni ts of the compound
cnrbon monoxide.
When a compound contained several atoms of tbe
same element Berzelius indicated this by placing a
number in front of the symbol. I t was later found
necessary to change Lhis to a small er number, called
a "subscript," placed at the lower ri ght of the sym-
bol - H
2
0 , CO
2
,
In recent years it has been necessary to change
Dalton's idea of an atom as being the smallest in-
divisible part of an element. Nowadays we have
machines, such as the cyclotron, that can bombard,
or "smash" aloms into still smaller parts-neutrons,
and electricall y charged protons and elect rons. Ac-
cording to today's aLomic theory protons and neu-
trons form the nucleus or the atom and electrons
whirl around the nucleus with such tremendous
speed t hat they seem to form a "shell" around it.
But even with our lI ew idea of an atom, Dalton's
main theory is still useful for explaining chemical re-
actions, and BerzeLius' method is still the simplest
"shorthand" method any scientist has ever devised
for writing them down.
37
AN ATOM MIGHT LOOK LIKE A BAll SUCH AS THIS IF
YOU ENLARGED IT A BilliON TIMES. THE " SHELl" IS
NOT SOLID-IT CONSISTS OF ELECTRONS MOVING SO
fAST THAT THEY SEEM TO FORM A SOLID SHELL.
IF YOU COULD SLOW DOWN AN ENLARGED CARBON
ATOM YOU MIGHT SEE TWO OF ITS ELEORONS TRAVEL-
ING AROUND THE NUCLEUS IN AN "INNER SHELL" AND
FOUR MORE WHIRLING AROUND IN AN " OUTER SHELL."
IF YOU COULD HALT AN ENLARGED CARBON ATOM
COMPLETELY, IT WOULD LOOK A LOT LIKE OUR SOLAR
SYSTEM, WITH A " SUN" (PROTONS AND NEUTRONS) IN
THE CENTER AND PLANETS" (ELECTRONS) AROUND IT.
1
2
3

5
6
7
FROli THE earliest t imes people have tried to explain
what. "matter" was made of, Most early philos-
ophers agreed that. " maLter" was made up of what
t.hey called "elements," But. their idea of an " e1e-
ment." was quite different. from what we mean by
that word today.
The early Greek philosophers thought the enti re
unherse was composed of onl y four hasicsubstances:
firc. earth. water, and air. This explanation made
sense at the time and was not seriously challenged
for many centuries.
The old Romans actually knew nine of the sub-
stances we call elements today. They called them.
of course. by their Latin names (the same we use
today in chemical symbols): carbo (carbon - C).
sulfur (8), aurum (gold - Au), argentum (sil ver -
FOR MORE THAN A THOUSAND YEARS PHILOSOPHERS
INSISTED THAT ALL SUBSTANCES WERE MADE UP OF FOUR
ELEMENTS: fiRE THAT WAS DRY AND HOT. EARTH THAT WAS
HOT AND MOIST, WATER THAT WAS MOIST AND COLD,
AIR THAT WAS COLD AND DRY. WE KNOW BmER NOWI
H 1
Hydrogen
1.008
hYdrOgenQp
"@)-
THE MODERN PICTURE OF AN ATOM HAS A NU
ClEUS IN THE CENTER, CONSISTING OF PRO
TONS (p) AND NEUTRONS (n). WITH elECTRONS
o 11 A lA
~
IN RINGS AROUND IT.
0
H.
2 LI 3 I. 4
Helium lithium Beryllium
4.003 6.940 9.013
N. I. Na 11
M.
12
THE PERIODIC TAB L E OF THE ELEMENTS
Neon Sodium Magnesium
20.1 B3 22.991 24.32
111 A IV A V A VI A Vll A ,
A 18
K 1. Ca

S. 21
TI 2. V .3
C, 2. Mn 25 F. .6
Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Tltonium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron
39.944 39. 1 40.0B 44.96 47.9 50.95 52.01 54.94 5.5.85
K,
36 Ib 37
5,
38
Y 3.
Z,
oo Nb 41 Ma

T, 43 I. ..
Krypton Rubi dium Strontium
Y"rium
Zirconi um Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Rutheni um
B3.B B5.48 B7.63
88.92 91 . 22 92.91 95.95

IOU
X. 54 C. 55 la 56
57-7'
HI 7. Ta 73 W 7.
R. 75 O. 76
Xenon Ce5ium Barium ~
Hafni um Tantal um Tungsten Rheni um Osmi um
131 .3 132.91 137.36 178.50 IBO.95 IB3.86 186.22 190.2
Rn 86
F,
87 la 88 89-103
DAlKALINE
Rodon Froncium Radium Actinons
DINERT
I
I ALKALI
222 223 226.05 GASES
EARTH
METALS
METALS
La 57 C. 58
p,
5. Nd 60 Pm 61 5m 62
ROWS RUNNING FROM LEFT TO
lanthonum
Cerium
' rol ... dYIII;ulII Neodymium Promethium Samari um
RIGHT ARE CALLED PERIODS. COL 138.92
140. 13 140.92 144.27
,.,
150.35
UMNS RUNNING fROM TOP TO
BOTTOM ARE CAllED GROUPS. THE
A,
8. Tb 90 Pa
. ,
U

Np .3 Pu

elEMENTS WITHIN A GROUP HAVE
Actini um Thori um Protacti ni um
Urani um
Neptuni um Plutoni um
MANY TRAITS IN COMMON.
227 232.05 231 23B.07
237 242
38
Ag), ferrum (iron - Fe), cilprum (copper - Cu),
stannum (tin - Sn), plumbum (lead - Pb), hydrar-
gyrum (mercury-Hg).
MANY SCIENTISTS HAD
NOTICED THAT IF YOU tiNE
UP THE ELEMENTS ACCORD
ING TO ATOMIC WEIGHTS,
CERTAIN CHEMICAL TRAITS
OCCUR PERIODICALLY. THE
RUSSIAN SCIENTIST, DMI.
TRI MENDElEEFF, ON THIS
BASIS DISCOVERED THE PE
RIODIC tAW AND DEVEL_
OPED THE PERIODIC TABLE.
By 1800, t hirty-four elements had been discovered.
Within the next t en years, thirt een more had been
added and hod been given made-up Lat in names-
among them natrium (sodium - Na), kalium (potas-
sium - K), and aluminium (aluminum - AI). By
the beginning of the twentieth century, eighty-four
elements were known.
Today the number has reached 102 - the last ten
man-made, produced by splitting the atoms of other
elements. Within a short time, Element 103 will
probably be discovered.
In this table you will find listed t he 102 clements
that are koown today. Each element is described by
its chemical symbol , its atomic number, its full name,
and its atomic weight.
magnesium
chlorine
III B
THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN AN ATOM IS ITS
ATOMIC NUMBER. AN ATOM ALWAYS HAS THE
8
SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS.
Boron
HYDROGEN IS THE SIMPLEST OF All ATOMS.
10.B2
5
AI \3
Aluminum
VIII
I
I B \I B
26.98
Co 27 HI 28 Cu 2. Z. 30 G. 31
Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium
58.9" 58.71 63.54
65.38 69.72
lh 5
... ..
AI
. 7 Cd .. In

RhodlUll'l Palladium Sliver Cadmium Indium
102.91 106.4 107.8B 112.41 114.82
I,
n Pt 78 Au 7. HI 80 To 81
Iridium
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium
192. 2 195.09 107 200.61 20" .39
IV B VB
C

H 7
Corbon Nitrogen
12.011 14.00B
51 I. P IS
Silicon Phosphorus
28.09 30.975
Ge 32 A. 33
Germanium Arsenic
72.6 74.91
Sn SO
5. 51
Ton
Ant imony
118.7 121 .76
P.
8'
II 83
leod Bhimuth
207. 21 200
I
HEAVY
METALS
r-----J METAl-
L--J lOIOS
/
NON-
METALS
,_--, RARE
I EARTH
METALS
l u 63 Gd .. Tb .5 Dy 66 Ho .7
E,

1m

Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium
152 157. 26 158.93 162.51 16" .94 167. 27 168.94
Am 95 Cm .. Ik 97
Cf 98
,
"
Fm 100
My
101
Ameticium Curium Berkelium
Californium Ei ndeinlum fermium Mendelevium
2<3 2<7 2<0
2.0
25. 255 25.
39
,
1.1'''' . "
A YOUNG ENGliSH SCIEN
TIST, HENRY MOSElEY, PER
FECTED THE PERIODIC TA
BLE. HE DISCOVERED THE
LAW OF ATOMIC NUMBERS
AND ARRANGED THE ELE
MENTS ACCORDING TO
THE ELECTRIC CHARGE
VI B
0 8
Oxygen
I.
5 I.
Sulfur
32.066
s. 3.
Selenium
78.96
To 52
Telluri um
127.61
Po 8.
Polonium
210
y.
70
Ynerbium
173.04
No 102
Nobelium
251
VII B
F

Fluorine
10
CI 17
Chlorine
35.457
8,
35
Bromine
79.916
I 53
Iodine
126.91
At 15
Astatine
210
I
UNSTABLE
ElEMENTS
Lu 71
t ufetium
174.99
, 103
The Myst eries of Solutions
..
..
SVANTE ARRHENIUS DEVelOPED THEORY TO EX
PLAIN HOW SOlUTIONS CONDUO ElEORICITY.
<..
<!l e Gl
0e 0
@e-
o 6l
FRmol THE earliest days, scientists experimenting
with chemistry have worked with solutions. The
liquid they used for making a solution (usuall y
water) they called the "solvent." The chemical dis-
solved was the "solute."
When chemists began to use electricity as one of
their tools. they discovered that different solutions
behaved in different wa"ys. The solution in water of
a great number of chemicals - sugar among them
- did not let electricity pass through. They were
"non-conductors." Some chemicals. on the other
hand, conducted electricity very easily. They were
good conductors - "electrol ytes."
In 1874 a Swedish scientist named Svante Arrhe-
nius developed a theory to help explain the mysteri-
ous behavior of solutions. He was only 25 years
old at the time.
His idea was that when a chemical that conducts
electricity is dissolved in water, each molecule is
broken up - "dissociated" - into electrically char-
ged atoms or groups of atoms. These atoms or groups
of atoms Arrhenius called "joos" from a Greek word
that means "to wander." His new theory came
to be called "Arrhenius' theory of ionization."
When table sa1t (sodium chloride, NaCl), for in-
stance, is dissolved in water, it ionizes into positively
charged sodium ions (Na+) and negatively charged
chlorine ions (CI- ). These ions "wander" about in
all directions until an electric current is applied to the
solution. When that happens, the negative ions rush
to the positive pole, the positive ions to the negati\'e
pole. It is the ions that conduct the current through
the solution.
The reason that non-conductors do not conduct
electricity is that they do not dissociate into ions.
Arrhenius' theory of ionization helped explain a
great number of things that have puzzled chemists.
His theory has been modified somewhat over the
years but in most respects holds true today.
IN HIS EARLY EXPERIMENTS, SVANTE
ARRHENIUS USED A SIMPLE SET UP.
YOU CAN EASILY REPEAT SOME OF HIS
EXPERIMENTS IN YOUR OWN LAB,
USING FLASHLIGHT BATIERIES.
TEStiNG CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLUTIONS
SET UP THE SAME APPARATUS
AS ON PAGE 25. ADD fLASH
LIGHT BULB TO END Of ONE
WIRE. TRY DIFfERENT SOLU.
TIONS IN GLASS. SOME CON.
DUCT ElEQRICITY AND BULB
LIGHTS UP. OTHERS DO NOT
AND THE BULB DOES NOT
LIGHT UP.
SATURATED SOLUTIONS
A SATURATED SOLUTION IS ONE
IN WHICH NO MORE OF THE
CHEMICAL WILL GO IN SOLU
TION AT THAT PARTICULAR TEM
PERATURE.
SALT
~ E T U
r C.- ~ ~
"dk#..s
POUR 20 ml WATER OF ROOM
TEMPERATURE INTO A CUSTARD
CUP. ADD 6 9 SALTPETER (POTAS.
SlUM NITRATE). STIR. All THE SALT
PETER DISSOlVES.
ADD 3 9 MORE SALTPETER.
STIR. SOME OF THE ADDED SALT.
PETER DOES NOT DISSOLVE. CLEAR
LIQUID IS SATURATED AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE. (AT 20C., 6.3 9
KNO, MAKES SATURATED SOLU
TION IN 20 ml WATER.)
S PLACE CUSTARD CUP OVER ALCOHOl BURNER. ADD 10 9 MORE SALT.
PETER. SOON All SALTPETER IS DISSOlVED. AT HIGHER TEMPERATURES
IT TAKES MORE SOlUTE TO MAKE A SATURATED SOlUTION. (AT BOILING,
20 ml H10 DISSOLVES 49 g SALTPETER.)
No
1
S
1
0,'5H
1
0
TAKE SOLUTION Off FIRE. AS IT COOLS, MUCH OF THE SALTPETER
COMES OUT AS CRYSTALS BY SLOW CRYSTALLIZATION. LIQUID IS AGAIN
A SOlUTION SATURATED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.
BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION HAS lOWER
FREEZING POINT THAN
THE SOLVENT USED.
IN TRAY WITH INDIVIDUAL
ICE CUBE CUPS, POUR WATER
INTO EACH CUP. IN ONE, DIS
SOLVE t PINCH Of SALT, IN
NEXT 2 PINCHES, AND SO ON.
LEAVE ONE WITHOUT SALT.
PLACE IN fREEZING COMPART-
MENT. CUPS LEAST SALTED
FREEZE fiRST.
SOLUTION HAS HIGHER BOILING
POINT THAN THE SOLVENT USED.
WITH CANDY THERMOMETER,
DETERMINE AT WHAT POINT
WATER BOILS. ADD 1 PINCH
OF SALT. WHAT IS BOILING
POINT NOW? ADO MORE
SALT. READ AGAIN.
CRYSTALLIZATION
YOU CAN FOllOW
CRYSTAlliZATION OF
MgSO . IN TEST TUBE,
HEAT MIXTURE OF
5 ml WATER AND 1
TEASPOON EPSOM
SALT UNTIL SALT DIS
SOlVES. POUR HOT
SOLUTION OVER
PANE Of GLASS
CLEANED WITH DE
TERGENT. CRYSTALS
MAKE NEEDLE L1KE
NETWORK.
~
MgSO.7H.O
MANY CHEMICALS
FORM CRYSTALS OF
DISTINCT SHAPES. ~
FeSO.'7H.O ~
MAKING SOLUTIONS
MAKE 50 ml GRADUATE FIRST, MEASURE 50 ml WATER
INTO A NARROW JAR, USING 10 ml TEST TUBE GRADU-
ATE SHOWN ON PAGE 15. MAKE A MARK AT 50 ml LEVEl.
10-j. (10 PER CENT) SOLUTION: MEASURE 40 ml WA
TER INTO A CUSTARD CUP. ADD 5 9 OF THE CHEMICAL.
STIR. (TO MAKE IT DISSOLVE QUICKER, YOU MAY WANT
TO HEAT THE WATER SLIGHTLY.) POUR SOlUTION INTO
50 ml GRADUATE. ADD WATER TO THE 50 ml MARK.
2% SOLUTION: MEASURE 40 ml WATER INTO CUSTARD
CUP. ADD 1 9 Of THE CHEMICAl. STIR TO DISSOlVE.
POUR INTO 50 ml GRADUATE. ADO WATER TO 50 ml.
41
HOW DO YOU KNOW AN ACID?
ACIDS TASTE SOUR.
lWPP.O-
CHl.OR
AUt>
2 ACIDS ACT WITH
INDICATORS.
ADD 5 ml HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID TO 15
ml WATER. DROP 5
DROPS Of MIXTURE IN
GLASS OF WATER. DIP
FINGER IN THIS HIGH-
L Y 01 LUTED ACID.
TASTE DROP ON fiN
GER TIP.

PLACE DROP OF DILUTED HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID ON STRIP OF BLUE
lITMUS PAPER. THE COlOR CHANGES
TO RED.
ACIDS ACT WITH
METALS.
ACIDS NEUTRALIZE
BASES.
\

"
, ,
'r
i
\
PLACE A STRIP OF ZINC IN
A TEST TUBE. POUR A FEW
ml HYDROCHLORIC ACID
ON IT. ZINC DISSOlVES.
SmlNG THE HYDROGEN
OF ACID FREE.
. - ,.

COLOR 2 mllYESOLUTlON
'liTH A DROP Of PHENOL-
PHTHALEIN SOlUTION.
.. POUR INTO 5 ml HYDROCHLORIC
l'l:ID. THE PINK COlOR DISAPPEARS.
42
Working '-Vith Acids
ACIDS have many trai ts in common. T hey taste
sour. They change tim color of certain plant sub-
stances-which arc called '; indicators." They con-
tain hydrogen (JI) that can be r eplaced by a metal.
They neutralize bases.
But what is an acid ? Earlier, the " acidic" trai ts
wcre uscd to define an acid. But wit.h the modern
understanding of the atom, a different definition is
used. You will remember that the lIucleus of an atom
contains positivel y charged protons. Acids in solu-
tion liberate protons as ions (H+) . And so we say
that. an acid is a subs tance that will givc up - or
" donate" - protollS to another substance. Acids are
" proton donors." The foremost. acids used in industry
are s ulfuric acid (H
1
SOJ . nitric acid (HNO,). and
hydrochloric acid (HCI).
The first two - sulfuric acid and nitric acid -
should NEYER he used in the home lab. They are
much too DANGEROUS. They destroy the skin and
might blind you if you got them in the eyes. (Wher-
eyer a chemical cxperiment. would ordinaril y call for
sulfuri c acid, this hook uses sodium acid sulCate-
sodium bisulfate. "Sani-Flush"; wherever
(CONTINUED ON PAGE 44 )
HOME-MADE INDICATORS
CUT UP OR GRATE A
RED CABBAGE LEAf.
DROP IN HOT WATER.
STEEP fOR Y2 HOUR:.
POUR OFf LIQUID. USE
AS lNDICATOR .
MANY flOWERS AND FRUITS CONTAIN COLORING
MAnER WHICH YOU CAN EXTRACT WITH HOT WATER:
AND USE AS AN INDICATOR fOR ACIDS AND BASES.
Working With Bases
BASES taste bracki sh. They change the color of
" indicators." They contain a combination of
and hydrogen atoms calJed " hydroxyl'"' (OB) . They
neutralize acids.
Bul what. is a Wllen a base is dissoh"cd in
water it. liberates negati vely charged h)' droxyl ions
(OH-). When a hase is neutralized, these iOIlS take
on - or " accept." - positi ycly charged protons from
another substancc. A base is a substance that. will
accept and combine wit.h protons from another sub-
stance. Bases are " proton acceptors." The most im-
portant. bases arc sodium h ydroxide ('; I)'e," NaOH).
ammonium h)'droxidc (" ammonia," and
calcium hydroxide ("slaked lime," Ca(OH)2) '
The first of these - sodium hydroxide - is used
in many households to clean sluggish drains and to
keep sinks [rom sLopping up ("Drano" ). "CSE IT
WITll GREA.T CARE in your experiments. Do
not touch I"ye llakcs with your fingers and do not
get the solution on your skin - it djssohcs the natu-
ral all. It is particul arly dangeroll s t o get l:ye in
)our eyes. If "you get on :you. dilute it quickly
..... ith LOTS OF WATER.
(CONTINUED ON PAGE 45)
LABORATORY INDICATORS

" r--_ \
o
LITMUS PAPER IS MOST
COMMONLY USED INDICA_
TOR. AN ACID TURNS BLUE
UTMUS RED. BASES TURN
RED lITMUS BLUE.
WHITE PHENOlPHTHALEIN
TURNS PINK WITH BASES.
GET SMALL AMOUNT FROM
DRUG STORE. DISSOlVE A
PINCH {0.05 gJ IN 50 ml
DENATURED ALCOHOl.
pHYDRION PAPER
IS MORE EXACT
INDICATOR FOR
ACIDS AND BASES.
43
HOW DO YOU KNOW A BASE?
BASES TASTE BRACKISH.
NoOH
10"10
BASES ACT WITH
INDICATORS.
DISSOlVE 5 9 (l TEA
SPOON) LYE IN 50 ml
WATER. DROP 5
DROPS OF SOLUTION
IN GLASS OF WATER.
DIP FINGER IN THIS
HIGHLY DILUTED
BASE. TASTE DROP
ON FINGER TIP.
PLACE DROP OF LYE SOLUTION ON
RED lITMUS PAPER. THE COLOR IN
ST ANTL Y CHANGES TO BLUE.
BASES ACT WITH
FAT.
ADD TINY LUMP OF FAT
TO 5 ml lYE SOlUTION .
HEAT GENTlY. FAT DIS-
SOLVES TO FORM SOAP.
it BASES NEUTRALIZE
ACIDS.
TO 2 ml DILUTED HCI ADD
SINGLE DROP OF PHENOL
PHTHALEIN SOlUTION.
POUR INTO 5 ml LYE SOLUTION.
TAE MIXTURE TURNS A BRILLIANT PINK.
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CONTAINING ACIDS
-'..
. ..
LIME
ORANGE TOMATO
ACID FROM
NON-METALLIC
OXIDE
IGNITE A SULFUR CANDLE {OR A
TINY HEAP OF flOWERS Of SUl
fURl ON A PIECE Of TIN. HOlD
MOISTENED BLUE lITMUS PAPER
OVER FlAME. SULFUROUS ACI D
fORMED TURNS IT RED.
ACID FROM A SALT
. ~ . ~ ' . '
Acids-COltlltD.ll1lil.lleJ
nitric acid would be call ed for, this book produces
it in a mixture of a ni t rate. KNO
"
and sodium bi-
sulfate.)
Hydrochloric acid is used in Illany households un-
der the name of "muriatic acid." Whenenr )' ou usc
hydrochloric acid in an experiment. USE IT WITH
GREAT CARE. If any of it gets on you, di lute it
quickJy with LOTS OF WATER. Or neutralize it
with bicarbonate of soda (but not if in the eyes).
blue litmus turns
red from odd.
A
SALT
pH SYSTEM IS A WAY OF DESCRIBING THE RELATIVE
ACIDITY OR ALKALINITY Of A SOlUTION. PURE WATER
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
! SULfURIC ACID
l3 1 l3
I LITMUS
RED CABBAGE
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
44

SET UP APPARATUS AS SHOWN.
INTO TEST TUBE A DROP MIXTURE
OF Y4 TEASPOON TABLE SALT AND
% TEASPOON SODIUM BISULFATE.
HEAT. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE PRO
DUCED TURNS MOISTENED BLUE UT-
MUS RED. ADD 2 ml WATER TO TEST
TUBE B. SHAKE. RESULT IS WEAK
HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
S NEUTRAL WITH pH7. THE lOWER THE NUMBER BE-
LOW 7, THE MORE ACID THE SOlUTION. THE HIGHER
SALIVA
SORIC ACID MILK
j
8
I
HOUSEHOLD ITIMS CONTAINING BASES
' ..
-'.
I'
SCOURING
POWOER
Bases-Contrn1UleJ.
You can also neulralize it with "inegar (but nol if
in the eyes),
Ammonia is a common household cleaning liquid.
Ammonia should also be handled with care aod
should be washed ofT quickly if you get it on you.
Also watch your nose when ),OU work with ammonia.
It has a "cry strong smell.
Calcium hydroxide is a while powder. You will
use it in a great. number of experiments.
BASE FROM A SALT
IN A CUSTARD CUP, DISSOLVE 1
TEASPOON SAL SODA (WASHING
SODA, SODIUM CARBONATE) IN
50 ml WATER. HEAT SLIGHTlY. ADD
SLAKED liME MIXED WITH WATER.
STIR. CHEMICAL REACTION PRO-
DUCES SODIUM HYDROXIDE AND
CALCIUM CARBONATE. filTER.
CLEAR LIQUID CONTAINS THE SO
DIUM HYDROXIDE (l YE). THE .cAL-
CIUM CARBONATE IS HelD BACK
BY THE FILTER.
THE NUMBER ABOVE 7, THE MORE ALKALINE THE SO-
LUTION. WHEN YOU KNOW AT WHAT pH AN INDICATOR
- SEA WATER I BORAX
r-BICARBONATE OF SODA
,
,
' ...... --
..... "
,
BASE FROM
METALLIC OXIDE
PLACE A LUMP OF LIME (QUICKLIME,
CALCIUM OXIDE) IN A CUSTARD CUP.
ADO AS MUCH LUKEWARM WATER AS
IT WltL ABSORB. LIME HEATS UP, GIVES
OFf STEAM. CRUMBLES INTO POWDER
Of SLAKED LIME (CALCIUM HYDROXIDE).
red litmus turns
blue from bole.
CHANGES COLOR, YOU CAN DETERMINE THE ACIDITY
OR ALKALINI TY OF THE SOLUTION YOU ARE TESTING.
MILK OF MAGNESIA
LY'
AMMONIA
LI ME WATER
J
WAT'R
,"' I
URIN
' 1(3
1(3 1 ~
61
I
IQ
t3
I
LITMUS I
R'D
CABBAGE
Salts-Chenlicals of Many Uses
NEUTRALIZATION IS USED
EXTENSIVElY IN CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS IN A TECHNIQUE
CALLED TITRATION.
TO DETERMINE THE UNKNOWN STRENGTH
OF A BASE, THE CHEMIST DROPS INTO IT
FROM A LONG TUBE-A BURme-AS MUCH
ACID OF KNOWN STRENGTH AS IS NECES-
SARY TO NEUTRALIZE IT. BY CHECKING ACID
USED HE FIGURES STRENGTH OF BASE.
FOR A TRY AT TITRATION, MIX A
FEW ml OF HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA
WITH 40 ml WATER. ADD A DROP OF
PHENOLPHTHALEIN. THIS Will COLOR
THE MIXTURE A DEEP PINK.
2 POUR 10 ml DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
-(10 INTO MEASURING TUBE. POUR SOME
OF THIS ACID INTO THE AMMONIA UNTIL
COLOR HAS ALMOST VANISHED.
:3 PICK UP A FfIN ml
OF THE MEASURED
~ . ~ ACID IN AN EYE DROP
PER (PIPETTE). DROP
ACID SLOWLY INTO
THE AMMONIA MIX
TURE UNTIL COLOR IS
COMPLETELY GONE.
RETURN ACID NOT
USED TO MEASURING
TUBE. YOU NOW
KNOW HOW MANY
mJ ACID YOU HAD TO
USE TO NEUTRALIZE
THE Ah\MONIA.
WHAT HAPPENS when you neutralize an acid with a
base or a base with an a c i d ~ The hydrogen atoms
(H + ions) of the acid combine with the hydroxyl
groups (OH- ions) of the base to form water, and
the metal atoms of the base combine wi th what re-
mains of t he acid t o form a sru t.. Or simpl y:
BASE plus ACID t. urns into
WATER plus SALT
This, for e.'(ampie, is what happens when you neu-
tralize sodium hydroxide wi th hydrochloric acid:
OH + 1 -HOH +
The result. is water and sodi um chloride ~ ordinary
table salt which has given its name to other sub-
stances of a similar nat.ure.
Of all the salts used in industry, table salt (NaCI)
and washing soda (Na, CO
I
) are of greatest impor-
tance. Numerous other chemicrus are produced [rom
them. Our way of life woul d be completely disrupted
if our country's industry did not have enough of
these t wo sruts.
Many other salts are necessary for Ollr well-being.
You' ll probably fi nd at least half a dozen different.
sal ts used dail y in your home - in cooki ng and
baking, in gardening, for cleaning.
In your chemical experiments )ou' O be working
with two classes of salts: normal salts (such as NaCI,
Na
1
CO
I
, Kl) which cont.ain no free hydrogen or
hydroxyl ions, and acid salls (such as NaHSO
"
NaHC0
1
) which contain replaceable hydrogen.
Some of t hese salts dissolve easily in wat er - all
the nit rates (salts of nitric acid) and most of t he
chlorides (salts of hydrochloric acid). Many salts,
on the other hand. are insoluble - most of the car-
bonates (salts of carbonic acid) and most sulfides
(sallS of hydrosulfuric acid).
HOW THE NAMES OF SAL T5 ARE MADE UP
THE ACID
fORMULA AND
NAME OF ACID
fORMULA AND
NAME Of SALT
SULfURIC ACIO H,SO. HYDROGEN SUlfATE Na,SO. SOOIUM SULFATE
NITRIC ACID HNO, HYDROGEN NITRATE NaNO, SODIUM NITRATE
CARBONIC ACID H,CO, HYDROGEN CARBONATE Na,CO, SODIUM CARBONATE
ACerlC ACID HC,H,O, HYDROGEN ACETATE NaC,H,O,SODIUM ACETATE
HYDROCHLORIC ACID HCI HYDROGEN CHLORIOE NaCI SODIUM CHLORIDE
HYOROSUtfURIC ACID H,S
SUlfUROUS ACID
NITROUS ACIO
CHLOROUS ACID
H,SO,
HNO,
HelO,
HYOROGEN SULfIDE Na,S SODIUM SULFIDE
HYDROGEN SUlfiTE Na,SO, SOOIUM SULFITE
HYDROGEN NITRITE NaNO, SODIUM NITRITE
HYDROGEN CHLORITE NaCIO, SODIUM CHLORITE
REMEMBER, - Ie ACIDS fORM ATE SALTS;
HYDRO. It ACIOS FORM .IDE SALTS; -OUS ACIDS FORM .ITE SALTS
46
=
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CONTAIN

ING SALTS


=- '%A
!;.'

Sani
'-'"

,
,.- So:
o
t:
..

BORAX
'"
c-::'"%
"
"
Flush

'" "
C' ..

CJ
"
WAU
ltJ6S
/t)I.

SAL'f
it
; ' .... ' :.-
" ' - ... - __ . " I
,
DIFFERENT WAYS OF PRODUCING SALTS
SALT FROM
METAL AND
ACID
DROP ZINC STRIPS
INTO A TEST TUBE.
POUR IN A COUPLE
Of ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. THE ZINC DIS
PLACES THE HYDRO-
GEN Of THE ACID TO
FORM A SALT (ZnCI
1
)
WITH THE CHLORINE.
SALT FROM METAL
OXIDE AND ACID
PLACE 1 TEASPOON CALCIUM
OXIDE (QUICKLIME) IN A
GLASS. ADD HYDROCHLORIC
ACID WHILE STIRRING. THE
QUICKLIME DISSOlVES IN THE
ACID, FORMING CALCIUM
CHLORIDE AND WATER.
TWO SALTS FROM
TWO OTHER SALTS
DISSOLVE 5 9 EP-
SOM SALTS (MAGNESI.
UM SULfATE) IN 20 ml.
WATER. BRING TO BOIL
SALT FROM ANOTHER
SALT AND ACID

DROP PIECES OF CHALK, MARBLE, OR OYS
TEll. SHELlS (ALL OF THEM CALCIUM CAR
BONATES) IN A FEW ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. RESULT IS CALCIUM CHLORIDE AND
CARBONIC ACID (WHICH BREAKS UP INTO
CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER).
THERE ARE many ways of producing a salt in ad-
dition to neutralization.
'When you made iron sulfide directl y from the two
elements iron and sulfur, )' ou produced a salt:
Fe +
When you caused zinc metal to react with hydro-
cWoric acid, you made a salt:
2n + 2 +H,
When you made sodium hydroxide, you used a
47
: /....-/'

DISSOlVE 5 9 SODA
IN 20 ml WARM WATER.
POUR INTO HOT EPSOM
SALT SOlUTION.
fiLTER THE MILKY
MIXTURE. THE fiLTRATE
CONTAINS SODIUM SUL-
FATE. MAGNESIUM CAR
BONATE IS RETAINED BY
FILTER.
J ':.

base and a salt. to form a new base and a new salt:
Ca(OH)1 + Na, -----. 2NaOH + II 1
A salt and an acid often form another salt and
another acid:
CaCO, + 2H.
+ H,CO
l
(H
2
0 + CO,)
Two soluble salts may also form two other salts-
one of them insoluble:
Na;EQl + - NgCOI +
Iodine- Violet Oll' Brown?
I
IODINE
Element 53.
At.wt.126.91.
G ray-block crYl -
1015 of " peculior
odor. Sublimu with
violet color. Com.
bines di,eclly with
metols ond non-
metols. I I hos 0
demily of 4 .9.
IODI?liE IS aQ interesting element to experiment wi t h.
It is easil y dri ven out of its compounds as beautiful ,
violet fumes tha t turn into grayish-black, metallic-
looking crystals on cooling. These crystals can be
further purified by turning them into vapor again,
and agai n cooling them into crystal form. This proc-
ess is called "sublimation."
You arc probably familiar with the 2% alcoholi c
solution of iodine known as " tincture of iodi ne," It
is found in almost every borne medicine cabinet and
is used as a disinfectant for wounds. Iodine has many
other uses - in photography and in the prepara tion
of various medicines and dyes.
Iodine has the bad habit of staining practicall y
IODIZED
SALT
everything with which it comes in contact with a
brown st ain that won' t come ofT in washing. That's
why it is advisable to have sodium thiosulfate -
photographer' s ftxing salt , "hypo"- around when
you work wi th iodine. Hypo in solution forms a
colorl ess compound with iodine.
8e careful not to breathe fume .
I
DROP HALF A DOZEN ICE CUBES
o A JAR. ADO A LITTLE WATER.
PLACE JAR AS A LID ON TOP OF
CUSTARD CUP. THE VIOLET FUMES
SETTLE ON BOTTOM OF JAR AS
GRAYISH BLACK, SHINY IODINE
CRYSTALS .
MAK.ING IODINE
IN A PYREX CUSTARD CUP
~ TOGETHER 2 g POTASSIUM
IODIDE, 2 g MANGANESE DIOX
IDE," 9 SODIUM BISULFATE. HEAT
MIXTURE GENTlY. SOON VIOLET
FUMES EMERGE.
SOLUBILITY OF IODINE
.. ,
7- '
\
\.
- .-/ -
\ \,'-
'11;( ' ;,. ' -----.!.
1
TO TEST SOLUBILITY Of
IODINE, DROP A FEW CRYS-
TALS IN EACH OF FOUR TEST
TUBES. ADD SOLVENT AND
SHAKE TUBE.
Ii
:
<-..---,
I
/'
SCRAPE IODINE CRYSTALS OFf BOTTOM Of JAR.
KEEP THEM IN SMAll, TIGHTlY CLOSED BOTTLE.
:
,
,
,
:
: :
,
,
,
..
..
-
~
f=
F"
- '
di ssolves
when put in
plain woter.
} hordlyany
iodine
iodine
dissolve s in
waler If you
odd potos-
sium iodide.
iodine
makes violet
solullon In
carbon let-
rachloride.
iodine
dissolves
With brown
color in
alcohol.
48
IODINE FREED BY CHLORINE
SET UP APPARATUS AS DESCRIBED ON PAGE 35 WITH THIS
EXCEPTION: IN BOTTLE I, MAKE SOLUTION OF 112 g PO-
TASSIUM IODIDE IN.40 ml WATER. AS CHLORINE BUBBLES
THROUGH THIS SOLUTION IT TURNS BROWN FROM THE
FREED IODINE. WITH MORE CHLORINE IT CLEARS AGAIN
WHEN COLORLESS 10DIC ACID FORMS.
IODINE BY OXIDATION
. '
STARCH TEST FOR
IODINE
DISSOlVE A FEW CRYSTALS OF
POTASSIUM IODIDE AND A FEW
GRAINS OF SODIUM BISULFATE
IN 5 ml WATER. ADD HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE. SHAKE. THE FREE
IODINE COlORS LIQUID BROWN.
THE CHLORINE IN
LIQUID BLEACH ALSO
FREES IODINE. ADD
A COUPLE OF DROPS
TO SOLUTION OF A
FEW POTASSIUM
IODIDE CRYSTALS IN
10 ml WATER.
MAKING
IODIDE
'-
--
-
"
MIX A FEW CRYSTALS (AS
MUCH AS A PEAl OF po.
TASSIUM IODIDE WITH 1ft
TEASPOON SODIUM BISUL-
FATE. PLACE STRIPS OF
wmED lITMUS PAPER AT
THE MOUTH OF TUBE. HEAT
GENTlY. IODINE IS RE-
LEASED. ALSO HYDROGEN
IODIDE- AN ACID THAT
TURNS BLUE lITMUS RED .
REMOVING
IODINE STAIN
PAINT PAPER WITH IODINE. DISSOLVE A FEW CRYSTALS OF SODIUM
THIOSULFATE ("HYPO'" IN WATER. PAINT WITH THIS SOLUTION OVER
THE BROWN COLOR. YOU Will GET WHITE LmERS AS HYPO FORMS
COlORLESS COMPOUND WITH IODINE.
SHAKE UP A PINCH Of S1 ARCH WITH
COLD WATER IN A TEST TUBE. ADD TO
HOT WATER. BRING TO A BOIL. COOl.
POUR DROP OF MIXTURE INTO 10 ml
WATER. ADD DROP Of IODINE SOLU-
TION. BRIGHT BLUE COlOR RESULTS.
49
MOST Of OUR SUL
fUR IS PRODUCED
DRIVING IT OUT
- THE GROUND
- IN MELTED FORM BY
__ A PROCESS INVENT. _
ED BY HERMAN

S
SULFUR
Element 16.
Atomic wi.:
32.066. Density,
2.07. Yellow crys-
tals. Insoluble in
waler . Melts 01
119C. Boils 01
"'''4"C. Burns in
a ir with blue flame.
SOME
SULFUR
USES
S ulfur and Its C OInpounds
SUPERHEATED
WATER PIPED UN-
DERGROUND
MELTS THE SUL-
FUR. COMPRESSED
AIR. FORCES SUL-
fUR TO THE SUR-
IT IS
V LARGE
50
I N TIlE old days, sulfur was called "brimstone"
("burning stone" - from an old word, brennen, to
burn). When it burned with a blue flame and a suf-
focating smell, people were certain that the devil
himself was around.
Until rairl)' recentl y, most sulfur came from the
volcanic Italian island of Sicil y. But today, America
produces most of the world's sulfur. About a hun-
dred years ago, big deposits were found in Louisiana,
several hundred feet underground. The problem of
getting it up was solved in 1894 in a very clever way
by a young German emigrant, Herman Frasch. He
piped superheated water underground to melt the
sulfur, then forced the melted sulfur to the top with
compressed air.
Sulfur itself is used for many purposes. By a proc-
ess called "vulcanization" it turns sti cky, gummy
raw TUbber into clast ic rubber usable for automobile
tires and other rubber products. Sulfur also goes
into such things as matc hes and gunpowder and
medical preparations.
But by far the greatest. use of sulfur is in the prep-
aration of sulfuri c acid This acid enters
into the (CONTINUED ON PAGE 52)
sulfur candle
flowers of sulfur
SULfUR CAN USUALLY BE BOUGHT IN THREE DI FfERENT
FORMS, AS STICK SULfUR, SULFUR CANDLES, AND AS A
POWDER (FLOWERS OF SULfUR). UNDER MICROSCOPE,
SULFUR POWDER PROVES TO BE RHOMBIC CRYSTALS.
MELTING SULFUR
WHEN YOU MELT SULFUR, IT
GOES THROUGH FOUR STAGES,
1. IT FIRST MELTS INTO A WATERY,
STRAWCOLORED LIQUID.
2. IT NEXT BECOMES SlOW-FlOW-
ING, CARAMEL-BROWN.
3. IT TURNS ALMOST SOLID.
4. IT BECOMES LIQUID AGAIN AND
BOILS WITH YELLOW VAPOR.
,
,
.'
MAKE A MOlD FROM A NICKel BY AITACHING
WALL OF SCOTCH TAPE AROUND THE EDGE OF IT.
Fi ll TEST TUBE 1h FULL OF FLOWERS OF SUL
. MELT GENTlY HIGH ABOVE FLAME. POUR INTO
MOlD. WHEN COOLED YOU HAVE A PERFECT CAST.
PLASTIC SULFUR
1 MElT 1h TEST
rUBE POWDERED
SULFUR. CONTINUE
HEATING. SOON IT
NO LONGER FLOWS.
YOU CAN TURN TUBE
UPSIDE DOWN WITH_
OUT ANYTHING
COMING OUT.
2 HEAT THE THICK-
ENED SULFUR FURTHER
UNTil IT FLOWS FREE-
lY AGAIN. THEN POUR
THE DARK FLUID INTO
COLD WATER. IT TURNS
INTO A PLASTIC MASS.
IN A FEW DAYS THIS
AGAIN BECOMES YEL-
LOW SULFUR.
-.
51
MAKING MONOCLINIC
CRYSTALS OF SULFUR
HEAT 1f2 TEST TUBE FUll OF
FLOWERS OF SULFUR TilL IT IS
MELTED WITH LIGHT COlOR.
POUR MELTED SULFUR INTO A DRY FILTER. AS SOON
AS CRUST FORMS ON TOP, OPEN UP FILTER PAPER.
YOU Will SEE THAT SULFUR HAS FORMED TINY
NEEDLE-LIKE CRYSTALS.
I
!
\
PRECIPITATED
SULFUR
DISSOLVE A FEW CRYS-
TALS OF HYPO (SODIUM
THIOSULFATE) IN Vt
TEST TUBE WATER. ADO
1 DROP OF HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID. SOON
LIQUID TURNS MILKY OF
EXCEEDINGLY FINE PAR-
TICLES OF SULFUR.
"
SULFUR
DIOXIDE
'OR
BLEACHING
MAKING
SULFUROUS
ACID
ATTACH WIRE TO SMAll BOTTLE CAP. Fill THE BOTTLE CAP
HALF FULL Of SULFUR POWDER. liGHT THE SUlFUR.
LOWER BURNING SULFUR INTO A JAR. JAR FillS WITH FUMES
Of SULFUR DIOXIDE. AFTER A FEW MOMENTS, COVER THE JAR
WITH GLASS PLATE TO EXTINGUISH SULFUR.
lifT GLASS PLATE. DROP INTO JAR APPLE PEELINGS AND MOIS
TENED, BRIGHT COlORED flOWER. COVER AGAIN WITH GLASS
PLATE. IN A SHORT WHILE, COlORS HAVE BLEACHED.
LIGHT SULFUR IN BOTTLE CAP. LOW-
ER BURNING SULFUR INTO JAR.
WHEN JAR IS FUll OF FUMES, RE-
MOVE SULFUR. ADD A FEW ml WA.
producti on - directl y or indirectl y - of practicall y
every manufactured article we use today. It is used
in refining gasoli ne, in making steel and paper. fibers
and films, plasti C's and e.\:plosi\'es, and thousands of
other chemicals.
Sulfur Dioxide - The first step in making sulfuri c
acid from sulfur is to burn the sulfur.
TER. SHAKE. AS SO. DISSOlVES IN
WATER IT FORMS A WEAK ACID-
SULFUROUS ACID, H.SO . TEST FOR
ACID WITH BlUE lITMUS PAPER.
SULFUR
DIOXIDE
FROM
A SALT
,
DISSOlVE 'h TEA-
SPOON HYPO [SO-
DIUM THIOSUL .
FATEIIN.oIO ml WA-
TER. ADD A FEW ml
HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. SULFUR 01-
OXIOE AND PRECIP.
ITATE OF SULFUR
RESULT.
SO
SULFUR
2
Molecular wi . 6".
Colorless gas with
a choking odor .
Does nat burn nor
support combvs
tion. 2.2 weight of
air. Highly soluble
in wol er-3, 937
vols. in 100 vol$.
ot 20 C.
52
When burning in the air, each atom of sulfur takes
on two atoms of oxygen to make one molecule of
sulfur dioxide gas (S0 2) _
By a special, complicated process, sulfur dioxide
can be forced to take on another oxygen atom and
form sulfur tri oxide With water, this makes
sulfuri c acid:
H,O+ Sa l --
Hydrogen Sulfide - Many suUur compounds have
unpleasant_, penetrating smeUs. Some of these com-
pounds have very complex molecul es j ust imagine
a skunk producing a chemical wit.h this formula:
CH, CH, CH,CI-I,SH! The s mell of roLLen eggs, on
the other hund, comes from the simple compound
hydrogen sulfide (H,S).
Hydrogen suHide is used in chemical anal ysis to
determine what metal s are found in a certain sub-
stance. II combines with metals into sal ts (sulfides)
t.hat can be distinguished from each other by their
colors and by the way they react with acids and
other chemicals.
NOTE: Perform these exper iments out-of-doors or be-
fore an open window. Ie car.ful not to breathe fumes.
H S
HYDRO_
2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
pound. Molecular
wI. 34. Colorleu
gas with odor of
rotten eggs. Burns
with a blue Rome
to form SO . 1.17
weight of oi , . fair
Iy soluble in woler
-25B vol,. in 100
vo[s. al 20 C.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
IS AN IMPORTANT LAB
TOOL FOR CHEM[CAL
ANALYSJS.

HYDROGEN SULFIDE
HAS SMELL OF
ROTIEN EGGS

e DROP INTO A DRY TEST TUBE V4
TEASPOON POWDERED SUlFUR AND A
LUMP OF CANDLE WAX AS LARGE AS
A PEA. SET UP APPARATUS AS SHOWN .
MAKE SOLUTION IN TEST TUBE OF
CHEMICAL YOU WANT TO ANAL'flE.
LEAD GLASS TUBE INTO THE SOLUTION .
HEAT TEST TUBE WITH SULFUR MIX-
TURE. HYDROGEN SULFIDE BUBBLES
INTO TEST SOLUTION. If THIS CON
TAINS SALT OF ONE OF THE HEAVY

METALS, A PRECIP[TATE WILL FORM. r - * * ~
HYDROGEN SULFIDE FROM FeS
MAKE IRON SULFIDE AS DESCRIBED
ON PAGE 22. BREAK THE TEST TUBE
tiN A PAPER BAG}. CRUSH THE feS
WITH A HAMMER. DROP SMALL PIECES
IN ANOTHER TEST TUBE. BY ADD[NG
HYDROCHLORIC ACI D YOU MAKE H.S.
EXPERIMENTS
WITH H,S
I
PUT STOPPER WITH GLASS TUBE
WITH JET POINT IN TEST TUBE IN
WHICH YOU MAKE H.S. MOISTEN A
SILVER COIN. HOlD IT IN H,S STREAM
ING OUT Of JET. IT TURNS BLACK
FROM SILVER SULfIDE.
THE eotOR Of THE SULFIDE FORMED WHEN YOU LEAD H,S
INTO A SOLUTION CONTAINING A SALT Of A HEAVY METAL
WILL HELP TEll YOU WHAT METAL IS fOUND IN THE SALT.
No,S F.S CdS C,S
53
AfTER A FEW MOMENTS,
IGNITE H,S AT JET TIP. IT
BURNS WITH SO, SMElL.

HOlD COLD GLASS PLATE IN
,S FlAME. BECAUSE OF INCOM
PLETE COMBUSTION, SULFUR IS
SET FREE. YOU CAN ACTUALLY
" DRAW" WITH THE H,S FlAME.
ZoS
o
o
o
o
- 0
00
MoS
I
"1\=-"'----
GLASS
Sn.lCON (from the Latin silex. flint) is the second
most abundant element on earth - after oxygen.
Whether you are walking on sond or clay, rock or
cement, almost half of what you're stepping on is
silicon.
Silicon is found in nature in combination with
oxygen (mostly the dioxide, SiD,) and in different
silicates (salts of various silicic acids).
With few exceptions, silicon compounds are in-
soluble in water. And that is a good thing for all of
us. The glass of our windows and the glasses from
which we drink are siHcates. So are the glazes on
our cups and the enamel on our bathtubs . . Most
.'-. ...... , -,...---- ----....-
"- \ ...
ROCK$:....:30 % .. -
--"-
--.
54
MAKING CEMENT
.... ... ,
glass and many glazes are made by fusing together
sand (SiD,), limestone, and soda.
The silicates of sodium and potassium dissolve in
water. A concentrated solution of sodium silicate
(Na,SiOs) is sold in hardware stores under the name
of wnterglass. It is used as a glue, for fireproofing
wood and for preserving eggs.
Within recent years, chemists have developed a
whole line of new silicon compounds called silicones.
Some of them are oil1ike. Some look like putty
("Silly PUlly"). Still others are rubberlike. Paper
and cloth can be made water-repellent by being
treated with suitable silicones.
MINERALS AND PRECIOUS STONES
MANY ARE SILICON OXIDES OR SILICATES.
"
.. '__---- MAKING SILICIC ______ -
MAKING
SILICON
DIOXIDE
WATER GUIS
IN ONE GLASS, DILUTE 20 ml WATERCLASS WITH 20 ml WATER.
IN ANOTHER, MIX 10 ml HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND 10 ml WATER.
POUR THE TWO MIXTURES AT ONE TIME INTO A THIRD GLASS.
STAND SPOON UPRIGHT IN THE MIXTURE WHICH, ALMOST IMMEDI
PLACE SOME OF THE GEL ON A METAL
JAR LID. HEAT. THE SILICIC ACID (H.SiO.l
GIVES UP WATER (HID) AND TURNS
INTO A GRAYISH-WHITE POWDER Of
SILICON DIOXIDE (SiC.).
ATElY, TURNS INTO A JEllY ("GEl") SO STIfF THAT SPOON STANDS BY
ITSELf AND YOU CAN TURN THE GLASS UPSIDE DOWN.
WEAKNESS OF
SILICIC ACID
MAKING
WATER-
GLASS
I
. . '
-.


SILICIC ACID IS SO WEAK THAT
ACID (H1ee.l DRIVES IT OUT OF
GLASS. MAKE THE CO. BY POURING HY
DROCHLORIC ACID OVER MARBLE CHIPS. _ ----
IN A TEST TUBE, MIX 1 g OF THE SILICON
DIOXIDE YOU MADE, 2 g lYE INoOH), AND 5 ml
WATER. HEAT CAREfULLY. MOVING TUBE.
MAKING SILICATES
DilUTE 5 ml WATERGLASS
("'o,SiO,) WITH 5 ml WATER.
DISSOLVE SMAll CRYSTAL Of
COPPER SULfATE IN WATER.
ADO A fEW DROPS TO THE
ATERGLASS TO GET PRECIPI
TATE Of COPPER SILICATE.
AFTER FILTERING, YOU WILL HAVE A CLEAR
SOLUTION OF SODIUM SILICATE INo,SiO,).
"GROWING" A SILICON "JUNGLE"
IN A PINT JAR, PLACE lj,.INCH LAYER
Of SAND. POUR ON TOP Of THIS A
MIXTURE Of EQUAL PARTS Of WATER.
GLASS AND WATER. PLACE IT IN A SPOT
WHERE IT Will NOT BE DISTURBED.
DROP IN CRYSTALS OF VARIOUS SALTS
YOU MAY HAVE, IRON SULFATE, COP
PER SULfATE, ALUM, EPSOM SALT. THE
CRYSTALS SEND UP "SHOOTS: ' IN A
fEW HOURS, YOUR SILICATE " JUNGLE"
IS FUllY "GROWN."
55
.-
... ".'
, .... - -. ..... ..

----
B
I ORO
Element 5
Atomic wI.:
10.82. Density:
2 .. 54 .. Yellowish.
crystals or
ish-brown
].owd.,. Burns
...-. ..... . __ healed in
.....
J' __
-'''- - -. ---
" . --.--- ... -:-
- .---....
flame.
Rocket-Power EleInent?
THAN A hundred years ago, a mineral called
borax, containing the element. boron, was carted out.
of Death Valley in Californi a by twenty-mule teams
- about. thc slowesl tra nsportat ion you can think of.
Someday. boron may be put. in zip-fuels for space
missiles - the fastest form of transportation imagi-
nable. Doron has the ability (as does carbon) to
combine with bydrogen in a number of ways. When
these boranes or boron h-ydridcs burn, they develop a
tremendous amount. of power.
Boron can be isolated as a hard. brownisb-black
powder. lls carbon compound, boron carbide (B,C) ,
is almost. as hard as diamond.
But you are probabl y more familiar with boron
BORAX BEAD TEST IN CHEMICAL AhALYSIS MAKE BLOWPIPE BY DRAW-
' ..
' _ ING GlASS TUBING INTO
.. .. , " POINT.
----;, '- ft

MELT (v./r :jJl ......... THE TIP OF
NICHROME fORM LOOP THE FLAME, THE
OR PLATINUM / / AROUND STRONG HEAT
WIRE INTO PENCil OXIOIZES METAL
GLASS TUBING POINT. IN THE TEST SAM
TO ACT AS -' ':.- . PtE. OXIDE COL.
HANDLE. ORS BEAD.
56
CERTAIN METAL OXIDES, FUSED INTO A "BEAD"
OF MELTED BORAX, PRODUCE DISTINCT COLORS
BY WHICH THE METALS CAN BE RECOGNIZED.
TO MAKE TEST, HEAT WIRE lOOP. DIP HOT lOOP IN
BORAX. HEAT TO FORM BEAD. TOUCH BEAD TO CHEM
ICAl TO BE TESTED. OXIDIZE THE CHEMICAL IN VERY
HOT FlAME GENERATED WITH HelP OF A BLOWPIPE.
STUDY THE COlOR OF BEAD, HOT AND COOLED.
hOi
IRON 0
COPPER 0
NICKEL 0
cold hot cold
o MANGANESE 0 0
o COBALT 0 0
Ii> CHROMIUM 0 0
through t.wo of its compounds which are found in
almost every household : boric acid (HIBO
I
), used as
a mild antiseptic, and bora..x (sodium tetraborate,
used for cleaning purposes and as
a water softener.
Borax has a great number of uses outs ide the home.
It is used for soldering, for producing certain kinds
of soap, and for making other boron compounds.
The glass industry uses large quantities of bora..x
for making boron-aluminum-silicate glass. You know
this kind of glass by its trade na me, Pyrex. Kitchen
utensils and laboratory ware made of Pyrex glass
have the great advantage over ordinary glass that
they can be placed directl y on the rire and do not
break so easily when they are s ubjected to sudden
healing or cooling.
MAKING BORIC ACID
. IN A CUSTARD CUP, ADD
BORAX TO 15 ml WATER.
BRING TO BOIL STIR UNTil
BORAX IS DISSOLVED.
TESTS FOR
BORIC ACID
"


( f .1.
HYORO
..
"" ..
DROP A FEW CRYSTALS OF BORIC
ACID IN A CUSTARD CUP. ADD A
COUPLE ml DENATURED ALCOHOl.
IGNITE. STIR WITH GLASS ROO.
BORIC ACID GIVES GREEN EDGES
TO THE FlAMES.
YEllOW TURMERIC INDICATOR PA-
PER TURNS BROWN WITH BORIC
ACID. YEllOW COlORING MATTER
IN TABLE MUSTARD IS TURMERIC.
TO MAKE TEST PAPER, DIP STRIPS
OF PAPER TOWELING IN MUSTARD.
WASH MUSTARD OFF. DRY STRIPS.
51
ADO " ml HY-
ACID
TO HOT BORAX SO-
LUTION. STIR. RE-
MOVE FROM fiRE.
BORIC ACiD CRYS
TAllIZES OUT AS
SOLUTION COOlS .
POUR CONTENTS OF CUS-
mO CUP INTO A FILTER. WHEN
FILTRATE HAS RUN OFF, WASH
BORIC ACID REMAINING IN fil-
TER WITH A SMAll AMOUNT OF
COlD WATER TO REMOVE NoCI
ALSO FORMED IN THE PROCESS .
SPREAD OUT FILTER TO LET
M RIC ACID CRYSTALS DRY. USE
FOR EXPERIMENTS ONLY.
MAKING
BORIC OXIDE
HEAT 80RIC ACID IN AN OlD
TEASPOON. IT GIVES OFF WA
TER AND TURNS INTO SYRUPY
MASS OF MElTED BORIC OX-
IDE (B.O.l WHICH YOU CAN
DRAW INTO THREADS WI TH
GLASS ROO.
"SALARY" COMES FROM SALAR1UM
_ THE WAGES PAID IN SALT TO
ROMAN SOlDIERS.
N
NATRIUM
a Element 11.
Atomic wi.:
22.991. Density,
0.97. (English, So-
dium) Silver-white
metal, can be cut
with knife. Oxidizes
in air. Reacts with
waler. Burns with
ye llow flllme.
J
CRYSTALLIZING
close d 7)l.f'CLb';' SALT BY
end of 11'\)\7 ____
lube
J DISSOlVE 19 9 TABLE
SAlT {Noel) IN 50 ml HOT
WATER.. BOIL SOLUTION,
STIRRING WITH GLASS Tuse
WITH TOP END SEALED {TO
REDUCE "BUMPING" ), UNTIL
HALF THE WATER HAS BEEN
EVAPORATED. SALT FORMS
FINE CRYSTALS.
2 POUR CLEAR LIQUID INTO LARGE PIE PLATE. PLACE
I SUNNY WINDOW FOR WATER TO EVAPORATE SLOW
LY, THE CRYSTALS FORMED WILL BE MUCH LARGER.
MAKING NORMAL SALT
FROM ACID SALT
odiUll1 and P otassiull1
TilE SALTS of sodium and potassium have heen used
for thousands of years in making soap and glass and
for a great number of other purposes.
Sodium chloride (N ael) is the most common
urn salt - it is the chemical that makes ocean water
" salty." Plants growing in the ocean take up so
much of the sodium that people along the seacoasts
of the world used to burn dri ed seaweed to secure
"soda ash" (sodium carbonate, NatCOJ) . Inland
plants, on the other hand, pick up potassium from
the soil. Inland people boiled out wood ashes in large
pots to get "potash" (potassium carbonate, K
2
CO
S
) '
In 1807, the British scientist , Humphry Davy,
succeeded in isolating the metals found in these sal ts.
They proved to be wax-soft and silvery. He called
them sodium (from soda ash) and potassium (from
potash). These are still their English namcs. But in
chemical formulas they are referred to as natrium
(Na) and kalium (K) - from abbreviations of the
Arabic names of the ashes: nairun and al qili (alkali ).
MAKING ACID SALT fROM NORMAL SALT
G ' .



SODIUM SULFATE IS PRODUCED
t- BY HEATING SODIUM ACID SUl-
THE ACID CARBONATE {NoHCO.1 IS MADE
BY LEADING CO
2
TO NORMAL CARBONATE
(NozCO.) .
IN A TEST TUBE, HEAT
A MIXTURE OF 2 9 so-
DIUM ACID SULFATE (SO.
DIUM BISULFATE) WITH
><.""_ FATE WITH SODIUM CHLORIDE.

1 9 TABLE SALT (Nnel).
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
IS SET FREE AND SODI-
UM SULFATE IS FORMED,
NaHS0
4
+ Noel _
Hel +
58
1 MAKE SATURATED SOLUTION BY SHAK
I G 3 TEASPOONS WASHING SODA IN 30
ml COOL, BUT NOT COLO, WATER. FILTER IT.
2 SET UP APPARATUS FOR MAKING CO, AS
SHOWN ON PAGE 31. LEAD CO, INTO SODA
SOtuTION FOR 10 MINUTES. THEN SET ASIDE.
SHORTlY NoHCO. CRYSTALS APPEAR.
K
KALIUM
El e me nt 19 .
Atomi c wI. :
39. 100. De nsity:
0.87. (Engli sh: Po-
loni um) Si lver-
while metal, so l ofl
it can be cut with
knife. Oltidizes in
a i r. Reaels with wa-
ler. Burns with vio-
[el flame.
NITRATE TO
NITRITE
--
HEAT 1h TEASPOON
SALTPETER AT BOT
TOM Of A TEST TU8E
UNTIL IT MELTS. DROP
I NTO THE TUBE A
PEA SIZE LUMP OF
SULFUR. IT BURNS
WITH BRILLIANT BLUE
flAME. DO SAME
EXPERIMENT WITH -
HEAD Of MATCH.
CHARCOAL BIT.


,,\.
WHEN YOU HEAT PO-
TASSIUM NITRATE, IT
GIVES UP OXYGEN
ANO BECOMES PO
TASSIUM NITRITE,
2KNO. -+
2KNO
z
+ O.
"' ..
....
PIONEER WOMEN MAOE POTASH
FROM WOOD ASHES.



.,
,
' .
,
, ----- / -


MAKING
POTASH
STIR: UP SEVERAL TEA.
SPOONS OF FRESH WOOD
ASHES WITH WARM WATER.
SKIM OFF WOOD REMAINS.
f iLTER: THE MIXTURE OF
A HES AND WATER. COllECT
f i LTRATE IN A CUSTARD CUP.
EVAPORATE MOST OF WATER. ';-Q25:?
THEN COOL TO PERMIT KICO. ,
TO CRYSTAlliZE OUT.
FLAME COLOR TEST FOR SODIUM AND POTASSIUM
THE COMPOUNDS OF CERTAIN METALS GIVE
DISTINCT COLORS TO A FLAME. DIP NI-
CHROME WIRE IN HCI TO CLEAN IT. HEAT IT.
THEN DIP LOOP IN COMPOUND AND HOLD
IN FlAME.
, .
.--------
SODIUM COMPOUNDS GIVE
THE FlAME A BRIGHT YElLOW-
RED COLOR. POTASSIUM COM-
POUNDS GIVE VIOLET FlAME.
59
--- -.... -.,.
TO SEE VIOLET COLOR OF PO-
TASSIUM IN MIXTURE WITH
No, USE BLUE GLASS TO
SCREEN OUT YEllOW OF No.
C
CALCIUM
a 20
AtomIc wi . :
40 . 0B. Density,
1.54. Silver-while
metal wilh bright
luster. Reach with
STALACTITES AND STALAGMITES ARE
UNDERGROUND DEPOSITS OF CoCO,_
tr
- ' l' !;.: coral
marble
CalciuIll- for Building
S TAl\'D UP STRAIGHT. You can do it because your
bones contain cal cium. Tell a mason to put lip a
brick house. He can do it with mortar containing
calcium. Tell a master builder to build a monument.
He will make it from marble - calcium again. Tell
a hen t o "go lay an egg." She can do it if she gets
enough calcium in her feed t o make the shell.
Calcium carbonate (CaeO
l
) is the starting point
for most calcium compounds - and for other chemi-
cals as well. It is found in nature in dill's and moun-
tain ranges in the form of chalk and limestone and
marble. And it makes up the sheUs of clams and mus-
sels and billions of liny sea creatures.
Calcium carbonate is almost insoluble in water.
But if the water contains carbon dim.ide, some goes
in solution as cal cium bicarbonate (CaCHCOzh ).
This explains the formati ons in our famous limestone
caves. Rainwater containing carbon dioxide seeped
through the ground and dissolved a small amount
of limestone. In falling from the cave ceiling and
drying, the drops gave up HzO and COz and left
CaCO
l
behind. The minute deposits of falling drops
during thousands of )' ears created the stalactites
hanging from the roof of the ca\' es and the stalag-
mites rising from the floor.
A widespread mineral called gypsum is the sul-
fate of calcium. Tn this, each molecule of sulfate has
two molecul es of water attached to it (CaSO, 2H
z
O).
When gypsum is heated, it loses three quarters of its
water and becomes plaster of Paris (2CaSO,H
z
O).
When you mi. ... plaster of Paris and water, it again
takes on the full amount of HzO and hardens into
a hydrate similar to the ori ginal gypsum.
The name of calcium was given to the metal hidden
in limestone by its discoverer, Humphry Davy. It
comes from calx, the old Latin name faT lime.
SHEllS, CORAL, LIMESTONE.
MARBLE ARE All CALCIUM CARBONATE.

WHEN LIMESTONE IS HEATED IN KilNS,


IT lOSES CARBON DIOXIDE AND TURNS
INTO QUICKltME-CAlCIUM OXIDE.
60
WHEN WATER IS ADDEO TO LUMPS OF QUICKliME (CoO).
THEY CRUMBLE INTO A WHITISH POWDER Of SLAKED OR
HYDRATED liME (Co(OHIJ)' (SEE ALSO PAGE 45.)
TESTING HARDNESS OF WATER
.. FILL A SLENDER JAR
ltr'lF FUll OF WATER
TO BE TESTED. ADD 10
DlO,S 0 SOAP SOLU-
CLOSE MOUTH
OF JAR. SHAKE VIGOR-
OUSLY. CHECK AMOUNT
OF FOAM.
SOfT TAP
WATER GIVES
FAIR AMOUNT
OF FOAM.
HARD TAP
WATER MAKES
VERY LITTLE
fOAM.
HARD WATER
SOFTENED WITH
WASHING
SODA MAKES
fOAM.
DISTIllED
WATER MAKES
LARGE
AMOUNT
OF FOAM.

, ,
o
o
MAKING "HARD" WATER
'
SET UP GAS GENERATOR AS SHOWN ON PAGE
. BOTTLE A CONTAINS H'tbROCHLORIC ACID. IN
BOTTLE B. PLACE MARBLE CHYPS ON TOP OF PEBBLES.
POUR ACID ON MARBLE CHIPS TO MAKE CO,.
_ LEAD THE CARBON DIOXIDE INTO LIME WATER.
J1II'iURNS MILKY THROUGH fORMATION OF CaCO,.
I
CONTINUE LEADING CO, INTO MILKY SOLUTION.
KINESS DISAPPEARS. INSOlUBLE CaCO, HAS BEEN
TURNED INTO SOlUBLE Co(HCO.),. THIS IS THE SUB
STANCE THAT MAKES MOST HARD WATER "HARD."
PRECIPITATED
CALCIUM
CARBONATE
EN MARBLE CHIPS
DISSOlVED IN ACID IN
BOTTlE B IN EXPERIMENT
ABOVE, POUR SOlUTION INTO
CUSTARD CUP. HEAT.
WHEN HOT, AOD SOLU
TlON OF 2 TEASPOONS
WASHING SODA IN 50 ml
WATER. YOU GET A HEAVY
WHITE PRECIPITATE OF CAL
CIUM CARBONATE.
61
I
i
;
water to be :.' ..
distilled is
in this can
DISTILLING
WATER
ice cubes
in water
for cooling
can upsi de
down-bottom
removed
rubber stopper
with gloss tube
distilled
woter here
IN THE SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY, ALL IMPURITIES ICAL.
CIUM CARBONATE AND SULFATE. AND OTHERS) MUST
BE REMOVED FROM WATER TO BE USED AS SOLVENT.
THIS IS DONE BY EVAPORATING THE WATER AND
CONDENSING THE STEAM. YOU CAN MAKE A DIS
TILLATION APPARATUS FROM TWO PINTSIZE CANS.
CASTING WITH PLASTER OF PARIS
PLASTER OF PARIS (2CoSO .. H.O) IS USED
IN POLICE WORK FOR MAKING CASTS OF
TRACKS. MIX PLASTER WITH WATER UNTIL
IT HAS CONSISTENCY OF MEDIUM CREAM.
POUR IN TRACK. LEAVE TO SET ONE HOUR.
L et's Com.pare Two M etals
HOLD 2-INCH PI ECE
OF MAGNESIUM RIB.
BON WITH A PAIR J
OF PlIERS. IGNITE IT . . ',: .. .It.'
IT BURNS WITH A
BRILLIANT, WHIT E -;;
flAME. MIX ASHES ::;; " s<
(MgO) WITH WATER. I
TEST MIXTURE WITH
RED LITMUS PAPER.
CUT SLIVER Of ZINC.
HOlD IT IN FlAME. IT
BURNS WITH BLUISH
GREEN fLAME TO ZINC
OXIDE. InO IS YEltOW
WHEN HOT, WHITE
COOL
U
copper
wire
BOTH METALS REACT WITH WEAK ACIDS, EVEN WITH
WITH COLD VINEGAR, Zn WITH HOT.
POUR SOlUTION OF I 9 SODIUM BISULfATE IN 10
m WATER ON Mg AND In. Mg REACTS FAST, Zn SLOWLY.
NOW TOUCH ZINC WITH A COPPER WIRE. REACTION
SPEEDS UP, CAUSED BY ElECTRIC PROCESS.
62
T AKE A LOOK at the periodic table of clements on
pages 38-39. In column ITA "you fInd the metal mag-
nesium, in column 1m the metal zinc. The fact that
the two famili es in which they are found both have
the Roman numeral II would indicate t.hat they are
related. But the fact that they are in separate "sub-
groups" would suggest that the)' differ in certain re-
spects. That is exactl y the casco
In their compounds they are very much alike. One
atom combines with one atom of oxygen to form the
oxide (MgO and ZnO), and one atom replaces two
atoms of hydrogen in forming a salt (I\JgCl ! and
ZnCl " for instance). But in some of their reactions
they do not behave alike - as you will learn.
Before World War II, magnesium had little use
- mainl y in flash photography because it burns with
a blinding, white light. But the metal became im-
portant when lightweight planes were needed-
melted together with other metals it forms an " alloy"
REPLACEMENT OF COPPER
=
--
EiJ
' CuSo't
-
- 2

. , .....
DISSOlVE 4 9 COPPER SULfATE IN 40 ml WATER.
POUR HAlf Of THE SOlUTION OVER STRIPS OF MAGNE-
SIUM, THE OTHER HAlf OVER SLIVERS OF ZINC.
2 COPPER IS FORCED OUT AND Mg AND Zn GO INTO
OlUTlON. If ENOUGH METAL IS USED, THE BLUE COlOR
DISAPPEARS. MgS0
4
AND ZnS0
4
ARE COLORLESS.
that is li ght yet. very strong. Some magnesium com-
pounds are used in medicine: milk of magnesia (Mg
(OH)2) and Epsom salt (MgSO{7H
2
0 ).
Zinc has been uscd for ages t o coat iron pails and
pipes to prcvent thcm from rusting - " galvanized
iron." Zinc is also a part of many alloys (German
sil vcr and brass) and is important in the making of
dry--ccll batteries.
MAKING THE CARBONATES
I
DISSOLVE 2 9 EPSOM SALT (MAGNESIUM
SULFATE, MgSO .. 7H.O) IN 20 ml WATER.
GET fROM HARDWARE STORE SMALL BOT.
HE Of "TINNERS' FLUID." THIS IS A STRONG
SOLUTION OF IINC CHLORIDE. DILUTE 5ml Of
FLUID WlTH 15 ml WATER.
M
MAGNE-
g
5 I U M
Element 12.
Atomic wI.: 24.32.
Density: 1.75. Sil-
yer . whi t e metal.
Duc.i le, malleable.
Reoch with boiling
woter. Burns in cir
with Yery brillion!
white light.
Z
Z INC
n Element 30.
Atomic wI.:
65.38 . Density:
7.1. Bluish- whit e
metal. Duelile and
mall eable. Di s.ils
when heated to
boiling. Can be
mode to burn wi th
bluiJll flome.
MAKING THE HYDROXIDES
ADD SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION TO SOLUTION
OF MAGNESIUM SULFATE. WHITE Mg{OH}. FORMS.
ADD SMAll AMOUNT OF NoOH SOLUTION TO 01
LUTED TlNNERS' flUID IlnCI,). In{OH}. IS FORMED. ADO
MORE NoOH. PRECIPITATE DISSOLVES WITH FORMATION
OF SODIUM IINCATE (No.ln 0.).
ADD AMMONIA (AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE) TO MAG-
NESIUM SULFATE SOLUTION. AGAIN Mg{OH). FORMS.
ADD SMALL AMOUNT Of AMMONIA TO DILUTED TIN-
NERS' FLUID. In{OH}. FORMS. ADD MORE. THE Zn{OH).
DISSOLVES, FORMING COMPOUND WITH NH .
Zn AND Mg
WITH H.S

MAKE SOLUTION OF 5 9 WASHING SODA
(SODIUM CARBONATE) IN 50 ml WATER. ADD
SOME OF THIS SOLUTION TO THE OTHER TWO.
IN BOTH JARS YOU WILL GET A HEAVY WHITE
PRECIPITATE. IN THE Mg JAR, THIS IS NORMAL
MAGNESIUM CARBONATE (MgCO.). IN In JAR,
CO. IS SET FREE AND BASIC IINC CARBONATE
Iln(OH).,ZnCO.) RESULTS.
SET UP HYDROGEN SULFIDE APPARATUS SHOWN ON PAGE 53.
LEAD HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H.S) INTO DIlUTED TlNNERS' FlUID
nCl. }. YOU GET A WHITE PRECIPITATE Of InS.
.. LEAD H.S INTO SOlUTION OF EPSOM SALT {MgS0
4
1. HERE
Mo YOU GET WHITE PRECIPITATE. BUT NOT OF MAGNESIUM
SULFIDE. THIS REACTS WITH THE WATER TO MAKE Mg(OHIz.
63
-
Alu:rninum.- in A lmnJance
. OF DISCOV-
ERED ALUMINUM IN 1825. CHARLES
HALL OF THE UNITED STATES FOUND'
A CHEAP WAY OF PRODUCING IT
...
IN 1886.
ALUMINUM
Ele ment 13.
At omic: wi. :
26 . 9 8 . De ns ity,
2.70. Silve r-whi te
metol; ductile, mol-
e"",,:l!: I Ie<lble, able to take
a high palish. Am-
photeric. Will burn
in oxyge n wi t h
white flame.
MAKE A SMALL AMOUNT
OF ALUMINUM POWDER BY
FlUNG IT OFF AN OlD ALU-
MINUM POT. SPRINklE IN
flAME TO MAKE SPARKS
OF BURNING ALUMINUM.
DISSOLVING ALUMINUM
'-----'
.
..

....
.. ' :
1 CUT ALUMINUM
FOil IN SMALL STRIPS.
DROP THEM IN A lITIlE
DILUTED HYDROCHLOR
IC ACID. HYDROGEN IS
RELEASED; ALUMINUM
CHLORIDE IS FORMED.
DROP STRIPS OF
;t.; UMINUM FOIL IN 10-/.
NaOH SOLUTION. HY.
OROGEN IS FREED AND
SODIUM ALUMINATE
(NaAIO
l
) IS FORMED.
64
IT IS :\LllOST impossible to imagine our world with-
out. aluminum. Almost everywhere )'ou look )'ou see
items made of this sil ver-white metal- from the
pots in the kitchen to the airplanes fl ying overhead .
Allbough aluminum is the most abundant metal
on earlb, no one had ever seen it until 1825 when a
Danish scientist , Hans Christian .0rsted, isolated it.
from aluminum cbJoride (AICI
J
). For a number of
years aluminum was so expensive that it was con-
sidered in class with gold and sil ver. The solid alumi-
num cap placed on top of the Washington Monument
in 1884 was first put on public display so that every-
one could have a look at such a great rarity. Two
GROWING ALUM CRYSTALS
HEAT WATER UNTIL IT IS SLIGHTLY MORE THAN LUKE
WARM. STIR INTO IT POTASSIUM ALUM OR AMMONIUM
ALUM UNTIL NO MORE DISSOlVES. POUR LIQUID OFF
UNDISSOlVED ALUM. SET ASIDE TO COOl.
WHEN CRYSTALS HAVE FORMED, PICK OUT LARGEST
ONES. ADO TO SOLUTION AS MUCH MORE ALUM AS IS
REPRESENTED BY THE CRYSTALS YOU REMOVED. HEAT
GENTLY AGAIN UNTil All IS DISSOlVED. COOl.
POUR COOLED SOLUTION INTO NARROW GLASS. TIE
THREAD TO LARGEST CRYSTAL YOU PICKED. HANG THIS
IN SOLUTION FROM A PENCIl. PLACE IN QUIET SPOT.
LET THE CRYSTAL GROW FOR A WEEK OR MORE.
years later, a 22*year--old American chemist, Charles
Martin Hall , invented a way of producing aluminum
cheaply from aluminum oxide (AlzO,). Since then
aluminum has become one of the most popular of all
metals -mostl y because of its lightness.
The mineral bauxite (AIHO!, Al(OH) ,) is our main
source of aluminum. But aluminum is also found in
nature as oxide and in many complex silicates. Clay,
for instance, is an aluminum silicate.
MAKING ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE
-
Two things about aluminum will interest you as a
chemist. One is that aluminum is an " amphoteric"
element, which means that it can form not only a
base (A1 (OHh), but also an acid (HAlO,). The other
is that aluminum sulfate (Al z(SOj) z) has the ability
to combine with potassium sulfate (KzSOj) and am-
monium sulfate NHjhSOj) into beautiful cubic
crystals of double salts called "alums"- KAI (SOjh'
12H,O and NHjAl (SOj), 12H,O.
I

CLEARING
WATER
WITH
R c::=:::o ALUM 'II'
r----"'1

Po\\llREJ)
ALUM
I 9 (YI TEASPOON) ALUM IN
ADO A LITTLE 10/. NoOH
1 POUR WATER INTO A PINT JAR AND STIR INTO IT 1 TABLE
SPOON EARTH FROM THE GARDEN OR FROM A flOWER POT.
GET JEllYlIKE ALUMINUM
I WIll DISSOLVE IN MORE
NoOH TO FORM SODIUM ALUMINATE.
2 AMMONIA ADDEO TO ALUM SOLUTION
GI ES ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE. BUT THIS
DOES NOT DISSOLVE IN MORE AMMONIA.
IN ANOTHER JAR, MAKE A SIMILAR MIXTURE. IN THIS, DIS
SOLVE Y4 TEASPOON ALUM. ADO 1 TEASPOON AMMONIA. DIRT
SETTLES FASTER IN THIS JAR THAN IN THE FIRST JAR.
AND SODA
l1\ TO 1/1 TEASPOON OF ALUM IN 20 ml
W ATER, ADD YI TEASPOON SODA IN 20
ml WATER. PRECIPITATE SHOUlD BE CAR
BONATE-=.8UT IS IT?
@ FILTER THE PRECIPITATE. WASH IT RE*

TEDLY BY SQUIRTING WATER INTO IT.



3 AFTER WASHING, BRING PRECIPITATE
INTO A TEST TUBE. ADD HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. NO CO
2
IS FORMED. THIS IS NOT
65
A CARBONATE. ALUMINUM HAS NO CAR
BONATE. ALUM MAKES ALUMINUM HY-
DROXIDE WITH SODA.
MANGANESE
DIOXIDE TO
MANGANESE
SULFATE
1 IN A PYREX CUSTARD CUP, MIX 2 9 MANGANESE DIOXIDE, 6 9 SO-
lUM BISUlFATE, AND 10 ml WATER. HEAT MIXTURE GENTlY. IT Will
BUBBLE VIGOROUSLY BECAUSE OXYGEN IS SET FREE.
AFTER A FEW MINUTES, ADD 30 ml WATER. FILTER. FILTRATE CON-
TAINS MANGANESE SULfATE (MnSO.1 AND SODIUM SULFATE.
MANGANESE
SULFATE TO
MANGANE_SE
HYDROXIDE .'
LyE
til INTO HAlf OF THE MANGANESE SUL-
ruE SOlUTION YOU HAVE MADE, POUR
10-J. SOlUTION Of NaOH UNTil NO
MORE PRECIPITATE fORMS. WHITISH
Mn{OH), OXIDIZES INTO BROWN MnO(OHj.
M anganese- M etal of M any C olors
l\:IETALLIC M. ........... GANESE has no use by itseH. But add
up t o 15 per cent of it to steel and the result is an
alloy - " manganese steel" - so hard that it is sui t,..
abl e for machine parts that arc exposed t o a lot of
rough wear.
The most common are from which manganese is
extracted goes under the name of "pyrolusite." This
is nothing but your old fri end manganese dioxide
(MnO!) which you found in )'our flashlight baltery
and have already used in a grea t number of your
chemical experiments.
The compounds of manganese come in almost any
color )'OU can think of: black and brown. wlUte and
pink and red. violet and green. In working witb
these compounds. your fingers and glassware may
get brown. You can get rid of this stain easil y with
diluted hydrocWoric acid. Rinse thoroughl y with
water afterwards.
EXPERIMENTS WITH POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
KMnO. Will GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF SMALLNESS OF MOlECULE.
- DISSOlVE V2 9 POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE IN 50 ml WA-
m. THIS GIVES A SOlUTION Of 1 TO 100, OR 1/100.
DILUTE 5 ml Of THIS SOlUTION WITH 45 m[ WATER. YOU
OW HAVE A SOLUTION Of 1 TO 1,000, OR 1/1 ,000.
AGAIN, 5 ml TO 45 ml WATER FOR SOlUTION 1/10,000.
AGAIN, 5 ml TO 45 ml WATER FOR SOlUTION 1/100,000.
AGAIN, 5 ml TO 45 ml WATER FOR SOlUTION 1/1,000,000.
COLOR YOU STI LL SEE IS CAUSED BY THE PRESENCE OF MORE
THAN 600,000,000,000,000,000 MOLECULES Of KMnO .
0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
,;
0
o
,;
0
0 0
-
,
,
,
66
\
REDUCING KMnO.
PLACE A fEW CRYS-
TALS Of POTASSIUM
PERMANGANATE ON
BOTTOM OF A TEST
TUBE. DROP A FEW
DROPS Of HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID ON
THEM. THE KMnO. IS
REDUCED (THAT IS, IT
GIVES UP OXYGEN). IT
OXIDIZES HCI AND
SETS CHLORINE FREE.
THE EXPERIMENTS ALONG THE
TOP Of THESE PAGES SHOW
HOW IT IS POSSI8lE TO
MOVE fROM ONE COM-
POUND TO ANOTHER.
MANGANESE SUUATI TO
MANGANESI CARBONATI
l it
t
. 6
MANGANESI
CARBONAD
TO
MANGANESE
CHLORIDE
MANGANESE
CHLORIDE TO
MANGANESE
SULfiDE
Mn
MANGA-
N I 5 E
Element 25.
Atomic wt.: 54.94.
Density, 7.. Sil-
very- gray metal
with reddilh ringe.
Reacts with water.
115 compounds with
oxygen range from
boses to ocidl
4 ' INTO SECOND HALF OF
SOlUTION, POUR SOLUTION OF
"g SODIUM CARSONATE IN 10
ml WATER. WHITE PRECIPITATE
IS MnCO .
5 lET Mi"""'"
SIDLE. POUR liQUID OFF PRECIPI
MAKING HY-
SULFIDE (SEE PAGE 53). POUR
SOLUTION OF MnCI. INTO TEST TUBE.
DILUTE IT IF NECESSARY. LEAD H.S INTO
IT. YOU GET MANGANESE SULFIDE.
TATE. ADD HYDROCHLORIC ACID BY
THE DROP UNTil DISSOLVED. RESULT
IS MANGANESE CHLORIDE (MnCl
I
I.
DISSOLVE A FEW CRYS-
TALS OF POTASSIUM
PERMANGANATE IN
WATER . ADO TINY
AMOUNT OF SODIUM
BISULFATE (TO MAKE
SOLUTION SOUR) . POUR
IN A UTILE HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE (HIO.). COL-
OR DISAPPEARS AND
OXYGEN IS LIBERATED.

,
1
1 DISSOLVE I 9 SODIUM HYDROXIDE IN 50 ml WA-
T R. ADD A CRYSTAL OF POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
TO GIVE THE SOLUTION A liGHT RED COLOR.
POUR THE REO SOLUTION INTO A FILTER. WATCH
E FILTRATE. IT IS GREEN INSTEAD OF RED. PASSING
THROUGH FILTER PAPER HAS CAUSED KMn04 TO BE
REDUCED TO POTASSIUM MANGANATE (K
I
Mn0
4
).
67
,..---- --
fi) DISSOLVE A SMALL CRYSTAL OF IRON
SULFATE (FERROUS SULFATE, FeS04) IN HALF
A TEST TUBE FULL OF WATER.
2 DI SSOLVE A COUPLE OF KMn0
4
CRYSTALS
N HALF TEST TUBE OF WATER.
:I POUR PERMANGANATE INTO IRON SALT.
GREEN FERROUS SULFATE IS OXIDIZED TO
BROWN FERRIC SULFATE (Fe1(S041.1.
I
: . ,
'. " ;
, "
,
e
Element 26.
We Live in an A ge of Iron
Atomic wi.:
55. 85 . Density:
7.86. Gray.while
metol. Ductil e cnd
malleable. Reacts

with most acids, re-


leasing hydrogen.
Reads in moist air
10 form rust.
TWO KINDS OF IRON COMPOUNDS
IRON FORMS TWO KINDS OF COMPOUNDS. IN FERROUS
SALTS, EACH IRON ATOM HAS REPLACED TWO HYDRO-
GEN ATOMS. IN FERRIC SALTS, EACH IRON ATOM HAS
REPLACED THREE HYDROGEN ATOMS. GREEN FERROUS
SALTS EASI LY OXIDIZE INTO RED-BROWN FERRIC SALTS.
IRON METAL has the peculiar quality of being mag-
net ic - that is, of being a ttract ed and innuenced by
a force call ed magnetism. If you shoul d walk around
your home and touch diffcrcnL thi ngs wi th a mag-
net , you would be surprised at. the large number of
them tha t would pro\' c to contain iron. They would
range in size frolll the car in the garage and the re-
frigerator and slove in the kitchen to the nails in t he
walls and the needl es ami pins in your mother's
sewing box.
RUSTING OF IRON
The moment you step outdoors and look around.
you will he c\'cn more a mazed. Skyscrapers and
MOISTEN A WAD OF FINE STEEl
WOOL WITH VINEGAR (TO SPEED UP
ACTION). WEDGE IT IN BOTTOM OF
A GLASS. INVERT GLASS IN
PIE PLATE OF WATER. IN A
FEW DAYS, WATER HAS
RISEN IN GLASS. IRON HAS
REACTED WITH OXYGEN
AND MOISTURE TO FORM
RUST-{Fe
z
O.}.3H.O.
MAKING A FERRIC SALT
- -
-
.",
r.
A


"
,.

c
""
"

........
TEST FOR IRON SALTS
IN ONE TEST TUBE, DILUTE SOME FERRIC
CHLORIDE SOLUTION WITH WATER .
IN ANOTHER, DILUTE SOME OF THE fER
R US CHLORIDE SOLUTION WI TH WATER.
MAKING A
F RROUS SALT
POUR HYDROCHl O-
R C ACID OVER STEEl
WOOL HYDROGEN IS
SET EREE AS STEEL
WOOL DISSOLVES. fiL-
TER THE SOLUTION.
2 LIGHT-GREEN fiL-
TRATE CONTAINS FER-
ROUS CHLORIDE (f eCI.).



,"
TO EACH, ADD A FEW DROPS <;<='9J;.!..)j=9
SET UP APPARATUS FOR MAKING CHLORINE
(SEE PAGE 35). INTO BOTTLE B POUR FER
ROUS CHLORIDE SOLUTION YOU HAVE JUST
MADE. THE CHLORINE TURNS THE GREEN
fERROUS CHLORIDE (FeCI. ) INTO A BROWN
FERRIC CHLORIDE (feCI.).
OF SOLUTION OF V. TEASPOON
POTASSIUM FERROCYAN1DE IN
50 ml WATER. FERRIC SALT MAKES
A DEEP BLUE PRECIPITATE OF
PRUSSIAN BLUE. FERROUS SALT
MAKES LIGHT BLUE PRECIPITATE.
68
bridges. railroads and ships. machinery of all kinds
- all of these dcpend on iron (in the form of steel)
for their existcnce.
We arc Yery lucky to have, in America, not. onl y
large amounts of iron are but also large amounts of
the coal fcom whi ch to make the coke that goes into
iron producti on.
The iron is driyen a u t. of its are (mostl y Fe,Ol)
in huge furnaces. Each furnace can make as much
as 1,000 tons of iron at one time from 2, 000 tons of
ore, 1,000 tons of coke, and 500 tons of limest one.
A blast. of hot. air is forced through the mh1.ure. The
coke burns with great. heal to carhon di oxide. This,
with more coke, forms carhon monoxide, and this,
ill turn, reduces the iron oxide to metallic iron. In
chemical language, this is what happens :
C + 0: CO: plus heat
CO,+C- 2CO
Fe:O
l
+ 3CO 2Fe + 3CO,
At. the sallle time, the 1imestone comhines with
yarious impurities to form a glass-like compound
caned 'slag." This is remoyed when the white-hot.
iron is poured out into moulds and cooled into bars
of " pig iron."
The pig iron is brittle hecause it. contains close to
.5 per cent carbon. To turn it. into st eel, the carbon
must. be burned out. until onl y from .5 to 1.5 per cell t.
remains. This is done either by the Bessemer process
(named for an Englishman, Henry Bessemer) or by
the open-hearth process. The fini shed steel is molded
into " ingots" and shipped t o manufacturing plants
all oyer the country.
In chemical experiments, th(' mogt, commonl y used
iron compound is the iron sulfate (fel' rous sul fate,
FeSO
I
. ( H
2
0 ) - also called "green vitriol " and
"copperas." Don' t. leL t.he last. name mislead you-
it has nothing to do with copper but. comes from
all old French word, couperose.
FROM FERROUS ..
SALT TO . ..
FERRIC (J; _I -
"'r-
=
'" - " '" ;;
.
( I !
1 DISSOlVE TEASPOON FER_
ROUS SULFATE IN 50 ml WATER.
ADD A FEW CRYSTALS Of SODI-
UM BISULfATE TO KEEP THE SO-
LUTION SOUR.
.' .
..
, ,
,
IU
IRON HYDROXIDES
AND CARBONATE
ADD HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
OLUTION. LIGHT-GREEN FER-
ROUS SULfATE SOlUTION TURNS
REDDISH BROWN. H.O. HAS OX-
IDIZED f eS0
4
TO FERRIC SULFATE
(fe. (
S0
4), )
69
A
10"/.
WaOH
TO SOLUTION Of TEASPOON FERROUS SULFATE
I 50 ml WATER, ADD SOlUTION Of SODIUM HYDROX.
IDE. PURE FERROUS HYDROXIDE IS WHITE. BECAUSE OF iM-
PURITIES, YOU GET DIRTY-GREEN PRECIPITATE Of fe(OH1.,
SOON OXIDIZING TO BROWN FERRIC HYDROXIDE.
2 TO ANOTHER PORTION OF FERROUS SUtFATE SOLU-
T ON ADD SODIUM CARBONATE SOLUTION. PURE CAR
BONATE MADE WITH NO OXYGEN PRESENT IS WHITE-
BUT YOU GET MUDDY, WHITISH-GREEN PRECIPITATE OF
fERROUS CARBONATE, EVENTUAllY TURNING INTO FER-
RIC HYDROXIDE.
"-
--
--"""""'---
Copper- Yesterday, Today
C OPPEll IS ONE of the few metals found free in na-
ture. That. is why it was used long before hist oric
times for weapons and utensil s. The main trouble
with it was its softness. This was remedi ed when
some earl y coppersmith discovered thaL copper and
tin (also found free in nature) melted together formed
an ali a)' that was much harder than either of the
two metals. This all oy gaye its name t o more than
two thousand yea rs of human history - the period
call ed t he " Bronze Age."
A great number of wcapons from the Bronze Age
have been found in Greece. Wllen the)' were dug out
of the ground, they were covcred with a green ';rust. "
This deposit was call ed verdigris -literally "green
of Greece" (from old French, rerf de Gr ece) . It c o ~
sists ofhasic cupric carbonate - the same compound
you will see on a bronze statue or a copper-clad
church spire exposed to wind and weatber.
Copper became especiall y mluable less than a
hundred years ago when a satisfactory method for
producing a steady flow of electri city was invented.
After sil ver, copper is the bcst conductor of electrici-
ty. Today, the most. important li se for copper is for
electri cal purposes. It serves to bring the current
froill the place where it is produced to the place
where it is t o be used (although, within recent. years,
some aluminum has taken its place for hi gh-tension
70
---- "
. -- -
THE GREEK AND TROJAN WARRIORS FIGHTING BEFORE
THE GATES OF TROY USED SWORDS AND SHIElDS OF
BRONZE- AN ALLOY MADE UP OF COPPER AND TIN.
wi res). You will find copper in the wiring III your
own home and in e,er y electrical gadget you use.
Copper makes two kinds of salts . Tn cuprous salts,
one copper atom has takcn the place of one hydrogen
atom; in cupri c sal ts, one copper atom has taken the
place of two hydrogen atoms. Cuprous sal ts (such
as cuprous chloride, CuC!) are colorless. while cupri c
sal ts (such as cupri c sulfate, CuSO
t
, 5H
2
0 ) are bright
blue in color.
MOST IMPORTANT USE
OF COPPER TODAY IS
FOR ELECTRIC WIRING.
:
MAKING COPPER COMPOUNDS
DISSOlVE 10 9 COP-
PER SULFATE IN 100
ml WATER. POUR 10
ml INTO EACH OF
FOUR TEST TUBES.
TION PRECIPITATES
DIRTY-BLUE CUPRIC
HYDROXIDE
ICuIOH)'I
WITH AMMONI A
YOU ' ll ALSO GET
CutOH), . BUT THIS DIS.
SOLVES IN MORE AM.
MONIA WITH DEEP BLUE
COlOR.
SODIUM CAR
BONATE SOlUTION
GIVES BLUE-GREEN
CUPRIC CARBON.
ATE PRECIPITATE.
A WITH HYDRO-
GEN SULFIDE,
BROWNISH-BLACK
PRECIPITATE OF
CUPRIC SULFIDE.
FROM CUPRIC
SALT TO ' "
CUPROUS
SALT
1 LET CUPRIC HYDROXIDE l iN EX-
PERIMENT ON TOP OF PAGE) SET-
tlE. THEN POUR OFF LIQUID. ADD
HYDROCHLORIC ACID UNtil ALL IS
DISSOLVED. ADD SMAll PIECES OF
COPPER WIRE. HEAT TO BOIliNG.
C
COP PER
U Element 29.
Atomic wi . I
63 . 5". DensilYI
8.97. Sofl melol of
leddish colol. EOI
ily ,olled ond
drown into wire .
Ned 10 silvel. is Ihe

best conductor of
electricity.
COPPER SULFATE IN
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
WATERfREE (ANHYDROUS)
CUPRIC SULfATE SHOWS IF
WATER IS PRESENT IN A
LIQUID BEING TESTED.
CRUSH A FEW
CUPR I C SULFATE
CRYSTALS. HEAT
WHILE ST IRRING
UNtil THEY HAVE
_ TURNED INTO A
WHITE POWDER.
SHAKE UP A LITTLE ANHYDROUS
CUPRIC SUlfATE WITH CARBON TET.
RACHLORIDE. NOTHING HAPPENS.
ADD ONE DROP OF WATER.
. BLUE CRYSTALS FORM.
REPLACING COPPER WITH IRON


DROP SEVERAL CLEAN NAilS
INTO A SOlUTION OF COPPER SUL-
FATE. LEAVE FOR HALF AN HOUR_
Ir NAllS ARE NOW COATED WITH
AlllC COPPER AND THE SOLU-
TlON CONTAINS FERROUS SULFATE.
METALS CAN BE ARRANGED IN A
REPLACEMENT SERIES. ANY METAL
IN THE SERIES WIll DRIVE OUT AN-
OTHER METAL BelOW IT AND TAKE
ITS PLACE IN THE SALT .
71
\REPLACEMENT
5ERJ1S
POTASSIUM
SODIUM
CAlOUM
MAGNESIUM
ALUMINUM
ZINC
CHROMIUM
IRON
NICKel
TIN
lEAD
COPPER
MERCURY
SILVER
PLAnNUM
GOlD
Silver-One of the uN oble" Metals
SILVER IS MAllEABlE-
THAT IS, IT CAN BE HAM-
MERED INTO ANY SHAPE
DESIRED. SILVER SMI THING
IS AN ANCIENT ART.
A
SILVER
g Ele ment 47. ~ " " " " , , = ~ . . . . . . . _ ,"
Atomic wi.,
-. ,. ~
107.880. Deruily,
10.54. Soft, while
metal with bright
luster. Easily hom_
me red out and
drown inlo wire.
Best known conduc-
tor of eletlricity.
S ILVER - LIKE COPPER and gold - is found free in
nature and was therefore known to man long before
he Icarned to extract metals from their ores.
Pure sih'cr has one drawback - it is almost as
soft. as copper. That's whI most silver is aJl o)'cd with
copper to make it harder. Sterling sil ver - a famous
alloy used for j ewelry - contains 7.5 parts copper to
92.5 parts silver. Only KG of American silver coins
is sil ver - the rest is copper.
Wb en you t ake a snapshot, you get yourself in-
volved in a series of complicat ed, chemical processes
- all of them having t o do with sil ver. It is hard
to believe that the blacks and grays you see when
you look at a photograph are various concentrati ons
of metallic sil ver.
REMOVING TARNISH FROM SILVER
1 LINE BOnOM OF CUSTARD CUP WITH ALUMINUM
FOIl. PLACE TARNISHED COIN ON FOIl. POUR CUP HALF
fULL Of WATER. ADD V. TEASPOON SODIUM CARBON-
ATE. BOIL GENTLY. TARNISH VANISHES.
YOU CAN USE THIS METHOD FOR CLEANING SILVER_
WARE. PLACE SILVER TO BE CLEANED IN ALUMINUM TRAY.
ADD WATER AND SODA. BRING TO A BOIl. THE SILVER
BECOMES SHINY AGAIN.
/ ' '
II LI \
1
TARNISHED SILVER
SILVER TARNISHES WHEN IT IS EX.
POSED TO SULFUR. PLACE A FEW
CRYSTALS OF SODIUM THIOSULfATE
{" HYPO") ON A SILVER COIN. HEAT
UNTIL HYPO MELTS. WASH. HYPO
HAS LEFT STAIN Of BROWN. BLACK
SilVER SULFIDE.
1 TO 5 ml SI LVER NITRATE (AgN0
1
) SOLUTION,
SILVER
COMPOUNDS
GET 5 9 SILVER NITRATE IN YOUR LOCAL .4:00 SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION. YOU GET

DRUG STORE. DISSOLVE IN 50 ml WATER. DARK BROWN PRECIPITATE_ NOT Of HYDROXIDE,


72
BUT OF SILVER OXIDE.
2 TO 5 ml AgNO, SOLUTION, ADO AMMONIA.
PRECIPITATE OF SilVER OXIDE DISSOLVES WHEN
YOU ADO MORE AMMONIA.
3 TO 5 ml AgNO, SOLUTION, ADO TABLE SALT
{NoCI) SOLUTION. CHEESELIKE PRECIPITATE IS SIL
VER CHLORIDE {AgCl).
4 TO PART OF Agel PRECIPITATE, ADO AMMONIA.
SILVER CHLORIDE DISSOLVES.
5 TO ANOTHER PART OF Agel, ADD SODIUM
THIOSULfATE SOLUTION. AgCl DISSOLVES.
6 PLACE REMAINING AgCI IN THE SUN. IT TURNS
VIOLET FROM METALLIC SILVER.
I n making a photographic fil m, t be manufact urer
spreads an emulsion of gela tin that contains silver
bromide (AgBr) over a transparent sheet of cellulose
acet ate. Wben the sil ver bromide is exposed to Ught,
a certain amount of it givcs up metallic sil ver (AgBr
- Ag + Br). !\lore of this sil ver is brought. out in
t he developing bath. When full y devcloped, the film
is placed in a 11:\': ing bath which removes all uno.:\--posed
silvo.r bromide. After wasbing and drying, )' OU have
a photographic negative in which the whit.e parts
you photographed appear black and the black parts
appear whi te.
To make a natural-looking picture, you placo. the
negath' o. on a piece of photographi c paper and go
through a similar procedure,as above, of exposing,
developing, fi xi ng, washi ng, and drying.
MO RE TH A N 150
TONS Of Sit VER ARE
USED EACH YEAR IN
MAKING FIlM fOR
THE MOVIES.
PHOTOGRAPHY IN-
VOLVES A WHOLE
SERIES OF CHEMI -
CAL PROCESSES.
PHOTOGRAPHING WITHOUT A CAMERA
2 fiX THE LEAf PRINT IN A SO
LUTION Of 10 9 HYPO IN 100 ml
WATER. AfTER FIVE MI NUTES,
WASH IN RUNNING WATER.
FROM A COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHER, GET A
F SHEETS Of " PRINTlNGOUT PAPER," A SLOW
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER. IN THE SHADE, PLACE SHEET
ON PIECE OF PLYWOOD, SENSI TIZED SIDE UP. ON
TOP OF IT, lAY A LEAF AND A SHEET OF GLASS.
HOLD IN POSITION WITH SPRING CLOTHES PINS.
EXPOSE TO SUN UNTIL PAPER IS BLACKISHVIOlET.
3 DRY THE PRINT
IN THE AIR ON TOP
OF NEWSPAPER .
WHEN DRY, fLATTEN
PRINT IN A BOOK.
73
"
TRACE EACH OF THE CIRCLES SHOWN ABOVE ONTO
CARDBOARD. PUNCH HOlES AS INDICATED. USE AS PAT-
TERNS FOR CUTTING CIRCLES OF CONSTRUCTION BOARD.
USING PATTERNS AT lEFT, CUT OUT SEVERAL CIRCLES
OF CONSTRUCTION BOARD IN VARIOUS COlORS.
, '
PUNCH THE HOlES NECESSARY TO INDICATE VALENCES.
Valences and Formulas
As YOU HAVE studied the chemical formulas in the
text, you will have noticed that. ODe atom of hydro-
gen combines with one atom of chlorine (HCI), two
hydrogen atoms with one atom of oX)'gen (H,O),
and three hydrogen atoms with one atom of nitrogen
(NH1) '
The capacity of one atom to hold on to other atoms
is called its valence (from Latin valentia, strength).
.
TQ
74
No atom has a lower valence than the hydrogen
atom, so we use as our starting point. and
give it a valence of L Two hydrogen atoms combine
with one oxygen atom - that. gives oX)gcn a valence
of 2. Nitrogen has a valence of 3. Two oxygen atoms
combine with one carbon atom to make CO,. Carbon
has a valence of 4.
The chart on page 75 shows some of the common
THESE DIAGRAMS SHOW WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU
BURN CARBON AND TEST FOR CO . ONE CARBON
ATOM (WITH FOUR POSITIVE VALENCES) COMBINES
WITH TWO ATOMS OF OXYGEN (EACH WITH TWO
NEGATIVE VALENCES) TO FORM ONE MOlECULE Of
CO. (ARROW POINTING UP INDICATES THAT THIS IS
A GAS). ONE MOlECULE CARBON DIOXIDE COMBINES
WITH ONE MOLECULE CALCIUM HYDROXIDE TO FORM
ONE MOlECULE Of CALCIUM CARBONATE {ARROW
POINTING DOWN INDICATES THAT IT IS A PRECIPI
TATE} AND ONE MOlECULE OF WATER.
PUT 1f4- BRASS CliPS IN HOlES SHOWING POSITIVE VA
l ENCES. HOLD THEM IN PLACE WITH SCOTCH TAPE.
WRITE THE NAMES Of THE ELEMENTS WI TH CRAYONS.
valences for making up formulas. !\ Iost of the items
are elements, but some of t hem arc "radicals" - that
is, groups of atoms that hang together in chemical
reactions, such as the ammonium radical (NH ,) that
behaves as a metal , and the sul fate radical ( S O ~ )
that goes into the making of salts.
Not ice that some valences have plus (+) signs.
others have minus (-) signs. " 'ben you make up
the formula for a compound, there must be the same
number of pluses and minuses. Hydrogen ,'"ith one

\V

0
-
..
SULFUR HAS SEVERAL VALENCES. IT HAS A VALENCE
OF - 2 IN H ~ S , Of +4 IN SO., AND Of + 6 IN SO.
AND IN SULfURIC ACID [H
2
SO .. ). IN MAKING THE CIR.
CLE FOR SUlfUR. YOU CAN SHOW THESE VALENCES
WITH TWO EMPTY HOlES AND SIX BRASS CLIPS.
INSTEAD Of USING ONE SULFUR CIRCLE AND fOUR
OXYGEN CIRCLES TO INDICATE A SULFATE. YOU CAN
MAKE UP A SINGLE CIRCLE TO STAND FOR THE SUl
FATE RADICAL {SO.I WITH TWO NEGATI VE VALENCES.
75
SOME COMMON VALENCES
P05ilive Valences Negative Valences
Item Valence Circle Item Valence Circle
Ag + 1 A CI -1 A
AI +3 C I -1 A
B + 3 C N -3
B
C +4 C 0 -2
B
Co +2 B 5 -2 C
Co +1+2 B
F. +2+3 B
H
+ 1 A
K +, A
Mg
+ 2 B
Mo + 2 B CO, -2 B
No +1 A NO, - I A
5 + 4+6 C OH - I A
5;
+ 4 C SO, - 2 B
NH, + 1
A SO, - 2 B
plus ( H- ) aod oxygen with two nllnuses(O--) would
fl ot fit together - you need H 2 t o combine wit h O.
Similarl y. C with + 4 (C++++) takes two 0, each
with -2 (0-- ), in order to balance.
To get a clear understanding of chemical for mulas,
make "yourself a set of atom models as shown on
these pages. With these models you will be able to
fi gure out how compounds are made up and what
happens in the various chemical reactions you will
cause in your experiment s.
...
...
... ~
"
S
,

0
S
,
..
...
0
\
...
"
. ,
'.
'.'
tree ferns
giant
draganAy
tails
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ..
A LANDSCAPE IN THE COAL AGE, APPROXIMATELY THREE HUNDRED MILLION YEARS AGO.-
CaJr1bon-ERem.ent of a MiHion Com.pOllmds
To THE OLD ROM..o..NS, carbo meant coal- a black
rock that would burn. To the modem chemist., car*
bon is an element. found in allliying things - plants
and animals - and in many dead things. It is hidden
in the whitest. sugar and the reddest rose and the
greenest apple, in hundreds of thousands of com*
pounds produccd by nature and in many thousands
more created in the laboratory.
The soot from a smoking candle is almost pure
carbon. So is also the graphite that forms the "lead"
of your pencil and the diamond in the jeweler's wln*
dow. The coal that we use for fuel contains from 80
to 90 per cent carbon - the. other 10 to 20 per cent
is made up of various substances from which a
great number of important and valuable chemical
compounds are made.
All the coal we mine deep underground today is
made up of the remains of plants that grew around
three hundred ruiUion years ago - huge trce ferns,
giant club mosses and horsetails. They thrived in
the hot, humid climate, died and tumbled to the
ground. During the ages the)' were covered by other
dead trees and by layers upon layers of mud. Even-
tually, pressure and hcat turned t.hem into coal.
PRESSURE AND HEAT TURNED TREES AND OTHER PlANTS INTO THE COAL WE USE TODAY.
76
C
CARBON
Element 6.
Atomic wi.:
12.011. f ound in
nalure as diamond
{density 3.52), as
graphit e (de nsity
2.25), ond os coal.
Diamond burns in
oxygen, coal in air.
THREE FORMS OF CARBON
anthracite
GRAPHITE IS A SOFT FORM Of
CARBON. IT FEelS SLIPPERY.
lignite
rough
diamond
c,'
diamonds
uses of graphite
..
biluminous coal Clt: r>
ANTHRACITE IS ALSO CALLED HARD COAL BITUMINOUS COAL IS SOFT COAL LIGNITE IS BROWN COAl.
GRAPHITE IS A SOFT FORM OF CARBON. IT FEelS SLIPPERY. DIAMOND IS THE HARDEST SUBSTANCE KNOWN.
for dry distillation of
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION wood, whittle twig into
slivers, or use wooden
IN REGULAR DISTIlLATION lSEE PAGE 61), A matches without hea_d_;,: _ ___
CHEMICAL IS PURIFIED. IN DESTRUCTIVE OR ./
DRY DISTilLATION, THE SUBSTANCE IS BRO
KEN INTO SEVERAL DIFfERENT CHEMICALS.

for dry distillation of cool, crush lump
of bituminous cool inlo powder.
,
CARBON IN
SUGAR

.. , .. ,
'" .... .
-,
,C:=-=:::> B
.-
Fill TEST TUBE y, FULL Of COARSELY POWDERED BITUMINOUS COAL lOR
000 SLIVERS). PLACE SMALL WAD Of conON AT MOUTH OF TEST TUBE.
CLOSE MOUTH Of TUBE WITH STOPPER WITH lSHAPED G LASS TUBE DRAWN TO
A JET POINT. PLACE TUBE HORIZONTAllY IN HOlDER. HEAT COAL (OR WOOD).
AFTER A WHilE, DENSE fUMES DEVelOP. THEY CAN BE IGNITED AT JET.
COnON WAD DISCOLORS fROM TAR CONDENSING AFTER BEING DISTILLED.
STOP HEATING. REMOVE STOPPER. BRING MOISTENED lITMUS PAPER TO
OUTH Of TUBE. If YOU DISTillED COAL, RED lITMUS TURNS BLUE fROM AM
MONIA (AI. IF YOU DISTIllED WOOD, BLUE LITMUS TURNS RED FROM ACETIC
ACID (B). COAL HAS TURNED TO COKE, WOOD HAS BECOME CHARCOAl.
YOU CAN PROVE PRESENCE OF
CARBON IN THE FOOD YOU EAT
BY HEATING SMALL SAMPLES OF
CHEESE, BREAD, MEAT, SUGAR.
BE SURE TO 00 THIS OUTDOORS
TO PREVENT EXPERIMENTS FROM
SMELLING UP THE WHOLE HOUSE.
HEAT 1 TEASPOON CANE SUGAR IN A CUSTARD
CUP. fiRST, SUGAR MElTS. THEN IT TURNS BROWN
-IT CARAMElIZES." NEXT IT GIVES OFf THICK
VAPORS THAT CAN BE IGNITED. fiNALLY, A PURE
FORM OF COAL REMAINS.
RUB A LUMP OF SUGAR
WITH CIGAR mE ASHES
ITO ACT AS CATALYSTI.
IGNITE. DIP TEST TUBE
IN LIME WATER. HOLD
OVER BURNING SUGAR.
FILM Of CALCIUM CAR
BONATE SHOWS CO,
IN fl AME-PROVING
THAT THERE IS CARBON
IN SUGAR.
77
,
IT WAS ONCE BELIEVED THAT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
COULD BE PRODUCED ONLY BY LIVING ORGANISMS.
IN 1828, FRIEDRICH W()HLER SUCCEEDED IN MAKING AN
ORGANIC COMPOUND' ARTIFICIAllY IN HIS lA80RATORY.
The Chem.isQ;ry of Car11um Cm:npOllllltllJs
THE CHEMISTS of about two hundred years ago di-
yided all compounds very neatly into two groups-
organic and inorganic. The organic compounds were
those produ(:cd by living organisms - that is, plants
and animals. The inorganic compounds were made
up of dead things - rocks and minerals, water and
various gases. No organic compound, these chemists
insisted, c o ~ l d eyer be produced artificially - they
required the force we call " life" for their creation.
And then, in 1828, a German chemist, Friedrich
Wohler, completely upset this idea.
In his laboratory, Wohler had mixed ammonium
sulfate(NH,)zSO.) and potassium cyanate (KCNO).
expecting to get ammonium cyanate. After evapo-
rating, he analyzed the compound he had made. To
his amazement he discovered that it was not am-
monium cyanate at all, hut urea - a compound pro-
duced in the kidneys of living animals, including
mao. The atoms of the ammonium cyanate molecule
had rearranged themselves into a urca molecule.
NH, CNO had turned into (NH,),CO.
A few years later, another organic compound-
acetic acid - was made artificially. And then the lid
really blew off. l\"Iore and more products of plant and
animal life were put together- synthesized - in the
laboratory. And as if this were not enough, chemists
began producing organic compounds that were not
eyen found in nature.
It became clear that the old meaning of organic
chemistry no longer was right. And so, the definition
was changed. Today, organic chemistry is defined as
"lhechemistry of the carbon compounds." This defi-
nition is almost., hut not 100 per cent, correct. The
metallic carbonates, for instance, are still considered
to he inorganic compounds, and carbon dioxide and
carbonic acid are regarded as being both organic and
. .
78
morgamc.
You may t.)llnk it odd that a whole branch of
chemistry should deal with the compounds of a sin-
gle element. But you will not be surprised at all when
you start experimenting with a few of the close to
1,000,000 carbon compounds.
HYDROCARBONS CONTAIN TWO ELEMENTS ONLY:
CARBON AND HYDROGEN. HYDROCARBONS WITH
".p .....

FEW ATOMS TO THEIR MOLECULES ARE GASES. OTH-
ERS WITH MANY ATOMS ARE LIQUIDS AND SOUDS.
ALCOHOLS MAY BE CONSIDERED HYDROCARBONS CARBOHYDRATS ARE IN MANY OF OUR MOST VAl-
IN WHICH A HYDROGEN ATOM IS REPLACED BY OH. UABLE FOODSTUFFS AS STARCH AND SUGARS.

..

--

w.o<
..
.Q

Gly,.fl o.
... "
""

z

Go..,
lSTlRS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY CAN BE COMPARED ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT ESTERS. THESE ARE THE
TO SALTS IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. FATS AND OILS "SALTS" OF GLYCERINE AND FAnY AClDS.
e
r-
0"
CookJOI

Oil
WI.I.,
IfM.
-
0"
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE NAMED FOR THE CARBOXYL PROTEINS ARE COMPLEX COMPOUNDS THAT CON-
GROUP-COOH-FOUND IN THEIR FORMULAS. TAIN CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN.
OTHEIrCARBON COMPOUNDS-IN ADDITION TO NUMEROUS OTHER KINDS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS.
THE MAIN GROUPS ILLUSTRATED ABOVE, THERE ARE MANY HAVE VERY COMPLICATED FORMULAS.
79
How IS IT POSSIBLE for carbon to make so many dif-
ferent compounds of such tremendous That
was one of the great questions facing chemists during
the last. century.
It was easy enough to explain carbon dioxide. Car-
bon has a valence of 4, oxygen of 2 - the formula
had t o be CO!. It was also easy to explain the mole-
cule of the simple hydrocarbon methane (CH,). But
how explain compounds consisting of two atoms of
carbon and six of hydrogen (C,H., ethane), or two
atoms of carbon and four of hydrogen (C,H" ethyl-
ene), or two of carbon and only two of hydrogen
(C,H"
A German chemist and professor. Friedrich August
Kekule, came up with the solution. The answer was
quite simple:
While the atoms of most elements " hook on" to
the atoms of other elements according to their val-
ences, the atoms of carbon " hook on" to each other
as well. To understand this, write out carbon atoms
80
with four lines to indicate the valence bonds, but
arrange the lines in these three different. ways :
-C- - C - =C=
Then hook them together, two by two, in these three
different wa"ys :
- C-C= =C=C= -C=,C-
Now add a h)'drogen atom to each of the free bonds
- and there )'OU have t.he formulas for the three
hydro-carbons - ethane (C, H,), ethylene (C
2
H
1
),
and acetylene (C!H, ):
H" /H
H-C-C-H
H/ 'H
H- C_C-H
So far so good. But there were still many carbon
compound formulas that would not line up in this
kind of arrangement. C,H
a
, for instance- benzene,
an important hydrocarbon obtained by distillation
of coal.
Again. it was KekuIC who olfered the explanation.
This time it came to him in a dream. He bad been
KEKULl'5
H

BENZENE
RING
/;
C
'\
C H
H

C


C
I

H
AUGUST KEKULE HIT UPON THE
STRUCTURE Of THE BENZENE MOLE
CULE IN A DREAM. A SNAKE SEEMED
TO WHIRL IN A RING BEFORE HIS
EYES. BY ARRANGING THE SIX CAR
BON ATOMS IN A RING, THE PROB
LEM WAS SOLVED.
IN A CARBON ATOM (A), THE FOUR VALENCE BONDS
POINT AWAY FROM THE CENTER (NUCLEUS) TOWARD
THE CORNERS OF A TETRAHEDRON-A FIGURE MADE
UP OF FOUR TRIANGLES. IN MODELS OF CARBON ATOMS,
VALENCE BONDS ARE SHOWN BY RODS (B).
TWO LABORATORY MODELS
SHOWING THE METHANE
MOlECULE.
working all day with long lines of organic formulas.
In the evening he dozed berore the fire. In his dream,
the lines of formulas turned into snakes, twisting and
twi ning - uotil suddenly one of the snakes grasped
its own tail and whirled around in a ring. This dream
gave KekuJe the clue: the carbon atoms in benzenc
. "
I '
I "
, "
, '
, "
,
FOR HOMEMADE MODelS OF ...
CARBON ATOMS, MAKE UP ............ _
TETRAHEDRONS FROM CARD
BOARD, USING THIS PAnERN. "
FOLD AT DOnED LINES. TAPE /,'"
WITH SCOTCH TAPE. ,
, /
I ,
, '
, "
, " ,
small circles
represenl
. hydrogen (lioms
YOUR OWN MODEL OF
METHANE MOlECULE.
hang together in a ring, each atom using three or its
bonds to hang on to the atoms next to it, with onc
bond free to hook onto a hIdrogcn atom.
Starting from these very simple rormulas, modern
scientists can figure out the most complicated chcmi
cal formulas.
YOU CAN THINK OF THE BENZENE RING
AS SIX MONKEYS HANGING ON TO
EACH OTHER WI TH ONE OR TWO
HANDS, HOlDING BANANAS IN THEIR
FREE HANDS.
THIS IS THE WAY THE BENZENE MOl
ECUtE lOOKS WHEN IT IS CON-
STRUCTED FROM PARTS USED TO
MAKE UP LABORATORY MODelS FOR
DEMONSTRATION.
THI S IS HOW THE BENZENE MOLE-
CULE Will lOOK WHEN YOU P'
TOGETHER FROM HOME-MADE
BON ATOMS. YOU CAN DO
WITH SCOTCH TAPE.
81
FRACTIONATING
OF OIL
THE FIRST JOB OF
THE OIL REFINERY
IS TO SPlIT UP THE
OIL INTO THE PARTS
(OR FRACTIONS) OF
WHICH IT CON-
SISTS. THIS IS DONE
IN TAU TOWERS.
THE OIL IS HEATED.
THE VAPORS RISE
IN THE TOWER.
THE LIGHTEST FRAC-
TIONS-GAS AND
GASOLINE-GO
TO THE TOP, FOL-
LOWED BY KERO
SENE, FUEl Oil, lU-
BRICATING OILS,
WAX, ASPHALT.
LUUlCATING
,
ASPHAlT
82
, .-- --
--- . -
A HUNDRED YEARS AFTER THE FIRST Oil Welt IN PENN
SYLVANIA, Oil FIelDS ARE FOUND IN SEVERAL STATES.
A Lot of Hydrocarbons
'!HE FAMILY CAR stops at the service station.
"Fill 'er up!" The attendant pours what may be
a hexane-septane-octanc-nonane mh.-ture into the gas
tank. "Cbeck your oil, Into the engine goes
another hydrocarbon mixture - possibly along the
line of C10Hu-CuHu-CnHu. And so you take off-
on hydrocarbon tires. Yes, gasoli ne, motor oil, and
rubber are all hydrocarbons - compounds that con-
tain only h)'drogen and carbon.
A great number of hydrocarbons come from pe-
troleum (crude oil). Coal and natural gas provide
several others. Many more are produced by nature
- natural rubber, turpentine, camphor, to mention
a few. Even the red coloring of tomatoes and the
yellow of carrots are hydrocarbons.
One of the remarkable things about hydrocarbons
is that it is possible to combine some of those with
small molecules into others with larger ODes (as in
making synthetic rubber), as well as to "crack" those
with large molecules into others with smaller ones
(as when a heavy oil is "cracked" into gasoline). But
that is only the beginning. By replacing one or more
hydrogen atoms with hydro};)' 1 groups (OH) or car-
boxyl groups (eOOH) or chlorine atoms eel). for in-
stance, it is possible to build up more complicated
compounds - which can then be built up further and
further. And that is exactly what chemists are doing
t oday - giving us medicines and dyes. plastics and
explosives. and countless other things.
HAMMER LUMPS OF
BITUMINOUS COAL INTO
A COARSE POWDER. Fill
FUNNEL WITH IT. BRING
FUNNEL INTO LARGE JAR.
2 TURN JAR UPSIDE
DOWN. FILL JAR WITH
WATER. PLACE A WATER-
FILLED TEST TUBE OVER
FUNNEl. IN A FEW DAYS,
TUBE IS FILLED WITH
METHANE.
MUHANE-CH ..
IN THE LABORATORY, METHANE IS MADE BY HEATING
WATER-FREE SODIUM ACETATE WITH "SODA LlME_"
t
TO MAKE SODIUM ACETATE, ADO WASHING SODA
1h CUSTARD CUP VINEGAR UNTIL NO MORE CO. IS
GIVEN OFF. EVAPORATE MIXTURE AT LOW HEAT TO GET
WHITE POWDER OF SODIUM ACETATE.
MIX 5 9 SODIUM ACETATE !CH,COONa), 5 g SODIUM
HYDROX[DE, AND 5 g CALCIUM OXIDE. DROP INTO TEST
TUBE. SET UP APPARATUS FOR COLLECTING GAS AS
SHOWN BelOW. HEAT TO MAKE METHANE:
CH.CooNa + NoOH --+ CH .. + No.CO,

" .
. -
NAPHTHALENE---C,.H.
IURPENTlNE_
C .. H .. NAPHTHALENE IS USED IN MAKING MOTH BALLS.
NAPHTHALENE CAN BE PURIF[ED BY SUBLIMATION.
TO DEMONSTRATE THIS, CRUSH A COUPLE OF MOTH
BALLS. HEAT THEM IN A CUSTARD CUP. FIRST THEY
MELT, THEN GIVE OFF VAPOR. PUT JAR FILLED WITH
ICE WATER OVER CUP. NAPHTHALENE SETTLES ON
BOTTOM IN lEAFY CRYSTALS.
CRACKING OIL
POUR A FEW m[ HOUSEHOLD
OIL IN TEST TUBE. PLACE
WAD OF STEEL WOOL NEAR
MOUTH OF TUBE. CLOSE IT
WITH STOPPER THAT HAS A
GLASS TUBE WITH JET TIP.
HEAT STEel WOOl. A LITTLE
LATER, ALSO HEAT THE OIl.
OIL IS CRACKED INTO GAS
THAT BURNS WHEN IGNITED.
83
n NE
POUR A LITTLE TURPENTINE INTO A
BonlE CAP. PLACE A SMALL WICK IN IT_
PLACE BOTTLE CAP ON PIECE OF PAPER.
15'NITE TURPENTINE. [T BURNS INCOMPLETE-
LY, GIVING OFF A BLACK SMOKE OF CARBON
WHICH YOU CAN COLLECT IN A JAR.
MUCH OF THE SUGAR WE USE IS MADE BY EV,"C)"'TII.G
THE JUICE OF SUGAR BEETS AND SUGAR CANE.
SUGAR IS BOILEDDOWN SAP OF SUGAR MAPLE I,
--- .
Car1boh
y
drates-Sweet and Bland
USUALLY, when we talk abouL " hydrates" we mean
chemicals that contain water. But when we talk
about. carbohydrates we mean organi c compounds of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in whi ch tbe propor-
ti on between hydrogen and oxygen is the same as in
water (HtO) - lhaL is, twi ce as much hydrogen as
oxygen. And so we find that have 22
atoms of hydrogen and 11 atoms of o:\")'gcn to 12
atoms of carbon (C
a
H
n
O
l1
), or 12 hydrogen and 6
THE SWEETNESS OF FRUITS AND
BERRIES COMES FROM A MIXTURE
OF TWO KINDS OF SUGAR CALLED
fRUCTOSE AND GlUCOSE. THESE
SUGARS ARE MADE THE GREEN
LEAVES OF THE PLANT AND SENT
INTO THE FRUITS fOR STORAGE.
84
to 6 carbon (C. H 120 6), or 10 a nd 5 to 6 car-
bon atoms
Carbohydrates are produced by plants by a re-
markable process called photosynthesis - " putting
things together with the help or li ght. " When green
leaves are e:\. --posed to sunlight, the chl orophyll in
them combines the hydrogen rrom water with carbon
di oxide rrom the air, while setting oxygen rree-
along this line:
6H!0 + 6CO: + sunli ght. ---... C
6
H
1
!0 , + 60! t
Carbohydrates are of tremendous importance to
all or us. The:, make up a large part of our food
suppl y in the rorm or s ugars and starches. Another
carbohydrate call ed cellulose helps to cloLhe us (cot.-
t.on, linen) and shelter us (wood).
SUGARS - Most of ow' sugar comes from s ugar
beets or sugar cane. The j ui ce is pressed out , cleared,
filtered, and eyaporated. The result, is pure, white
crystal s of a sugar with the chemi cal name sucrose
(CL!Hu O
II
)
Another sugar called glucose (C,H 120 &) is found
in ripe fruits , often in the company of slill another
sugar of tim same formula call ed fructose (C,H
n
0
6
) .
These t.wo sugars can be made in the laborator y by
treating the more complicated sll crose with an acid.
The sucrose picks up water ana spli ts into glucose
and fructose by a process known as ill\'ersion :
CUI-I !!Oll + lItO - C,I-I nO, + C, H 120 6
(sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)
(CONTINUED ON PAGE 86)
r j ~ L
TEST FOR
GLUCOSE
- -
SUGAR
~ /---:'
~ ~
~
r
i
COppER
r'"'
~ ) ]
F'EHuN' i.
S
SUlRllf
, _ /
~
,
~
A GERMAN SCI ENTIST, HERMAN FEHLING, THOUGHT UP THE TEST
FOR GLUCOSE THAT HAS HIS NAME. FOR THIS TEST, TWO SOLU
TIONS ARE REQUIRED. THEY ARE MIXED JUST BEFORE USE.
HEAT A MIXTURE OF
2 ml FEHLING A AND
2 ml FEHLING 8 IN
A TEST TUBE. AOD A
fEW DROPS Of SOLU
TION TO BE TESTED.
HEAT AGAIN. REO PRE-
CIPITATE OF CUPROUS
OXIDE ((uIO) SHOWS
GLUCOSE IS PRESENT.
FEHLING A. DISSOLVE 59 COPPER SULFATE IN 70 ml WATER.
FEHLING B. DISSOLVE 7 iii SODIUM HYDROXIDE IN 70 ml WA-
T R. IN THIS SOLUTION, DISSOlVE 25 9 ROCHEllE SALT (SODIUM.
POTASSIUM TARTRATE) FROM YOUR LOCAL DRUG STORE.
TEST CANE SUGAR WITH FEHLING. YOU DO NOT
GET RED PRECIPITATE. CANE SUGAR IS NOT
GLUCOSE BUT ANOTHER SUGAR CALLED SUCROSE.
~
- -,
t' - ~
. --_ ....
!
===-="
GANE
SUGAR
USE FEHliNG TEST TO FIND OUT IF DIFFERENT SWEET-
TASTING FOODS CONTAIN GLUCOSE SUGAR, CORN SYRUP,
MAPLE SYRUP, MOLASSES, HONEY. ALSO TRY JUICES OF
VARIOUS FRUI TS, PRUNES, ORANGES, LEMONS, BERRIES.
SEVERAL CONTAIN GLUCOSE AND GIVE RED PRECIPITATE.
SUGAR IN MILK (LAOOSE) GI VES CutO PRECIPITATE.
SUCROSE
TO
GLUCOSE
A DISSOLVE 1 g CANE SUGAR IN 10 ml WATER IN A
M T TUBE. ADD 10 DROPS HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
HEAT GENTLY FOR A FEW MINUTES WITHOUT BOI LI NG .
HEAT FEHUNG SOLUTI ON IN ANOTHER TEST TUBE.
'MD A FEW ml SUGAR SOlUTION. HEAT AGAIN. YOU
GET REO PRECIPITATE. GLUCOSE HAS BEEN FORMED.
85
I CANE
~
,
,
"-- ---
!
MAKING SUGAR CANDY
IT IS EASY TO MAKE LOlliPOPS.
OVER lOW HEAT AND WHILE STIR_
RING, DISSOLVE Y, CUP SUGAR IN
2 TABLESPOONS WATER AND 2 TA-
BLESPOONS LIGHT SYRUP. THEN
CONTINUE HEATING WITHOUT STIR-
RING UNTil A SAMPLE DROPPED
INTO COLD WATER FORMS BRITTLE
THREAD. SPOON OUT T ABlESPOON_
FUlS ONTO A SHEET OF GREASED
ALUMINUM fOIl. PUSH STICK IN
EACH BL08. REMOVE WHEN COLD.
;-p .... 'o"m this ex perl-
In the kltthen.
Carbohy dxates-Con6n1llled
STARCHES - Starch is distributed in most. plant
parts. It is a with very large molecules.
Take a look at its formula: first glance
it looks quite simple. But note that little x - it.
stands for " any number of times." A single molecul e
of s tarch may weigh 6,000 times as much as a single
molecule of glucose.
You can break this pol ysaccharide ("man:y-sugar")
into the monosaccharide ("single-sugar") glucose hy
treating it with an acid.
CELLULOSE is the building material of the plant
world. It makes up the cell walls of icayes and stalks,
' .

A GROWING PLANT IS THE
MOST ASTONISHING CHEM
ICAL FACTORY ON EARTH.
THE GREEN SUBSTANCE IN
LEAVES-CALLED CHLORO-
PHYLL-WITH THE HElP OF
SUNliGHT IS ABLE TO COM-
BINE WATER (TAKEN IN BY
THE ROOTS) WITH CARBON
DIOXIDE FROM THE AIR
{TAKEN IN THROUGH THE
LEAVES} TO FORM SUGAR
fiRST AND THEN STARCH.
cross
wood and fibers. Cotton is 95 per cent cellulose. The
paper all which this book is printed is specially
treated cellulose. So is the cellophane around -your
candy and the rayon that goes into ladies' dresses.
For more about cellulose in natural fibers and rayon,
see pages 102-103,
EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOTOSYNTHESIS
, POT UP A NASTURTIUM OR GERANIUM PLANT AND
P ACE IT IN THE DARK fOR A COUPLE Of DAYS.
THEN fASTEN STRIPS Of BLACK PAPER ACROSS BOTH
SIDES Of ONE OR MORE LEAVES. NOW EXPOSE THE
GROWING PLANT TO THE SUNLIGHT FOR TWO HOURS.
2 PICK OFf A LEAf. REMOVE BLACK PAPER STRIPS.
DIP IN BOILING WATER fOR A MOMENT TO Kill
THE LEAf. THEN DROP IT INTO DENATURED ALCOHOL
IN A CUSTARD CUP. PLACE CUSTARD CUP IN A POT
OF BOILING WATER. AS ALCOHOl GETS HOT, IT EX
TRACTS THE CHLOROPHYll fROM THE LEAf. KEEP
LEAf IN ALCOHOL UNTil ALL CHLOROPHYll IS OUT.
3 PLACE LEAF IN IODINE TEST SOlUTION. PARTS
E POSED TO SUN TURN BLUE. THIS PROVES PRES
ENCE Of STARCH. UNEXPOSED PARTS BECOME BROWN.
86
PREPARING STARCH
IT IS A SIMPLE MAnER TO
GET STARCH FROM POTATOES.
TEST FOR STARCH

1=
",
C "
,
-
.'-
-

, Tfo.5T
n""
. sown
oR

0<
POTA5-
'"
Ie .... ' ,
S"' ....
t. "I. iOP'"''
SOLUTION FOR TESTING STARCH CAN BE
MADE BY DIlUTING 5 ml REGULAR TiNC-
TURE OF IODINE WITH 4S ml WATER.
OR YOU CAN iAAKE IT BY DISSOlVING A
FEW IODINE CRYSTALS (FROM EXPERI-
MENT ON PAGE 48) IN A SOLUTION OF
1 9 POTASSIUM IODIDE IN 50 ml WATER.
IODINE GIVES A BLUE COLOR TO STARCH.
\

,

PEEL A COUPLE OF POTATOES. POT. POUR OFF MOST OF
EM UP ON FINE SIDE OF GRATER. WATER. POUR REST INTO A
JAR FOR FURTHER SmUNG.
PLACE POTATO PULP ON DOUBLE LAYER
F CHEESE CLOTH. FOLD UP AND TIE. DIP POUR WATER
BAG IN POT 0F WATER. SQUEEZE. DIP VERY UTILE IS
AND SQUEEZE UNTIL MOST STARCH IS POUR THE REST ONTO
A PLATE. PLACE IN A WARM
SPOT TIlL STARCH IS DRY.
EXPERIMENTS WITH STARCH
, TO MAKE 1 PER CENT STARCH SOLUTION
STIR Y2 9 STARCH IN 5 ml CO LD WATER.
"
i'"
i"i
r
I
,
ADD 45 ml MORE WATER. BRIN
WHilE STIRRING. THEN COOL
TO 10 ml 1 PER CENT STARCH
SOLUTION ADD 10 DROPS HY-
DROCHLORIC ACID. BOil FOR
2 MINUTES. TEST THE RESULT
WITH FEHliNG SOLUTION. YOU
GET RED PRECIPITATE THAT
SHOWS PRESENCE OF GLUCOSE.
UNTREATED STARCH SOlUTION
DOES NOT REACT WITH THE
FEHLING SOLUTION.
87
G TO BOil
1
I
,
1
SOLUTION.
I
I ,
,
---
=
=
I----,
, t---,
' r-
r-
F F F
--
-
-
Q
"
---
" --
LINE UP FIVE TEST TUBES, EACH CONTAINING 5 ml
WATER AND 1 DROP IODINE TEST SOLUTION. IN AN-
OTHER TEST TUBE, ADD 2 DROPS OF SALIVA {SPIT-
TlE) TO 5 ml STARCH SmUTION. PLACE THIS IN
GLASS OF WARM (NOT HOT) WATER. WITH 2-MINUTE
INTERVALS. DROP 3 DROPS SAliVA-STARCH MIXTURE
INTO A TEST TUBE WITH IODINE SOLUTION. SHAKE.
COLOR GETS lESS AND lESS BLUE. SALIVA DIGESTS
THE STARCH AND TURNS IT INTO A SUGAR, MALTOSE.
JUST A FEW OF THE
THOUSANDS OF ITEMS
THAT CONTAIN ETHA
NOL OR ARE MANUFAC
J:::::f'.,TURED WITH ITS HelP.
A.oribrork,
Many Kinds of Allcolb.olls
To MOST PEOPLE, a1cohol is the strong stuff in beer,
wine, and hard liquor. But to a chemist , this is just
one of many alcohols.
Alcohols may be considered h-ydrocarbons in whicb
one or more hydrogen (H) atoms are replaced by
hydroX)'1 (OH) groups. Their names are made up
from the names of the hydrocarbons to which they
are related by giving these an "-01" ending. In this
way, CHj, methane. becomes CHsOH, methanol
(also call ed methyl alcohol); CtH" ethane, becomes
C,HsOH, ethanol (also known as ethyl or grain al-
cohol); and so on. Methanol (CHaOR) was ori ginally
called wood alcohol because it was made by the de-
structi ve distillation of wood. It is very poisonous
and is therefore used to "denature" ethanol , making
this unfit for drinking.
Ethanol (C,H
5
0 H) is produced today, to a great
extent, in the same way in which it was made thou-
sands of )'ears ago, by a process called fermentation.
In t his, t he tiny plant cells of yeast arc made to grow
in the solution of a simpl e sugar, such as glucose
(C,HItO.). In growing, the )' east cells give off a sub.-
stance called z)' masc. Thi s acls as a cata1 yst nnd
turns t he glucose into ethanol and carbon di oxide:
C.HuO, - 2C,H
s
OH + 2CO, t
The ethanol is finally separated from the wa tery
liquid hy distillation.
Glycerol (C
S
H
5
(OH),) is still another alcohol
which you probably know better under the name of
glycerin. Glycerol may be considered a product of
propane (CaH,) in which not one but three H atoms
have been replaced by OH.
THE " FAMILY TREE" OF ETHANOL- WITH SOME OF ITS CHI LDREN, GRANDCHILDREN, AND GREAT-GRANDCHilDREN.
.e; /'
........ ;;::--- ETHYlENE
ETHANOL 1;:::::: ::--- DIETHYL ETHER
I"==='"I
(GRAIN
ALCOHOL)
",,-_ACETIC ACID
--- IODOFORM
ACETALDEHYDE
,
88
:
-=,... _____ RUBBER
STYRENE ..::::=.
PLASTICS
- GLYCOL ACID
EXPLOSIVES
- ACETONE
_____ 'BUTYL ALCOHOL
--CHLOROFORM
CEllULOSE ACETATE
- PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
- TEXTilE FIBERS
ACETALDEHYDE -
CYANOHYDRIN -:::- _ PROPIONIC ACID
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE --::::'_-'VINYL ALCOHOL
.... --ACETANILIDE
METHYL ALCOHOL-
METHANOL

vapors burn
wilh blue
flome
METHANOl CAN BE PRODUCED BY DRY DISTIlLATION OF
WOOD. Fill A TEST TUBE ONE THIRD FUll Of SLIVERS
Of WOOD. HEAT. LEAD VAPORS THROUGH lSHAPED GLASS
TUBE INTO TEST TUBE IN MIXTURE OF WATER AND ICE.
ETHYL ALCOHOL-
ETHANOL
ETHANOL IS
PRODUCED
THE FERMENTA
TION Of SUGAR

METHYL SALICYLATE
CRUSH AN ASPIRIN
TABLET. MIX WITH
TEASPOON SODIUM
BISULFATE. HEAT.
DROP A FEW DROPS
OF METHANOL (OR
ALCOHOl)
HOT MIXTURE.
YOU GET SMEll OF
WINTERGREEN OIL-
METHYl SALICYLATE.
IN A PINT BOnLE MIX CUP CORN SYRUP WITH
CUP WARM WATER. ADD 'h PACKAGE YEAST THAT
HAS BEEN SOfTENED IN LUKEWARM WATER. PLACE BOT
TLE IN A WARM SPOT. SHORTLY THE LIQUID BEGINS
TO BUBBLE. LEAD THE GAS INTO LIME WATER. GAS IS
CO
J
IN A FEW DAYS, GAS DEVELOPMENT SLOWS DOWN.
fiLTER HALF OF THE FERMENTED LIQUID INTO A
PINT SCREW. TOP CAN. SET UP APPARATUS FOR
DISTILLATION AS DESCRIBED ON PAGE 61 WITH THE
EXCEPTION THAT HEATING IS DONE ON A WATER BATH
MADE FROM HALF A QUART CAN WITH WATER. DISTIlL
OFF A FEW ml ETHANOl AT LOWEST POSSIBLE HEAT.
v/
IODOfORM FROM
ETHANOL
TO A SOlUTION OF 1 9
POTASSIUM IODIDE IN 5
ml WATER ADO IODINE
CRYSTALS TO GET DARK
BROWN COLOR. ADD 5 ml
A
ETHANOL ADD 10-/. NoOH
I
SOLUTION UNTil COLOR
I DISAPPEARS. HEAT GENTLY
TWO MINUTES. LET COOL
- - THE YELlOW PRECIPITATE
q IS IODOFORM-CHI
J

ETHYL ACETATE
FROM ETHANOL
IN A TEST TUBE, MIX 3 ml
ETHANOL WITH 2 9 SO.
DIUM BISULFATE AND 3 ml
WHITE VINEGAR. HEAT IT
GENTLY. SNIFF CAREFUL
LY. THE SOUR SMELL OF
VINEGAR HAS TURNED
INTO THE FRUITY SMELl
OF ETHYL ACETATE
(CH,COOC,H.). IT IS A
MUCHUSED SOLVENT,
89
r;::J!
CHLOROFORM FROM
ETHANOL
MIX 5 ml ETHANOL WITH
5 ml SODIUM HYPOCHlO
RITE SOlUTION ("ClO.
ROX") . HEAT MIXTURE
GENTlY FOR A FEW MO
MENTS WITHOUT BOILING.
THEN SNIFF CAREFUllY.
YOU GET THE PECULIAR
SWEETISH ODOR OF CHlO
ROFORM. THE C.H.OH HAS
BEEN TURNED INTO CHCI
I
.
TANNIC ACID, USED FOR
TANNING, IS FOUND IN
THE BARK Of A NUMBER
Of TREES AND IN GALL
APPLES ON OAK TREES.
ACETIC ACID IS WHAT
MAKES VINEGAR TASTE
SOUR. VINEGAR MEANS
"SOUR WINE." THAT IS
WHAT IT USED TO BE.
Carhoxylic Acids
CAN YOU THINK of anything more refreshing than a
glass of cold lemonade on a hot summer's Or
anything better than cranberr)' sauce for adding a
tang)' taste to the Thanksgiving
The tartness of lemonade and cranberry sauce
comes from organic acids.
These acids are found ready-made in nature in
great numbers. Some of them occur as free acids
(citric acid, tannic acid, malic acid), others as cst-ers
(products of acids and alcohols, such as fats and oils
and the flavors of many fruits and the odors of many
flowers) . Still other of tbese organic acids are pro-
duced by the action of bacteria (acetic acid from
wine or cider, lactic acid when milk tUrDS sour, bu-
t;yric acid in rancid hutter).
ACID GOT
ITS NAME fROM SAUX,
LATIN FOR WillOW. IT
WAS FIRST MADE FROM
BARK Of WI LLOW TREES.
Some organic acids can be extracted directly from
the plant parts in which they are found. But to get
them in pure and concentrated form it is usually
necessary t o turn them into sodium or calcium salts
and then free the acids from the salts with a stronger
acid. Many of the acids which were formeri)' ob-
tained from plant parts can now be made artificiall)'
in the laboratory.
CITRIC ACID GIVES
THE TART TASTE TO
CITRUS
ONS, ltMES, GRAPE-
FRUITS, AND ORANGES.
Organic acids have one thing in common. They
all contain a combination of one carbon atom, one
o:x-ygen atom, and one hydroxyl group (OH). This
COOH combination, called a carboX)'1 group (from
a joining-up of the words carbon and h)'droxyl),
has given the organic acids their scientific name, car-
bOX)' iic acids. When these acids form salts it is the
H in the carboX)ol group that is replaced by a metal,
as, Cor instance, when CH,COOH (aceti c acid) forms
CH)COONa (sodium acetate).
MALIC ACID IS fOUND IN MANY
UNRIPE APPLES,
PLUMS, CURRANTS, AND A GREAT
NUMBER OF OTHERS. NAME COMES
FROM LATIN TREE.
OXALIC ACID ORIGI -
NAllY CAME FROM THE
WOOD SORREL
OXAlIS. NOW IT IS
MADE ARTIFICIALLY.
90
FORMIC ACID IS THE
HIGHLY IRRITATING
ACto THAT ANTS (FOR-
MICA' PUMP INTO YOU
WHEN THEY BITE YOU.
---
.. -
-
ACTIC ACID

II II
VINEGAR
PI'
c ... o
VINEGAR IS DILUTED ACETIC ACID. SEVERAL OF ITS
SALTS-ACETATES-CAN BE MADE FROM VINEGAR. USE
LIME FOR MAKING THE CALCIUM SALT-{CH,COO),Co.
A WARM 50 ml WHITE VINEGAR IN A CUSTARD CUP.
CALCIUM OXIDE UNTIL NO MORE DISSOLVES.

YOU HAVE ALREADY MADE
SODIUM ACETATE (ON PAGE 83) .
FILTER SOLUTION TO REMOVE UNDISSOLVED CALCI
OXIDE. FILTRATE CONTAINS CALCIUM ACETATE.
... EVAPORATE SOLUTION UNTIL ALMOST DRY. DO NOT
m ERHEAT-IF YOU DO, THE ACETATE BREAKS UP
INTO CALCIUM CARBONATE AND ACETONE (CH,COCH.).
_." --4-.
TANNIC ACID
TANNIC ACID IS
FOUND IN TEA.
YOU CAN AGAIN DRIVE ACETIC
ACID OUT OF ITS CALCIUM SALT.
MIX CALCIUM ACETATE WITH AN
EQUAL AMOUNT OF SODIUM BI-
SULFATE. PLACE IN DRY TEST
TUBE. HEAT GENTLY. YOU
SHARP ODOR OF ACETIC ACID.
MOISTENED BLUE lITMUS PAPER
AT MOUTH OF TUBE TURNS RED.
SALICYLIC ACID
F
F
F
F
1
,
,
I
,
I
,

, , ,
,
I
,
,
,
1;.
Iii
tr

ih- t-'-.
. "
=
" ..

,.
IfD
IG
Ie>
II!)

< n ,
'"
,
" 0
,
,
1 BOil TEASPOON TEA IN
50 ml WATER, THEN LET IT
STANO TO STEEP AND COOL.
POUR OFF THE CLEAR LIQUID.
2 DISSOLVE A CRYSTAL OF
IRON SULFATE IN 5 ml WA-
TER AND ADD TO THE TEA.
YOU WilL GET A BLACK PRE-
CIPITATE OF IRON TANNATE .
SALICYLIC
e.
I
-_ f.';
,
- ""
L
,L

PHENOL
ACID --. " ._.
-
=
1 SHAKE UP 1 9 SALICYLIC
CID WITH 10 ml WATER. IT
DOES NOT GO INTO SOLUTION.
ADD 10 PER CENT NoOH
SOlUTION BY THE DROP UN-
TIL ALL SALICYLIC ACID IS
DISSOLVED. YOU NOW HAVE A
SODIUM SALICYLATE SOlUTION,
,n'::\-
WITH IRON SULFATE, SODI
' TM SALICYLATE GIVES RED-
BROWN FERROUS SALICYLATE.
4 A FERRIC SALT GIVES WINE-
RED FERRIC SAUCYLA TE.
5 COPPER SULFATE GIVES THE
G'REEN COPPER SALICYLATE.
91
--
IN A DRY TEST TUBE, MIX
A SMAll AMOUNT OF SALI-
CYLIC ACID WITH AN EQUAL
AMOUNT OF CALCIUM OXIDE.
HEAT GENTLY. REMOVE TUBE
FROM HEAT. SNIFF. YOU GET
THE ODOR OF PHENOL-ALSO
KNOWN AS CARBOLIC ACID.
\ '- ,,-
-' '
BEEF
IJ I Jj
. ..... (f"-,....", .
MOST FATS PRODUCED
BY PLANTS ARE lIQ.
UID OILS FOUND IN
fRUITS AND SEEDS.
FATS fROM ANIMALS ,.e. __
MOST COMMONLY SOLID AT ! ,
USUAL ROOM TEMPERATURE. .-
butter ".-'-:".

Fats and Oils for Energy
SO.lofE OF TilE FOOD you cal is used for your growth,
some of it for giving -:iOU the energy to do all the
things ) ' OU want to do. Aluch of this energy comes
from carbohydrates (sugars and starches) . The rest
you get from fats - the most concentrated energy
foods available.
All fats are esters, that is, combinations of fatty
acids with the alcohol, glycerol (gl ycerin). Some fats
(butter, lard) are solid at usual room temperature.
others are liquid (olive oil . corn oil). But. when heaL-
ed, the solid fats melt, and, when cooled, the liquid
fats turn solid.
Liquid fats can be turned completc1)' into solid
fats by a process called hydrogenation. In this, more
hydrogen atoms are added to their molecules with
the help of a catalJst. That is how vegetable short
enings and margarine are made. The liquid olein in
peanut, cottonseed, and soybean oils is made to pick
up hydrogen and become a solid fat known as stearin:
+ 3HJ - (C
n
I-Ia COO)SC
S
Hl
(olein) (stearin)
Fats and oils are used for mall Y other things in
addition to their use as food. Soap and candles arc
made from fats. So are paints and varnishes, printers' - -
inks and some of the detergents.
5uet ' /
--
, --' .: - -
: -. - .:
-.," "
EXTRACTING
FAT
SHAVE A SMALL SQUARE Of BAKER'S CHOCO
LATE OR BIITER CHOCOLATE INTO fiNE BITS.
IN A CUSTARD CUP, POUR CARBON TETRACHlO
RIDE OVER THE CUTUP CHOCOlATE AND STIR.
RENDERING FAT
C Q , b Q ~
r.IrQ'
<Mo, /de
2
fiLTER CHOCOLATETETRACHLO
RIDE MIXTURE. LET fiLTRATE STAND
UNTIL CARBON TETRACHLORIDE HAS
EVAPORATED AND YEllOWWHITE
COCOA SUITER IS LEFT.
Ba car.ful not to breathe fumes.
"RENDERING" IS THE MOST COM.
MON METHOD Of EXTRACTING fAT.
TEST FOR
FAT
CUT UP A SMAll AMOUNT OF SUET- THE FAT
FROM A PIECE OF BEEF. DROP IT INTO HOT
WATER. BOI L WATER FOR TEN MINUTES OR MORE.
REMOVE THE RENDERED-QUT SUET. PLACE CUS
'i'rRD CUP IN REFRIGERATOR. AFTER COOLING YOU
CAN LIFT OFF THE fAT AS A SOliD DISK.
TEST FOR GLYCEROL
(GLYCERIN)
IN A DRY TEST TUBE ADD '/. TEA- ;::-::.
SPOON SODIUM BISULfATE TO I ml / r
VEGETABLE OI L AND HEAT GENtlY.
WAFT THE IRRITATING ODOR TO
WARD YOU AND SNiff CAUTIOUSLY.
THE SMEll IS fROM ACROLEIN
WHICH IS PRODUCED BY BREAKING
DOWN THE GLYCERIN IN THE FAT.
1 CRUSH A COUPLE OF PEANUTS. DROP THEM IN A TEST
BE. COVER THEM WITH CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AND
LET STAND ABOUT 5 MINUTES. POUR A FEW DROPS ON A
PIECE OF PAPER. LET CARBON TETRACHLORIDE EVAPORATE.
LOOK AT THE PAPER AGAINST THE liGHT. THE ALMOST
TRANSPARENT "GREASE SPOT" IS A TEST FOR f AT.
FATTY
ACIDS
/
----
THE NoHS0
4
SETS THE
GLYCEROL FREE, THEN
IMMEDIATELY DESTROYS
IT. GLYCEROL LOOSES
WATER AND TURNS INTO
Ill-SMELLING ACROlEIN:
'. '.
DISSOLVE V2 TEASPOON SOAP
POWDER OR FLAKES IN 50 ml WARM
WATER. ADD 10 ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. YOU Wi ll GET LUMPS OF
THE FA TIY ACI DS OF WHICH SOAP
I S THE SODIUM SALT-MOSTl Y
STEARIC AND PALMITIC ACIDS .
STEARIC ACrD IS ADDED TO PAR.
AfFlN IN THE MAKING Of CANDLES.
C.H.IOH). ~
C.H .. O+ 2H,0
93
IN THE OlD_FASHIONED SOAP KETTLE, ONLY A FEW
GALLONS OF SOAP COULD BE MADE AT ONE TIME.
WHENEVER YOUR HAA'DS get dirty, it is an easy matter to get them clean.
All you need is water and plenty of CH1CHICHICHICHICH2CHICH2CH2
CH2CHICH2CHtCHtCH1CHtCHtCOONa - C1THu COONa for short, the
sodium salt of stearic acid, a substance more generally known as soap.
Soap has been used for cleaning for thousands of years . No one knows who
invented it- but the method for making it was passed down from father
to son, from mother to daught er. The early soap makers first had to burn
wood to get potasb (K,C0
3
-see page 59) or dried seaweed to get soda ash
(Na
1
C0
1
).This was treated with lime to make potassium or sodium hydrox-
ide (KOH or NaOH - see page 45), and this, in turn, was boiled with fat
to make soap. Very much the same method is used today - except that the
boiling is done in tremendous soap pans under steam pressure.
II
IN MODERN SOAP PANS,
SEVERAL STORIES HIGH, UP
TO 100 TONS Of fAT CAN
BE TURNED INTO SOAP.
STRONG SOAP BUBBLES RESULT
WHEN YOU ADD GLYCERIN TO
THE SOAP SOLUTION. HERE IS
A RECIPE: 5 9 SOAP, 100 ml
WATER, AND 10 ml GlYCERIN.
(])
~ ~
~ ~ 6 '
"'"''''''
0
IJ
B
~ "
6' 06' ~
"- l!J ../
G
()
GQ
G
THIS IS THE WAY SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THAT SOAP ACTS, ONE
END Of THE SOAP MOlECULE IS SOLUBLE IN WATER, THE OTHER
END IN OIL WHEN OIL IS SHAKEN UP IN SOAPY WATER, THE
OIL DROPS ARE SURROUNDED BY THE SOAP MOlECULES DIPPING
THE OIL-DISSOlVING ENDS INTO THE OIL THE WATERSOlUBLE
ENDS HOlD THE OIL DROPLETS SUSPENDED.
94
MAKING SOAP

MAKE A WATER BATH BY POURING
1 INCH WATER INTO A TIN CAN.
CRISCO
'.
MELT 10 II SHORTENING ("CRISCO" OR SIMILAR
PRODUCT) IN A CUSTARD CUP ON THE WATER BATH.
'
DISSOLVE.5 9 SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) IN 15
m WATER. ADO 15 ml DENATURED ALCOHOL (TO
SPEED UP THE ACTION). POUR THIS SOLUTION INTO
THE MElTED SHORTENING WHILE STIRRING. CONTINUE
HEATING AND STIRRING UNTil A SMALL SAMPLE DIS
SOLVES COMPLETelY IN Yl TEST TUSE WATER. THE
SOAP MAKING tSAPONIZATION)IS THEN COMPLETED.
teSTING SOAP
AND DETERGENTS
DISSOLVE 1 II OF YOUR HOME
MADE SOAP IN 50 ml LUKE
WARM WATER. ALSO MAKE
SOLUTiONS IN 50 ml WATER
OF 1 II TOILET SOAP, I 9 SOAP
FLAKES, I 9 SOAP POWDER,
I II POWDERED DETERGENT,
AND I mlliQUID DETERGENT.
POUR 1 0 ml OF THE SOAP AND DETER
'ENT SOLUTIONS INTO SEPARATE TEST TUSES.
TEST EACH SOLUTION FOR ACID AND BASE
WITH LITMUS PAPER AND PHENOLPHTHALEIN.
SHAKE .5 DROPS OF OIL INTO EACH SOLU
TION. NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE WAY
THE SOLUTIONS MAKE EMULSION WITH OIL
~
AGAIN, POUR 10 ml OF EACH SOLUTION
o SEPARATE TEST TUBES. ADD .5 ml liME
WATER TO EACH. SHAKE AND NOTICE THE
DIFfERENCE IN THE AMOUNT Of FOAM. MADE
BY EACH SOLUTiON IN THIS "HARD" WATER.
~
95
I'"
:
,

, , ,
,
."
DISSOLVE 100 9 TABLE
LT IN 300 ml WATER. POUR
TtiE HOT SOAP MIXTURE INTO
nes $OlUOON. THE SOAP
LL "SAlT OUT" IN THICK,
C EUKE CURDS.
,
t,
.. TIE A PIECE OF CHEESE CLOTH OVER THE TOP
(3'f A JAR. POUR THE SAlT SOLUTION :y'ITH THE
SOAP CURDS INTO CHEESE CLOTH AND l ET SALT SO
LUTiON DRAIN OFF. WAsH THE SOAP BY POURING
TWO TEST TUSES OF ICE COLD WATER THROUGH IT
TO REMOVE MOST OF T E SALT THAT' S STill ON IT.
FINAllY, SQUEEZE OUT THE WATER AND SPREAD
~ T THE CHEESE CLOtH TO LET THE SOAP DRY.
'"
1"', I'" I'" f""
,
,
~
1=
I--
1=, 1=
1=
'"
I ~
I
I(i)
I--
I--L I-- "'"
'"
A T every meal , we look forward especially
to the proteins : ham and eggs for breakfast. ham-
burgers or frankfurters for lunch, steak or chicken
for dinner. We drink milk mostly for the sake of its
proteins. Even many of our desserts are protein prod-
ucts - from ice cream to J ell-D.
While most other foodstuffs. such as carbohydrates
and fats. consist of carbon. hydrogen. and oxygen,
PROTEIN IN EGG
----------- --<,
CRACK AN EGG. SEPARATE WHITE FROM YOLK BY
lmlNG WHITE flOW INTO A CUP WHILE RETAIN
ING YOLK IN EGG SHELl. BEAT WHITE WITH FORK.
SHAKE 5 ml BEATEN EGG WHITE WITH
5 ml WATER. BRING TO A BOIl. THE
HEAT CAUSES THE ALBUMIN TO COAG-
ULATE. IT HAS BEEN "DENATURIZED."
IT CAN NOT AGAIN BE MADE SOlUBLE.
cheese
, \
I
1\
milk
..

-..


. ;
lhe proteins also contain nitrogen and, for the most
part, sulfur. Their molecules are "giants" compared
with the molecules of other chemical compounds.
One of them, albumin in egg, has this estimated
formula: 190515 '
Not all proteins are edible. You would hardl y think
of eating hair and nails , furs and feathers - yet
thcse areallproteins. (CONTIi\'UED ON PAGE 99)
THE PROTEIN IN
EGG IS CAllED
ALBUMIN
' . '
96
SHAKE 5 ml EGG WHITE WITH
5 ml WATER. ADD 5 ml DENA-
TURED ALCOHOl. THE ALCOHOL
CAUSES THE ALBUMIN TO COAG
ULATE OUT IN WHITE flECKS.
fill CUSTARD CUP HALF
fULL OF WATER. BRING TO
A BOIl. POUR IN THE EGG
WHITE THAT IS LEFT. IT
COAGUlATES INTO A FIRM
WHITE MASS. THIS METHOD
IS USED IN COOKING. IT
IS CAllED "POACHING."
THE ITEMS ON THE
TOP Of THESE TWO
PAGES All CONTAIN
PROTEINS.
bread
WHAT DOES ALBUMIN CONSIST OF?
DROP A SMAll PIECE Of COAGULATED EGG WHITE
INTO A TEST TUBE. COVER IT WITH 5 ml 10/. NoOH
SOlUTION. HEAT. WHITE GOES IN SOLUTION.
POUR A FEW DROPS OF THE EGG WHITE SOlU
TION ONTO A BRIGHT SILVER COIN. IN A FEW MINUTES
SILVER COIN TURNS BROWNISH.BLACK FROM SILVER
SULFIDE, PROVING THAT ALBUMIN CONTAINS SULFUR.
TEST fOR SOLID
WHITE PROTEIN
- ~ .
TEST CHEESE, WOOL, CHICKEN,
LIMA BEANS THE SAME WAY.
I IN TEST TUBE, DIS
SOLVE % TEASPOON
SODIUM BISULFATE IN
.5 ml WATER. ADD If ..
TEASPOON POTASSIUM
NITRATE. DROP IN SMALL
PIECE Of COAGULATED
EGG WHITE. HEAT.
NoH SO. AND KNO.
FORM HNO.-NITRIC
ACID. THIS COLORS THE
ALBUMIN YElLOW.
2 ADD HOUSEHOLD
AMMONIA. THE YEL
LOW ALBUMIN TURNS
BRIGHT ORANGE.
97
1 PLACE A SMALL PIECE OF
COAGULATED EGG WHITE
ON A PIECE OF TIN. HEAT.
VAPORS SMEll OF AMMO-
NIA AND TURN WmEO RED
lITMUS PAPER BLUE. AMMO-
NIA IS NH. _ ALBUMIN MUST
CONTAIN N AND H .
ALBUMIN IS FOUND
IN EGGS, BLOOD,
MILK, AND GRAIN.
2 CONTINUE HEAT-
I G. IN THE END,
CARBON REMAINS .
ALBUMIN THEREFORE
CONTAINS CARBON.
IT ALSO CONTAINS
OXYGEN.
WHAT DOES EGG YOLK CONTAIN?
B. careful not to breathe fumes.
HAKE .5 ml OF THE YOLK WITH .5 ml CARBON TET
RACHLORIDE TO FIND OUT If IT CONTAINS FAT.
t POUR A L1TILE OUT ON PAPER. LET CARBON TET-
R CHLORIDE EVAPORATE. GREASE SPOT REMAINS.
a HEAT THE MIXTURE. YOU GET A WHITE COAGULA-
TION. YOlK AND WHITE BOTH CONTAIN ALBUMIN.
PROTEIN IN MILK
MILK IS AN IMPORTANT SOURCE
OF PROTEIN. THE PROTEIN IN
MILK IS CALLED CAS EIN. CHEESE
IS SPECIAllY TREATED CASEIN .
POUR Yz CUP SKIM MILK
(OR MIXTURE OF 8 TEA
SPOONS SKIM MILK POWDER
AND Yz CUP WATER) INTO
A CUSTARD CUP. HEAT
GENTlY UNTIL IT FEELS JUST
SLIGHTlY WARM WHEN YOU
TEST IT WITH A FINGER.
ADD ONE TEST TUBE FUll OF
WHITE VINEGAR TO THE WARM
SKIM MILK. THE CASEIN SEPA
RATES IN HEAVY, WHITE CURDS.

------.:"
TIE A PIECE Of CHEESE
CLOTH OVER A JAR. POUR
THE CURDLED MILK INTO THE
CHEESE CLOTH. LET LIQUID
(WHEY MIXED WITH VINEGAR)
RUN OUT. KEEP THE LIQUID.
WHAT ELSE IS IN MILK?
POUR THE VINEGARMIXED WHEY INTO A
STARD CUP AND BRING IT TO A BOIl. YOU
WilL SEE TINY WHITE flECKS. THESE ARE
ALBUMIN COAGULATED OUT BY THE HEAT.
FILTER THE WHEY. TEST THE FILTRATE
WITH FEHLING SOLUTION (SEE PAGE 85).
MILK SUGAR GIVES RED PRECIPITATE.
98
, _ FOLD CHEESE CLOTH UP AROUND
im CASEIN. DIP THE BAG IN WA
TER AND SQUEEZE SEVERAL TIMES
TO WASH OUT WHEY AND VINEGAR .
SQUEEZE THE CASEIN ALMOST
DRY. SPREAD OUT THE CHEESE CLOTH
TO LET THE CASEIN DRY .
SOFTEN 4 9 CASEIN WITH 4 ml WATER.
SHAKE UP 1 9 CALCIUM OXIDE IN 4 ml
WATER. POUR THE CALCIUM OXIDE MIX
TURE INTO THE CASEIN WHILE STIRRING.
THE RESULTING SMOOTH PASTE IS AN EX
CEllENT GlUE FOR PAPER AND FOR WOOD.
GELATIN IS A PROTEIN
I
GELATIN IS MADE FROM
ANIMAL BONES AND HIDES.
REMOVE THIGH BONE
FIOM AN UNCOOKED
CHICKEN LEG. SCRAPE IT
CLEAN OF MEAT. DROP IT
IN A TEST TUBE. COVER
WITH 3 ml HYDROCHLO-
RIC ACID IN 12 ml WATER.
LET STANO FOR 3 DAYS.
Proteins-Continued
You are certain to be familiar with three common,
pure proteins: albumin in eggs, casein in milk, and
gelatin.
ALBUM IN - Egg white contains around 13 per
cent albumin - from Latin albus. white.
When :\,ou shake up egg white with water, you
get. what looks like an almost clear solution. But
this is not. a "true" solution such as you get when
you dissolve salt or sugar - it is another kind of
"solution" called a "colloidal dispersion." For more
about colloidal dispersions, see pages 100-10l.
As long as egg white is kept cool, it stays trans-
parent. and almost liquid. But what happens when
you heat i t ~ You know from frying or boiling an egg:
It hardens - coagulates - into a solid white mass
which you can not again "dissolve" in water. The
chemist's term for this change is "denaturation" -
the egg white has changed its nature.
CASEIN - Casein is another protein that goes into
your diet. Some of the casein you drink (milk), some
of it you eat (ice cream and cheese).
In cheese making, the casein is separated from the
liquid part of the milk - the wbey. It is then pressed
and stored until ripe. The fl avors of cheeses are caus-
ed mostly by esters creat ed duriog the ripening.
99
THE DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
ACID DISSOLVES THE CALCIUM
SALTS IN THE BONE, LEAVING
A flEXIBLE SUBSTANCE CAllED
OSSEIN. WASH OFF THE ACID.
EXTRACT THE GELATIN IN THE
OSSEIN BY BOILING IN WATER.
FILTER THE SOLUTION. ON COOLING, IT BECOMES
JElLYLIKE. IT HAS TURNED FROM "SOL" TO " GEl."
GELATIN - Gelatin is a protein made from animal
skins and bones, horns and hooves.
Gelatin behaves in a peculiar manner with water.
In cold water it merely swells, but in hot water it
"dissolves" readily, forming a colloidal dispersion.
As loog as you keep this dispersion warm, it remains
in a liqu.id form that is called a "sol." When cooled,
it t urns into a jellylike form calJed a "gel."
TEST 'OR LIQUID PROTEINS
MIX 5 ml OF LIQUID TO
BE TESTED WITH 5 ml
10-;. SOLUTION OF
NaOH. ADO TWO
DROPS OF A 2-;. SO-
LUTION OF COPPER
SULFATE II g IN 50 ml
WATER). LIQUID WILL
TURN REDDISH-VIOLET.
"
I
NaO
H
to'"
CHEESE
liquid in .alid
IN 1862, A SCOnrSH CHEMIST,
THOMAS GRAHAM, PRESENTED
HIS IDEAS ABOUT COllOIDS.
MUDDY WATER
- .alid in liquid
100
Colloidal Dispersions
'''aULD YOU WALK up to a soda fountain and order
" a triple, chocolate-flavored colloidal
No? Yet that's what you do when you ask for a
chocolate sundae. Ice cream is a colloidal dispersion
of solids in a liquid ; so is ehocolate syrup. Whipped
cream is a colloidal dispersion of air in a liquid.
It was a Scot, Thomas Graham, who explai ned
colloids, in 1862. He noticed t.hat some sol utions
passed through parchment paper, others didn't,. He
discovered that most of those that filtered through
were of chemicals that formed crystals - he called
them " crystalloids." The others he called " colloids"
- from Greek koUodes, glue-like.
When a colloid is mixed with water, it does not
form a solution but a dispersion. In a sol uti on, the
molecules of the dissolved chemical are too small to
be seen even with the strongest microscope. In a col-
loidal dispersion, the much larger particles can be
seen in an ultra-microscope - and you can see them
as a light effect when you pass a light beam through
the dispersion.
Colloidal dispersions can be formed by gases, liq-
uids, and solids. Eight combinations are possible :
' ..
LIGHT
THE PARTICLES OF A
COlLOI DAL DISPERSION
REFLECT liGHT AND
MAKE THE PATH OF A
LIGHT BEAM VISIBLE.
of block construction paper
LIGHT BEAM IS INVISIBLE AS
I PASSES THROUGH A SOLUTION
(OF SUGAR, FOR INSTANCEI.
LIGHT BEAM IS VISIBLE AS IT
1
THIS " TYNDAll EfFECT" GOT
I
ITS NAME ROM AN ENGlI SH ___ _
gases in liquids and in solids ; liquids in gases, in
other liquids, and in solids; solids in gases, in liquids,
and in other solids. The illustrations show some of
these possibilities - you can think of many others.
The colloidal state is important to life. It is the
way in which we get most of our food, the way we
digest i t. and the way the. blood carries nourishment
throughout our bodies.
IN PEPTIZATION, LARGE PARTICLES ARE BROKEN DOWN
INTO SMALLER PARTICLES Of COLLOIDAL SIZE.
SHAKE UP I 9 STARCH WITH 100 ml
COLD WATER. IF lEFT UNDISTURBED,
STARCH QUICKLY SETTLES TO BonOM.
A POUR THE MIXTURE OF STARCH AND
-"rATER INTO A CUSTARD CUP. BRING
TO A BOIL, THEN COOl. STARCH HAS
NOW FORMED A COlLOIDAL DISPERSION.
IN EMULSIFICATION, ONE LIQUID IS DISPERSED IN AN-
OTHER. EMULSIONS CAN BE TEMPORARY OR PERMANENT_
I SHAKE 5 ml KEROSENE AND 5 ml WATER TOGETHER
IN A TEST TUBE. LET STAND FOR A SHORT TIME. LIQUIDS
SEPARATE. THE EMULSION WAS TEMPORARY.
2 SHAKE 5 ml KEROSENE WITH SOLUTION OF l 9 SOAP
IN 5 ml WARM WATER. THEN lET STANO. LIQUIDS DO
NOT SEPARATE. THIS IS A PERMANENT EMULSION.
101
SULFUR). SCIENTIST, JOHN TYNDALl.
(
SULFUR
IN COAGULATION, MANY MOlECULES Of A SUBSTANCE
JOIN TOGETHER INTO PARTICLES Of COlLOIDAL SIZE.
SHAKE I 9 flOWERS Of SULFUR WITH 10 ml DENA-
TUREO ALCOHOl . A SMAll AMOUNT OF SULFUR GOES
IN SOlUTION. filTER OUT THE UNDISSOlVED SULfUR.
POUR THE ALCOHOLIC SOlUTION OF SULFUR INTO
A LARGE AMOUNT Of WATER. YOU WILL SEE A WHITE
CLOUD OF FINelY DISPERSED COLLOIDAL SULfUR.
;-=
F F h
II

,



I--'
1=

1

1=
2
/"
=
"-..1--,--
l[Y
r. -
=
VEGETABLE FIBERS COME FROM
PLANTS: conON, FLAX (LINEN).
WOOl AND SILK (FROM SILK
WORMS) ARE ANIMAL FIBERS.
ARTIFICIAL FIBERS ARE VERY pop-
ULAR: NYLON, DACRON, ORLON.
Natural and Artificial Fihers
IT WOULD BE TOUGII to get along without fibers in
the modern world. Fibers are spun into thread, and
the thread is made into cloth for clothing and bed-
sheets, curtains and towels, and many other things
around the house. Fibers also go into such articles
us string and rope, rugs and auto tires. Some of these
fibers come Crom the plant and animal worlds, others
2
3
4
S

7

-..
COnON
LININ
WOOL
SILK
NYLON
ORLON
VISCOSI
RAYON
CfLLULOSf
BURNING TEST FOR FIBERS
CUT HAlFINCH STRIPS
OF DIFfERENT fABRICS.
IGNITE EACH STRIP IN
TURN. NOTICE HOW fAB
RIC BURNS, THE SMEll,
AND ASH LEFT BEHIND.
nAME
Rapid, yellow flame
1
Fairly fall, yellow flame
Slow, sizzling flame
Small, slow flame
Melts; no flame
Melts and burns
Rapid, yellow flame
Rapid flame with small
ACfTATf spa rks; melts
2
102
arc manufactured syotheticull y with coal or petro-
leum for their starting point.
Fibers belong in different groups of chemical com-
pounds. Animal fibers are proteins ; vegetable fibers
arc cellulose. Artificial fibers such as nylon, Orlan
and Dacron are Yery complex chemical compounds
and have enormously long molecul es.
3 4 S

7

SMJU AlII
like burning paper Small, fine, gray
like callan like cotton
like burning hair Hollow, black bead,
easy la crush
lih wool Shiny, round bead,
easy 10 crush
like celery Melts 10 black bead,
hard to crush
like brailed fish Black bead,
hard la crush
like callan like callan
like vinegar Black bead,
hard 10 crush
CHEMICAL TESTS FOR FIBERS
POUR 5 ml 10-/. NoQH
OlvnON INTO EACH OF
SIX TEST TUIES AND DROP
IN mlps Of SIX KINDS
OF CLOTH. MARK EACH
TEST TUBE SO YOU KNOW
WHAT IS IN EACH.
PlACE TEST TUBES IN
CAN OF HOT WATER.
Ball FOR TEN MINUTES.
~
IR
~
r---;
n:
r
""
~ . ~
r-
,---,
. ~
-....
r-
IG
.. PLACE TEST TUBES IN
rP"AND. NOTE RESULT.
WOOL AND SILK HAVE DIS-
SOLVED, THE OTHERS NOT.
v
'- '-
rIT
-
'-
~
'\
MAKING RAYON
RAYON IS MADE BY
"DIGESTING" CEllU
lOSE IN CUPRAMMO
NIUM AND THEN SET.
TlNG IT FREE AGAIN.
, .
"
:.:.- .. ~ .. ~
~ .. -
OP""R.
FAT NAOH
10'0
. .....
, ,
TO MAKE CUPRAMMONIUM SOLUTION, FIRST DIS ~ " - _ ~
SOlve 10 9 COPPER SULfATE IN 100 ml WATER IN A PINT
TRY SAME EXPERIMENT
WITH STRONG Hel .
SILK AND RAYON DIS
SOlVE. BUT THE WOOL
DOES NOT.
,',
AFTER LAST WASHING,
POUR OFF WATER. POUR
WET CUPRIC HYDROXIDE
INTO A FILTER. WASH SOME
MORE. THEN LET IT DRIP.
-- ''--F="",l
~
JAR. ADO 10-/
0
NoOH SOLUTION UNTIl NO MORE lIGHT-
BLUE CUPRIC HYDROXIDE FORMS. LET STANO. POUR WA-
TER Off PRECIPITATE. RE-flll THE JAR WITH WATER.
AGAIN LET STANO. AGAIN POUR WATER OFf PRECIPITATE.
REPEAT THIS WASHING PROCESS HALF A DOZEN TIMES.
MAKE APPARATUS AS SHOWN
BelOW, WITH GLASS TUBE
ENDING IN FINE JET TIP. POUR
PAPER SOLUTION INTO BOT
TlE.
SCRAPE THE MOIST CUPRIC HY
DROXIDE INTO A GLASS. ADO STRONG
AMMONIA (27-;., FROM DRUG STORE)
BY THE DROP UNTil All Cu[OHI. HAS
DISSOlVED AND HAS BECOME DEEP.
BLUE CuINH.1410HIz. THIS SOlUTION
IS CAllED "SCHWEITZER'S REAGENT."
TEAR UP 3 TO 4
PIECES OF FILTER
PAPER, STIR THEM
INTO THE BLUE lIQ
UID. THEY WILL GO
INTO SOlUTION.
103
PLACE THE JET TIP JUST
BElOW THE SURFACE OF A
MIXTURE Of 10 ml HYDRO
CHLORIC ACID AND 500 ml
WATER. BLOW. AS BLUE LIQUID STREAMS OUT
INTO THE DILUTED ACID, IT TURNS INTO WHITISH
STRANO Of RAYON THAT SmLES ON BOTTOM.
...
water

hydrogen

methyl alcohol
THE MAKING OF A TYPICAL
THERMOSEnlNG PLASTIC
PHENOLICS


" . - ,
. -
air coal

corban
monoxide
,:9:J.);l
coal tar acid
LEO H. BAEKElAND WITH THE AUTO-
CLAVE IN WHICH HE MADE BAKELITE
IN HIS YONKERS, N. Y . LABORATORY.

formaldehyde
Plastics-a Modern Giant
phenol
\ 8 /
phenol ic resins
'l \
fiifJTI

ABOUT FIFTY YEARS ago, Dr. Leo H. Baekeland, a
Belgian-born American chemist. mixed phenol and
formaldeh:yde together during an experiment. Other
chemists had done this before Baekeland and had
wondered how to get the messy goo that resulted
out of their test tubes. But Baekeland had another
approach. He asked himself. " What is it good
He decided to find out. The result was Bakelite-
the first successful, modern plastic.
Duringtheyear 1910,Baekeland produced less than
25 barrels of his "phenolic" plastic in a barn in Yon-
kers, N. Y. Nowadays, fifty years later, close to
500 million pounds are produced yearly. During
those same fifty years, mOre than a dozen other types
of plastics were invented.
Today, plastics seem to be everywhere. You find
them in your home in flooring and wall coverings,
in table tops and chair upholstery, in TV cabinets
and t elephones, in toys and games, in rigid containers
and in squeeze bottles. Much of your food comes to
you protected by some kind of plastic. They are used
in planes and trains and cars. A plastic puts the
"safety" int.o safety glass. Other plastics arc used
for long-wearing engine parts and for electrical
sulation.
'04
m-
HEAT TIP OF GLASS ROD
SLOWLY IN flAME OF AL.
COHOL BURNER. PRESS
HOT TIP AGAINST PLAS
TIC. IT MAKES A DENT
IN THERMOPLASTIC, NOT
IN THE THERMOSmING.
BURNING
TEST
HOLD SMAll
PIECE OF A
PLASTIC IN
FLAME. NOTE
HOW IT BURNS.
MOST THERMOSETTING PLAS
TICS GIVE OFF STRONG ODOR
BUT 00 NOT BURN. MOST
THERMOPLASTICS BURN BUT
SOME OF THEM STOP BURNING
WHEN REMOVED FROM FlAME.
Plastics are made from a few simple raw materials
- some just from water, air, and coal, others with
the help of petroleum or natural gas, limestone and
salt. The plasti cs chemist breaks down the compara-
tively simple molecules of these materials, then
builds them up anew into very complex molecul es.
Plastics may be di vided into two main groups ac-
cording to their special properties. One group con-
sists of the thermosetting plastics. These can be
molded by heat and pressure, but can not be re-
melted and remolded. They are along the lines of egg
white which, once set by beat, sta ys set. The pheno-
lics and ureas are important thermosetting plastics.
The other group contains the thermoplasti cs.
These are soft when heated, hard when cooled, but
can be softened and hardened repeatedl y. You can
compare them to sulfur and candle wax. The poly-
ethylenes, polyst yrenes, vinyls, and aCf)' lics are in
the t hermoplastics " family."
HEAT SHAPING. THERMOPLASTICS BECOME SOFT
WHEN HEATED. YOU CAN THEN SHAPE THEM AT Will .
BRING A POT OF WATER TO A BOIL DROP IN AN
OLD VINYL RECORD. WHEN SOFT, SHAPE IT WITH
TWO LONG STICKS. IT BECOMES HARD AGAIN WHEN
IT IS REMOVED FROM THE HOT WATER AND COOLED.
MOLDING PLASTICS
THE MAKING OF A TYPICAL
THERMOPLASTIC
VINYl

$011 nalural gas coke limestone
1
calcium carbide
chlorine
4P 8
.thylm 8 ..
acetic
vinyl vinyl
chloride acelate
YOU CAN MAKE UNUSUAL
DECORATIONS FOR THE
WALLS OF YOUR GAME
ROOM FROM OLD RECORDS.

vinyl chloride-acetate
copolymer
J \
1 CUT UP A SMAll AMOUNT
OF SOFT PLASTIC. HEAT IT IN
AN OLD TEASPOON.
2 SCRAPE SOFTENED PLASTIC ONTO
A GLASS PLATE. PRESS A PENNY INTO
IT. YOU GET A PERFECT MOLD.
105
CHEMISTRY TAKES ON A GREATER IM-
PORTANCE WHEN YOU NOT ONLY PER-
FORM AN EXPERIMENT BUT ALSO WORK
OUT THE EQUATION OF THE REACTION.
Working out Chemical Equations
You H.H'E DOl\'E a great number of experiments by
now. You have worked with gases, liquids, and solids.
You have precipitated and decanted, filtered and
distilled. As you think hack oyer the experiments you
will discmer that they fall into four main groups of
chemical reactions.
The simplest of these reactions is the DIRECT
COMBINATION. In this, two or more substances
combine to form a single more complex substance,
as when iron and sulfur form iron sulfide:
__ FeS
or when qukklime (calcium oxide) reacts with water
to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) :
Co(OH),
DECOl\'rpOSITION is the opposite of chemical
combination. In t.his, a substance is broken down
into simpler substances. This was the case when you
separated the two elements found in water:
2H,t+O,t
or when yOU made oxygen from hydrogen peroxide:
-2H
z
O + 0, f
In a SINGLE DISPLACEMENT, one element
takes the place of another in a compound. as when
you made hydrogen from zinc and hydrochloric acid:
a - H, f + ZllD,
or free by dropping a nail in a
sulfate:
-- Cu ! + FeSOj
106
In a DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT, the two com-
pounds change partners with each other. Think of
the time when you precipitated silver chloride from
solutions of salt and silver nitrate:
a ::E"Ai _ --- Agel ! + NaNO
l
or when you mixed Epsom salt and washing soda:
""CO, I + Na,50.
In studying the chemical shorthand above, you
notice that, in eyery instance, there is an equal num-
ber of atoms of each element on either side of the
arrow that indicates tbat a reaction takes place. Be-
cause of this equal arrangement, these chemical de-
scriptions are called equations.
Many of these equations are scattered throughout
this Many more are found in advanced chem-
istry textbooks. But very often, a chemist has to
work out an equation from scratch.
Let' s say you want to figure out the equation for
dissolving aluminum foil in hydrochloric acid. You
write out a trial equation:
Al + HO - AlCI + H t
But is AlCI Look at the valence chart on
page 75. Aluminum has three yalence bonds, chlo-
rine only one. One AI atom therefore takes on three
CI atoms, and aluminum chloride must be AlCI,. H
isn't right, either. Hydrogen exists in the Cree state
only in molecules containing two atoms (Hz). So you
change the equation to this:
AI + HD - Alas + H ! t
MEASURE OUT All CHEMICALS COR
RECTlY AND FOllOW INSTRUCTIONS
CAREfUllY. MAKE NOTES AS YOU GO
ALONG AND WRITE DOWN RESULT
WHEN EXPERIMENT IS COMPLETED.
Now you need an amount of HCl that will give
you Cl by the 3'8 and H by the 2's. 6HCI will do this.
So )'OU write in 6HCl and change the rest until the
equation balances:
2A1 + 6HCl - 2A1Cl, + 3H, t
Equations tell you what happens - but they tell
far more than that.
Take the simple equation:
Fe + S - FeS
APPROXIMATE ATOMIC WEIGHTS
FOR CALCULATIONS
At I. A1 I.
EI ..... t S,.bel W./gM (l., .. at S,lObel W.!ght
ALUMINUM AI 27 MAGNESIUM M, 24
BORON 8 11 MANGANESE M. 55
CALCIUM Co 40 NITROGEN N 14
CARBON C 12 OXYGEN 0 I.
CHLORINE CI
,.
POTASSIUM K
3'
COPPER Co .4 SILICON 51 28
HYDROGEN H 1 SILVER A, 108
IODINE I 127 SODIUM No 23
IRON f. 5. SULFUR 5 32
LEAD Pb 207 ZINC In .5
107
r r = r ~ - - - ~ - - ~ -
This not only tells you that iron and sulfur make
iron sulfide hut also that it takes one iron atom and
one sulfur at.om to produce one molecul e of FeS. Fur-
ther, by inserting the atomic weights for the two
elements from the chart on page 107, the equation
tells you how much iron and sulfur are needed and
how much iron sulfide you should get:
Fe + S-FeS
563256 +32=88
You can use the atomic weight numerals to indi-
cate numbers of grams or any other unit of weight.
By dividing by 16 you get the number of grams you
used for experiment on page 22.
Now take a more complicated equation.
Let's say you want to produce magnesium carbon-
atc, The chart of solubilities on page 108 tells you
that MgCO, is insoluble. You should therefore be
able to precipitate it from a soluble magnesium salt
- the sulfate, Cor instance - and soluble sodium
carbonate:
1\Ig50, + NaJCOJ-MgCO, 1 + NaJSO,
Now you need to know how much l\lgSO, and how
much NaJCO
J
you need, and how much MgCO, JOU
will get,
Before you start figuring from the equation above,
check the chart on page 108, t op right. Here ),OU
will discovcr that each molecule of magnesium sul-
fate has seven molecules of water ofh)' dration(7H:O)
attached to it. and each sodium carbonate molecule.
(CONTINUED 0 PAGE 108)
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
AND HYDROXIDES
NITRATES-SOLuaU-WITHOUT EXCEPTIONS.
ACETATES-SOLUaLE-WITHOUT EXCEPTIONS.
CHlORIDES-SOLUaLE-EXCEPT Ag, Hg (MERCU-
ROUS), AND Pb.
SULfATES-SOLUBLE- EXCEPT Pb, Ba, Sr ICa, Ag
AND Hg SliGHTlY SOlUBLE).
NORMAL CARBONATES, PHOSPHATES, SILICATES,
SULFIDES-INSOLuaU_EXCEPT No, K, NH .
HYDROXIDES-INSOLUBLE-EXCEPT No, K, NH
4
,
Bo. (Co AND Sr SLIGHTlY SOLUBLE.)
ten molecules of water (lOH
2
0 ). These do not enter
into the chemical reaclion - but you have to in-
clude tbem in the weight of the chemicals.
Write the atomic weight below each clement. Then
figure the molecular weight of each compound by
adding the atomic weights of all the atoms found in
the molecule.
This is what you get:
l\fg S O. - 7H,0+Na, C 0
1
-10H,O --
24 32 16x4 7xlS 23x2 12 16x3 10x18
24+32+ 64 + 126 46 + 12 + 48 + 180
246 286
Mg C
0,1 +
24 12 16x3
24+12+ 48
84
CHEMISTRY AS A
HOBBY Will GIVE
YOU MANY HOURS
Of ENJOYMENT.
Na, 5 0, 17H, O
23x2 32 16x" 17x18
46 +32+ M 306
142 306
WATER OF HYDRATION
(WATER Of CRYSTAlliZATION)
NH.AIISO.Jl'12H
1
O
CoCI
1
'6H
1
O NH4Ct
(CoS0
4
h 'H,O No.B
4
O
J
-10H.O
CuS0
4
'5H
1
O Na.CO.IOH.O
FeCI.6H.O NoCI
FeCI.4H.O NoHCO.
feSO.-7H.O NoHSO.'H.O
KAIISO.)l'12H.O NoOH
KNO. No.SO.10H.O
MgSO.-7H,O No.S.O.'SH.O
(When a formula contains subscripts - the small
numerals that indicate how many of a kind - be
certain to the atomic weight. by the number
indicated by the subscri pt. In cases where the for-
mula is preceded by a large number, be sure to mul-
tiply the molecular weight by th.i s number. )
Your finished calculation tclls )'OU that 246 g (or
24.6 g or 2.46 g) of magnesium sulfate crystals and
286 g (or 28.6 g or 2.86 g) of sodium carbonate crys-
tals will give you 84 g (or 8.4 g or .84 g) magnesium
carbonate.
When you get eve.n dee.per into chemical mathe-
matics you will be able to figure out the percentage
of elements in a compound for wh.ich you know lhe
formula. or the formula of a compound when you
know the percentage of elements. or the numbers of
liters of a gas you prepare in a chemical reaction.
CHEMISTRY AS A
SCIENCE TRAINS
YOUR REASONING
AND OBSERVATION.
------"---- -----
"- -
108
What's Aheael
T ilE CIIEllICAL WONDERS of today arc amazing
enough - but. they are like nothi ng compared to t he
wonders t he future holds in store for the welfare of
all humanity.
FOOD - The fertilizers of tomorrow wilJ greatly
increase the crops grown ou far ms t hroughout the
world. Insect. and disease-destroying chemicals will
make cattle and poultry healthier and better pro-
ducers of meal, milk. a nd eggs. Chemicals unknown
today will make it possible to keep food fresh with-
out refri geration in any climate.
ES - T he houses of the future will be built
of more durable materials than any we have today.
Floors aDd wall covering will last almost indefinitel y.
New paints will add never-fading colors.
CLOTHING - more man-made fibers will
be added to t hose we use today - fibers wi th longer
wcar; fabri cs that arc cool io summer, warm in win-
ter. easy to keep clean.
HEALTH - The miracle drugs of today have
wiped out. diseases that. ranked among our greatest
killers just. a few years ago. In years to come many
more diseases will disappear from the surface of the
world under t he onslaught. of st ill more clfccti ye
drugs created in the chemical laboratory.
TRAVEL - i\Iuch of the travel of the future will
be at. supersonic speeds. Planes and rockets will re-
quire materials that. can stand tremendous heat. and
new fuels capable of producing enormous energy.
Chemistry wi ll pro\' ide t hem.
In Chemistry?
ATOl\H C E ERGY - The force hidden in t.he
atom will be turned into light. and heat and power
for e,' eryday uses. Chemists of the future, working
with their brother-scientists, the ph"ysicists, will fwd
new ways of harnessing and usi ng the atoms of nu-
merous elements - some of them unknown to the
scientists of today.
Do )'ou want to share in t he making of t hat as-
tonishing and promising
If you have enjoyed performing the experiments
in this book, figuring out formul as and equations,
jot.ting down observations, you are the kind of per-
SOD who has the qualifications for making a success-
ful career in chemistry.
If ) ' OU care to look further into the matter, speak
to your science teacher about i t. and drop a line to
one or all three of the organizations mentioned below
and ask for their pamphlets on becoming a chemist.:
American Chemical Society,
1155 16th Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
25 West. 45th Street, Ne ..... York 36, N. Y.
Manufacturing Chemists' Association,
1625 I St reet, N. W" Washington 6, O. C.
But. whatever you decide for the future, keep up
your interest in chemisLry as a hobby. In addit ion
to giving you fun and enjoymcnt, :your chemical
hobby wiU sharpen your powers of observation and
reasoning and train your mind for whatevcr occu-
pation you decide upon for a lifework.
CHEMISTRY AS A LIfE
WORK ENABLES YOU TO
CONTRIBUTE TO THE
WElfARE Of MANKIND.
109
Where to Get Cherrticals and Equipment
A GRE ..'-T MANY of the experiments in this book can
be performed with equipment. found around the
house: wa ter glasses, custard cups, jars, bottles. cans,
and funnel. For the rest, the following pieces of regu-
lar chemical laboratory equipment arc needed:
6 test tubes. regular, 150 mm x 16 mm
3 test tubes, Pyrex, 150 mm .x 16 mm
I test lube brush, small
3 wide-mouth bottles, 4 oz.s.
6 H. gl8ss tubing, 6 mill oUL5idc diameter
3 h . rubber tubing, inside diameter
!! No. 0 rubber stoppen, one hole
I No. 5 tu.bber stopper, one Iiole
3 No.5 rubber stoppers, two holes
I triangulllr fil e, 4'
I glASS stirring rod, 5'
I pkg. filler poper, 12.5 em. 50 pieces
I viol litmus poper strips, blue
I \'iallit mus paper strips. red
If you can not secure this equipment locally, write
to onc of the compani es below asking for price list
or catalog, inc1u(ling cost of catalog where called for.
When you receive the answer, mail J Our order and
the correct. amount by bank check or money order.
Science Mail Co . l i-33 Murray St., Whitestone 57, N. Y.
(Price list free)
Winn Chemical Co . 124 West 23rd SL, New York ll, N. Y.
(Catalog 25j! )
N. Y. Scientific Suppl)' Co., 28 West 30th St., New York 1.
N. Y. (Catalog
Home Lab Suppl)' , 511 Homestcad A ,"c., l\lount Vernon, N. Y.
( Price Hst free)
Supr,l)' Co., lli6 Mt. Hope Aye., Rocbester 20.
N. Y. (Cala og 2st )
A. C. Gilbert Co. , P. O. Box 1610, New 6, Conn.
(Price list free)
Bio-Chcmical Produc"', 30 Somenet St., Belmont , Mass.
(Calalog 2st)
Laborator)' Sales, P. O. Do:.: 161, Drigbton, :Mass.
(Catalog 25j!)
The Porter Chemi cal Co. , Htlgcrstown, Md. ( Pri ce list free)
Tracey Scientifi c Laboralories, P. O. Box 615, Evans too, m.
(Catalog 2st)
National Scientifi c Co. , 13 South Park .. h c., Lombard, Ill.
(Catalog 35j!)
Hagenow Laborat ories, Manitowoc, Wis. (Catalog 2Qt)
i '
1

=-
"
I

.
J
'\
If YOU OECIOE TO USE REGULAR LABORATORY WARE
IN YOUR HOME LAB, GET PRICE LIST fROM SUPPLIER.
I'



,
,
CUPRIC
"
SULFATE
euso.,
7H, 0
r
"
,
.
'.,
i:I!

KMnO.
I I I HI
:-: SODIUM ' -'
_'SULFATE ';'
NaHSO ..
H,O
CHEMICALS fOR HOME EXPERIMENTS ARE AVAILABLE
IN JARS Of UNIFORM SIZE, ALL PROPERLY LABElED.
WHENEVER YOU NEED a chemical for one of the ex-
periments described in this hook, check tbe list of
common chemicu1s on page 111 to fi nd out where to
bu)' it.
All of these chemicals are, of course, available
through chemical supply houses. The trouble is that
many of these houses do not sell to individuals hut.
only to schools and establi shed laboratories. Also,
the chcUli cu1s usuall y come in a standard amount of
31 th. - or e,' cn lib. - where, in home experiments,
you would need 1 ounce or less. The same is often
the case when you buy chemicals in a local store,
The minimum-sized packages or jars rna)' he so large
that you couldn' t possibly use up the contents in a
year of experiments . You will probably also have to
repack what you actually necd i.nto glass jars of suit-
able size for efficiency and t o fit your storage space.
Because of tWs and the incollvenience of having
to shop around, you mny find it advantageous t o buy
your chemicals by the kit, in uniform-sized screw-
top glass containers. Such kits are ayailable in the
science department of many hobby and model supply
stores.
Chern-Kit. No. 1 contai ns the t en chemicals mark-
ed II on the opposite page. Chem-Kit No.2 contains
the t en chemicals marked O. The ki ts contain suf-
ficient amounts of chemicals to perform each experi-
ment Ul all Y t imes over.
You can u1so make up your own set of chemicals
in amounts suitable for home e,\-periments by getting
them from one of the companies listed to the left.
Be certain to add the cost of the catalog when you
write for one and to send tbe correct amount. when
you order.
lIO
m

II
"

0
0
0
0
0
0
IS
0
0

0
0

[]

0
0

[]
0
0
I:J
0

S
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
0
"
..
0
C OlllIllon C hemi cals and Their F ormulas
leAL NAt'\iE FORMULA CO;\ I ;\lDN N,L' lE WIlEHE TO BUY
ACETIC ACID CllJCOOH + H, D 5% solotion: whi te \;negar Grocery
AMMONiUM CHWRIDE NH,Cl sal IImmoniac Drug store
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE NH,OH + 0% solution: hOUiehold ammonia Grocer y
2i % solution: strong ammonia Drug store
BORIC ACID boric aci d Drug store
CALCIUM CARBONATE Caeo
l
hunks: rnnrble, lime;s lone Buil deni' supplies
powder : preeipi laled chalk Drug store
c..UCIUM HYDROXIDE Ca(OHh -laked lime, garden li me Hardwa re store
CALCIUM OXIDE C. O quickl ime Builders' supplies
CALCIUM SULFATE ( CaSOj,) H, D plll5ter or Pa ri:! Han\ware store
ypsum Chemical suppli es
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE Cell ' arbon tet Hardware store
COPPEll. SULFATE CuSO, o5H, O llue ,"ltriol Drug store
FERROUS SULfo'ATE FeSO, oi H:O roll sulfate, green ," itriol, copperas Drug store
GLUCOSE + H2O
soluti on: corn Grocer r
HYDROCHLORIC ACID HCl + 25% solution: muriatic acid Hardware store
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE H, O, + H
2
O % solution: peroxide
Drug slore
mON, METAL, POWDER
F,
powdered iron
Chcmical supplies
MAGNESIUM, METAL Mg magnes:ium ri bbon Chemical supplies:
MAGNESIUM SULFATE MgSO, "7HtO Epsom salls Drug store
DIOXIDE MnO,
HlUdware slore
(fl ashlight battery)
NAPHTHALENE

moth bolls Hardware store
PHENOLPHTHALEi N phenolpht halein Drug store
POTASSIUM ALUMINUM SULFATE KAI(SO, h ' 12H
2
O alum, potassium alum Drug
POTASSI UM FERROCYANlDE Kj Fe(CN)5"3H, 0 potassium ferrocyani de Chemical supplie;!
.POTASSIUM IODIDE Kl potassium iodide Drug store
POTASSIUM NITRATE Ki\' OJ sal tpeter, nitcr Drug store
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE KMnO, potassium pcrmanganate Drug store
SALICYLIC ACID sali cylic acid Drug store
SILVER NITRATE AgNO
l
lunar caustic Drug slore
SODIUM BICARBONATE NaHCO) bal;ing soda, bicarb Grocery
'soDIUM BISULFATE NaHSO, "H
2
O 82% of Grocery
SODIUM C,\RDONATE Na, CO
s
I OH, O sat soda. crys tal washi ng soda Grocery
Na, COs "Ht O concentrated washing soda Grocery
SODIUM CHLORIDE NaCl salt , table salt Grocery
SODIUM HYDROXIDE NaOn Iyc, caustic soda, Grocery
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE NaCiO + HJO 5% solution: laundr r bleacb,
Cloroxt Grocery
SODIUM POTASSIUM TARTRATE NaKCj H, 0 6 "" H, O RocbeUe snIt. Drug store
SODIUM SILICATE NatSiO, + H
2
O solution: water glass Hardware store
SODIUM TETI\A.DORATE "10R
2
O bom.
Drug store
SODIUM THIOSULFATE Na:rS,O, "5H, O hypo Photo slore
SUCROSE
-
CUHUOH calle sugar Grocery
SULFUR S powder: flowers of sulfur Drug sUIre
lock: !iulfur candle Hardware store
ZINC, METAL
Z. zinc
Hardware store
( flashlight battery)
Zl NC CHLORIDE
ZnCh + H
2
O linnen' fluid Hardware store
Note: Chemica\" marked O- mllny of them li quilh- are luost easil y secured io local !ltOtel!. Chemical,.;
marked . ore found in Chcm-Kit No. 1, chemi cals marked 0 in Chern_Kit. No.2 (see opposite page).
111
A<e,ic odd, 90, 91
Atid., 13, 90,
folly, 92, 93; i .. ....
conlaining, , meking, 44;
Icr, 43, ; Irail> of, 42
Au olein,93
Albumin, 97, 99
Al<h.mi ... , 6, 7, 36
Alechals, 79, BBB9
Alum, 64. 65
Aluminum. 64-6$; <hlo,ide, 64;
fail. 72, hyd,oxide, 65; ."llal e,

AmmMic, 32, 33,.(1; faunlain, 33,
making, 33; .alubili..,. of, 33;
u.u 01, 32
Ammonium. alum. 64, <hl"ride, 33;
cyona , 78, 33,.(1
AFFar""", how 10 mah, 12. 16
Ari.'oll.,6
A"heniu>, h .. nt. ,
Almo'Fhe , 27
Alamk e ne'gy, 5
Alomi. w.igh ... 38. 39, 107
Atom., 36, 37, 3B, 39
Ba. keland, lKl H.,
801an<*, hand, 15
Balloo,,". 2B
Sa.e., "23, houl. hald ill' '''s conlain_
inll, 45; , 1 10',.(1,45; I,oi l.
01 .(I
B.n.ene, 80, 81
S . ..... liu., Jano, 36
S .... "'e'. Honry, 69
80.00.51; bead 101', 56
Bari, acid, 51; '01' 10', S1
Ba,,,", 56
Boyle, Robe", 6, 7
Br"n .. ,70
Coltiu"" 60-61; bico,aonal e, 60;
,o.bon."o. (5. 60, 61; <hloride.
47,61, hyd,axide, 45, 60;
oxide, 45, 60; .ullat., 60. 61
Condl ., 18_19; ."nl.nll of, 18
Carbohyd,a'e" 79. 8487
Carb"n, 76; atom, 37; ,ompcundo,
23, 76_n, 78. BO.81, fa.m. "'.
n,lull" n
Co.bona'e, ,aldum, 45, 60, 61;
<oppe" 71, ,up.i" 71, f e"i"
69; iron. 69; mognuium. 63;
67, pol .... ium. 59;
.odium, 5iI, .in" 63
Carbon dioxide, 30-31, cyde of, 30,
making, 30, 31: Ie .. la" 31;
", .. of, 30
Ca.baxylic a,id., 79, 9091
Couin, 98, 99; glu. """', 98;
making af, 93
Cavendilh, H..., ry, 28
C.llulo , 86
Cho,le., J",'1UOl, 28
, 99
Chemical, common no", .. , Ill;
fo.m"la III, whe.e 1<> buy,
110, III
Ch. mi.try, a" .... In, 109; lu"',.
of, 109; importance, 4; whal it
is, 4
Ch. mi,ls, I>
Chloride, oluminum, 64; ammonium,
33; <aldum, 47. 61, <"ppet, 71;
<up.i<. 71; <upra"., 71; leni<,
68; f ... ovo. 68: i.on. 35, 68;
magne.ium, 62; manganue, 67,
.ilv , 72, .od'"m, 41, sa; 1in<,
28, 47, 62
Chlorine, 34.35; bleoching wilh,
35, <omp"und., 34, 35, meking,
35; Ie.' fa.,](
Chlo.alo.m, 89
Coal age. 76, mining, 76
Ca"gulatian, 96, 101
Call"idol di.p . .. ion. 100
Co!loid., 23, 100101, lighl
le.1 fat, 101
Index
Compou"do,22, 23
COPFo., 7071; ce,bonal e, 71;
chloride, 71; hyd.oxid 71;
. eplacemenl of, 62, 71,
,ali<rlale, '11; .ulfal o, 62, 71;
.ulr.de, 53. 71
Copp oo,69
Cry,'alli.alian, 21, 58
Crydal., 41, 64
Cup.ammonium, 103
Cupric ""It., 71), 71
Cup.ou. ",Its, 70, 71
Cu.ie, Ma,i o, " 20
(u.i Pi .... , 7, 20
Dolton, john, 36, 37
Davy, Humphry, 7, 59, 60
DecaMo'ian, 20
Demauil"., I>
O. le.genl<. 95
Di,p.niono, <o!laidol, 100101
Oistillolion, de" . u-ctive, 71;
of a lhanal, 89; of w,,'e., 61
E9B>, prolein in, 96'T1
Ele""alyoio of wal." 25
22, 23, 38-39
Empedod , 6
{m,,!sifo<olien, 101
Equation., chem;col, 106-108
Equipmenl, I.,bo.a'ary, B;
imp.ovio. d, '1,11;
wile '0 but, 110
E" ... , 79, 92
E,hanol, 88, 89
hapo.atien, 21
Fa ... day, lo.eph, 18
Fall, 92.93, ext.aning, 93;
I ... t lor, 93
.olulion, 85, 87,98
Fe"i< .alt., 68, 69
F ... au> .011S, 68, 69
Fibe .. , 102103; , ts fa., 102. 103
filtration, 20, 21
Fi u'ingui.he 30
farmuloo, 74-75, 106, <a.b""
<ompound., 8081; of common
chemical III
F.actiono'ing of oil, 82
f,,,s.<h, Hermon, 51J
fruc'o, . , U
G"...,lin. , S2
Gela'in.99
Glo .. 'ube., bendi<>ll, 13; <uning,
13; gla.ing. 13
Glyce.al, 9'2. 93
Glo .. ary,2
Gluco,e, 85
G.aham, Thoma" 100
Hall, 64, 6$
Hyd.oco,oon,. 79, 82_83
Hyd.oxhlo.i. acid, 3(,
Hyd'ogon, 28_29, making. 28, 29;
.afe..,. with, 29; r." for, 25, 28
Hyd.ag.n iodide, .9
Hyd,ogon pe",x;do, 26, 27, 67
Hyd'agen .uIRd 52, 53; in <hemi
<01 analy,i., 53; making. 53
aluminum, 6$;
amm<>nium, <aldum, 60,
61; <oppe., 71, <up.i., 71;
fe"ie. 69; Io .... ou., 69; i,on, 69;
magn ium. 63; 66;
Fol""ium, 94; ",dium,.(I, 9.;
",Iubili..,. of, 108; %inc, 63
Hypo, 49, 51, 52, 13
Indi<oto,", <010. lable, . 45;
hememode, .2; Iyp 01
10bo'o'ery .(I
Iodide, palaium. 3 (8 . 9. S7
Iodine. <18_.9; making, 48, 49;
. emoving, .alubil i..,. of.
Ie., fa., 49; tin<I" of, (8
lodalorm, 89
112
I.an. 68-69; "".bono.e. 69; chloride,
35, 68; hyd.axide, 69, axida. 68;
.olicylo' 91; .ul/ol", 69;
."Irode, 53; 91
Kalium, 59
Ktikulti, Augu .. , 80, 81
Ki hen a. labo.atary, 4
toborolory, oaf ..,.. 16; ,"Hing "p,
10-11; .ochni'luu.16-17
lavai.i Anloine, 6
lime,.(I,6O
ti",.. wa .... 31
lye_ .(I
Malln ium, 62-63: ca.bonot e, 47,
63; hyd.oxide. 63; . ullo , 41.
.7.62,63
MO"lIa"OIe, 66.67; .orbanal e, 67,
chloride. 67; dioxide. 25, 66,
hyd.oxide,66; .ulfol 66,67;
.ulrode, 53, 67
Meo.u,emenl.,14
Mend.I fI, Dmitri, 39
Melallaid 23
Me.ol 23 (>e. al .... individual
melol o) ; Ie." fa" 53, 56
Ma,hane, 80, 81. 83
MOlhanol. 88. 89
Metric " .. em, U
Milk, pro'ein in, 98
M' " al., .s.
Mi",u,.,. 22, 23
Mo,oloy, Hon.y, 39
M".ioli< acid, .eo Hyd.o<hla.i<
acid
Naphlhalene, 83
Natrium, 58
Neultal;.alion. 4.6
Nitra'e, polo .. ium, 32, 41, 59;
,ilv ,72
Nitti. "dd, 42
Ni"ogon, 32,]], in alm".phe.e, 32
Non.m. tal., 23
Oil, erodi ng of, 83; cude, 82,
I'o<tionoling 01. 82
Oil<, 9293
Ol ein, 92
O.g.,ni< <empound., see Ca.bon
compound.
Onled, Han. C., 64
O.ide, bo.i" 51; <alcium, 60;
magne. ium, 62; .il ... , 72,
"
O"ygen, 2627; a.mo,phe.e. 27,
"'akinll, 27, le.1 fa., 25
Pa.a",I."" 6, 7
P .. pli'a!ion, 101
P. ,iodic loblo, 3839
Pe"n<lnganale 01 pal" .. ium, 66, 67
Po',ol.um. 82
Phenol, 91
Photog.aphy, 73; w"hout a
<am eta, 13
Pholo.ynlhui., 86
Pla .. er of Pa.i>, 61
PI".Ii<o, te." fa
Pola.h, 59.94
Pa',,ium, 58, 59, alum, 64;
ce.bonole, 59; I."ocyonide, 68;
name 1e,1 fa., 59; 9.,
iodide, 34, <18, 49, 87, ni'.a' .. ,
32.41,59,61, n""'., 59, ""._
manganolo, 66, 67 .
,.i tley. Jo<eph, 7, 26
p", in., 79, 96.99; in egg, 96,
97; in faodo, 96, 97; ,n milk,
98; t .. " lor, 97, 99
P.au.', Ja,eph, 37
p", .. ian blue, 68
Ptrolu,i'e, 66
Rodium, 20, 21
tayan. 102; making. 103
.... 11, 85
Rubbe.,82
tu .. , 68
Sof ..,.,16
Sol ommonio',.(1
Salicylic acid, 90, 91
Soh, 'obi. , Sod,um chla.id8
Solt"" ... , 32, 41. 59, 61
Sal .. , 23, household ite",o
<onlaining. 0, making,
nome. ai, 46; ",Iubili..,. of, 108
Sch .. le. Ko.l, 7, 26
Schweil.e.' , reagent, 103
S<.i. nlific method, 21
Sili';c acid, 55
Silicon, .s.55
5i1i'ane" .s.
Silve<, 72.73; bromide, 13;
<hlo,ide. 72; ni o'., 72; o"ide,
72: o"lfide. 72
Soap, 94-95, how it a,I<, 94,
moking, 95; t .. 'i<>ll, 95
Sarlo o.h,59. 94
Sodium, sa; a'o'e, 91; aluminal .. ,
64; bi,o.bonal., 5iI, bi,ulfal.,
.2, 5iI; carbonol., 58. 59, 72;
chlo.ida, 41. 58, flame le.1 fa.,
59; hyd.oxide,.(I, 45, 94, 95; hy_
pochlo, i,., 34, ""Ikyla'., 91;
.ilkale,.s.,55; .ulf", 5iI;
.ulfide, 53; tot,obO,ol., ST;
Ihia.ulfol., 49,51. 52.13
Solu.iono. 20, 23, -4041, behavior
01. 41, of.-40;
making, 41; ><>lu.a!ed,41
SIaf<h, 86.87; makinll, 87, ' e.1
10.,87
S1"".in,92
51eel,69
S'app . .. , rubber, 12
Su"",se, 8-4, 85
Sugo,", 8485, lell fa., 85
Sulfate, aluminum, 64; calcium, 60,
61; <ap""r. 62, 71, ferri<, 69,
fettou., 69; i.on, 69, tnOgnu'um.
62, 63, mongone .. , 66, 67,
.odium. sa, .inc. 62, 63
SulRde, "nlimont, 53; cadmium, 53;
copper, 53. 11, <up.ic. 71, hydro
g"n, 52, 53; '.an. 22. 53; ma"ga_
n ... , 53, 67; ,ilve., 72; ",dium,
53, ,in., 53, 63
Sulfu., 22. 51J51: casting wilh, 51,
fatm. aI, 50, 51, meltinll. 51;
precipilated, 51, produ<ti""
of, 51J
Sulf"r dioKide, 52; mole'nq. 52
Sulfuric acid, .. 2
Sulh"a". "dd, 4 52
Symb"h. "Tch.mi,,"', 2, 6, 36,
dlemical,36
T"bl olt, se. Sodium chla.ide
Tonni. add. 90, 91
Tin<lu.a 01 iodine, <18
Til.alion. 4.6
Tu.pontine,83
Urec, 78
Vol .nce 74-75; char' of, 75
Vitti"l, g ... n, 69
Vu1<ani:lO'ion,51J
Walhing'an Monument. 64
Wo , 2.-25; a. a ,0'aly.l, 24;
de"'ing. 6$; compo,,'ion of,
24,26, d,.'illing, 61, .Iec
1."ly.i. of. 25; hordn .. .. of,
61.95; a, ""I"en', 24
Woler 01 hydro'ion, 108
Wa.e,gla .. , 55
Wohle., Fried.ich, 7. 78
Zinc, 25, 6263, co.honole, 63;
28; hyd.axide, 63;
oulfole, 62; .uIRde. 53. 63
More than 200 color pictures and clear, easylofoll ow directions
show junior chemists how to prepare a laboratory at home, how to
buy and make apparatus, and how to set up fascinating, informative
experiments. In addition, there are facts about famous chemists,
their contributions, and chemistry in nature and industry.
OTHER GOLDEN BOOKS IN THIS SERIES:
The Golden Book of Indian Crafts and lore
The Golden Book of Crafts and Hobbies
McCAll'S Giant Golden Makelt Book
The Golden Book of Nature Crafts
The Golden Book of Camping and Cil,mp Crafts
The Golden Book of Wild Animal Pets

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